SUMMARY OF EDUTECH

BY

FIKO
 CHAPTER ONE

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

EDUCATION TECHNOLOGY

THE CONCEPT OF EDUCAITONAL TECHNOLOGY

The society within which we live has to perform certain functions to serve the needs of its
people. Many of these functions, in fact, most of them require human activities (knowledge,
skills and attitudes) which must be learned. This is the essence (heart) of education. To educate
means to train people to acquire these knowledge, skills and attitudes.

The process of acquire these is known as learning. Learning is thought to be facilitated by

teaching and instruction.

Education is derived/defined from a latin word ―Educare‖ which means to nurture or bring up
an individual.

Education can be defined from different perspective:

1. Traditional
2. Modern/Progressive
3. Discipline

TRADITIONAL (Ethnological/Original Meaning of Education)

It can be defied based on the latin word ―Educare‖ which means to bring up or to nurture an
individual. It defines education as the process of imparting knowledge from a more experienced
person to a less experienced person.

Question

Who is the more experienced and less experienced person?

ASSUMPTION

1. Teachers are seen as repository of all the knowledge. Teachers should be all knowing.
2. Learners are seen as ―Tabula Rasa” (By John Locke)
3. Knowledge acquired by learners is absolute/fixed (idealism).
4. All learners have same needs.
5. All learners learn in the same way.
NB: the traditional leads to acquisition of knowledge.

MODERN/PROGRESSIVE

It is the process of helping, assisting, guiding, mentoring, coaching a learner to discover his or
her own knowledge.

ASSUMPTIONS

1. Teachers are seen as facilitator. They guide, supervise and create a conducive
environment.
2. Learners are seen as active participants but not passive.
3. Knowledge acquired is considered to be tentative in nature (subject to change).
4. Learners do not have same needs. They believe in individual difference thus learners do
not learn in the same manner.

NB: all these make the child/learner to construct his/her own knowledge which build their
confidence.

COMPETENCES LEARNERS ARE EXPECTED TO ACQUIRE OR DEVELOP (4 C’S)

1. Creativity
a. Invention
b. Innovation
2. Critical thinking
a. Empiricism: use of senses to gather facts. A pursuit of knowledge purely through
experience, especially by means of observation and sometimes by experimentation.
b. Rationalism: reasonable or logical conclusion. The theory that the reason is a source
of knowledge independent of and superior to sense perception.
3. Communication skills
a. Search information
b. Interpret the information to solve problem
4. Collaboration or teamwork.

DISCIPLINE (FIELD OF STUDY)

It is a program of study offered in school where by students may acquire pedagogical skills
(teaching skills)

NB:

Pedagogy (science and art of teaching children)

Andragogy (methods or techniques used to teach adults)

 CONCLUSIONS FROM ALL EDUCAITONAL PERSPECTIVE

1. Education is seen as a process (on-going, systematic) it involves series of activities

learners are to engaged in.
2. Acquire or construct knowledge, skills and attitude (KSA). At the end of the process, it
will help the individual either acquire/construct knowledge, skills and attitudes (KSA).
The knowledge, skills and attitude that learners acquire must be value oriented or positive
related.
3. To solve problems; after acquiring the knowledge, skills and attitudes (which is the heart
of education) it is expected that the individual uses them to solve problems (own or
societal). NB: problems solving is the ultimate goal of every education.

The ultimate goal of every education is ………………………

Ans: Problem Solving

WHAT IS EDUCATION

1. It is an on-going or systematic process a learner engages in to acquire knowledge, skills

and attitudes to be able to function effectively as members of the society.
2. Education can also be defined as a field of study dealing with how to teach or train
people.

It can be concluded from the above that education is goal-oriented. This therefore means that to
achieve educational goals there is a problem to be solved.

Contemplating (planning) on how to solve educational problem, or achieve educational goals

attention is focused on curriculum, educational planning and management, principles of
instruction, measurement and evaluation and other discipline related to education. All these
contribute to solving educational problems.

TYPES/FORMS OF EDUCAITON

These are the three types or forms of education.

1. Formal
2. Informal
3. Non-formal

FORMAL NON-FORMAL INFORMAL

Formal Education: it is a type of education that is offered within any educational institution. It
is well structured and organized and it has a terminal point (it ends).

Characteristics of Formal Education

 1. Takes place in a classroom.
2. Has timetable
3. Syllabus and curriculum are used
4. Certificates are awarded (used to acknowledge effort)
5. Assessments are done in written form
6. They have approved textbooks.

Informal Education: is any form of education that occurs outside the school. It is loosely
structured or organized. It‘s a lifelong process, it has no terminal point (end). It is also referred to
as an education from womb (birth) to tomb (death).

NB:

1. Informal education is very important when developing our personality. E.g.

Apprenticeship.
2. It lacks all the requisites of formal education
3. Has no terminal point (end)

Non-Formal Education: They are normally organized or offered to upgrade or update people
knowledge on a particular concept. Example INSET (in-service training), workshop.

Questions

1. Learning through the apprenticeship system is called ……………education. (1 mark)

A. formal
B. informal
C. non-formal
D. vocational
2. The form of education normally provided to upgrade or update our knowledge is
……….education.
A. formal
B. informal
C. non-formal
D. vocational

Definition of Technology

The word ―Technology was derived from the Greek word “Technos” meaning ―Art.

Technology is the systematic application of scientific resources, ideas, skills or

methods/technique in doing things (or solving complex problems).

Technology is the use of knowledge, skills or procedures to develop tools, devices or machines
which make our work easier and faster.
Technology can be defined as ‗the skills/techniques, resources and ideas used in making things.

Technology is made up of two types‘

1. Soft Technology: is the use of knowledge, skills, attitudes, methods and ideas in solving
problems.
2. Hard technology: it deals with the use of tools, resources, equipment in solve problems.
Eg. Television, radio, computer, DVD, CD and players etc.

Hard technology are also referred to as products.

Soft technology Hard technology

They are invisible They are visible
They are intangible They are tangible

Definition of Educational Technology and Instructional Technology

Educational Technology: Is the systematic application of scientific products, resources,

procedures, skills, techniques/methods and ideas in solving problems in education.

The process of acquiring skills, knowledge and attitudes is labeled as learning. Learning can be
facilitated directly by teaching/instruction/

Instructional Technology: is the systematic application of scientific products, resources, skills,

procedures, techniques/methods and ideas to solve problems in instruction.

nb: Instructional Technology is a sub-set of educational technology.

The main objective of both educational technology and instructional technology is to promote
effective and productive learning.
 CHAPTER TWO

INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA AND TECHNOLOGIES FOR LEARNING

Instructional Technology is part of educational technology. Media and technology for learning is
part of instructional technology.

 Hard technology is used to deliver instruction in education.

 Soft technology is used to solve educational/learning problem.

DEFINITON OF MEDIA

It is any material that carries information or message and communicate by way of signal. Media
carries the mode. They carry information from source to receiver. Examples are: film, television,
diagrams, printed materials, computer, an instructor etc.

NB: They are considered instructional media when they carry message for instructional
purposes.

Question

Mr. Gyamfi switched on the fan when he realized the room was very hot and as a result, the
students were not paying attention. For this reason we say the fan is an instructional media.

a. True
b. False

Mode is a stimulus presented to the learner. E.g symbols, printed text and sound.

Stimuli: anything that trigger a response.

Learning Materials: They refer to printed or other media intended to convey event of
instruction to facilitate learning. E.g. textbook, television, computer etc.

NB:

1. Instructional media were originally referred to as Visual Aid or visual education.

2. Non projected visuals are improved teaching aids.
3. Media carries mode to the receiver.
4. Example of mode (signs, symbols and sound).
5. The basic function/role of instructional media is to provide learners with these stimuli
and evoke response.
6. Learning only occurs when there is a response.
7. Some media also process messages from the learners. These are called interactive media
and example are computer and human based media.
Instructional media

They are materials that are used to facilitate teaching and learning.

 They are lesson specific

 They must convey the intended meaning of the message.
The role of media in Education

1. Gains students attention and engage their motivation

2. Stimulate previous learning
3. Give speedy feedback.
4. Arouse learners interest
5. It activates learners response
6. It helps in stating learning outcomes
7. It helps to extend human experience
8. Encourage appropriate practice (reinforcement) etc.
9. Serve as self-instructional

NB:

1. Media can be used effectively in situations where a teacher is not available or is working
with other learners. These types of media are referred to as self-instruction.
2. The teacher/instructors or designers are the best people to determine which level and how
the media should be integrated into the lesson/instruction.
 CHAPTER THREE

CATEGORIES F INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

To facilitate communication, instructional media have been grouped into categories. The purpose
is to help the teacher choose the right media for the learners.

1. Based on Perceptual Functions (use of sense to perceive the message)

Under this we have;
a. Audio media
b. Visual media
c. Audio visual media

Audio Media

They are media formats that can record or transmit sound. Examples are: tape recorders, public
address system, compact disc, phonograph records, tape recorders etc.

Visual Media

They are media formats that relate to our sense of sight. Examples are charts, pictures, drawings,
posters etc.

Audio-visual media

They appear to our sense of sight and hearing. Examples are video, films, TV, computers,
phones, slide-tape etc.

2. Based on System Perspective:

a. Visual—based media (books, charts, maps, transparencies, graphs etc)
b. Audiovisual-based media (video, film, slide-tape etc)
c. Human based media (teacher, instructor, tutor, role-plays etc)
d. Print-based media (books, manual, workbooks, handouts etc) and
e. Computer-based media (computer-based instruction, hypertext, computer-based
interactive video).

3. Based on Power Consumption

a. Electronic media: they use electricity (computer, LCD projector etc)_
b. Non-electronic media: they do not use electricity (charts, pictures, white board marker)

4. General terms
a. Primary media (real objects)
b. Secondary: relate to visual media (models, pictures, drawing, posters etc)
 c. Tertiary media: relate to electronic media (television, radio, computers etc)

5. Based on Physical Dimension

a. 2- dimensional: they are those media formats which have length and breadth e.g. charts,
still pictures, posters etc.
b. 3 –dimensional: they are those media formats that have length, breadth and height. E.g.
projector, computer, T.V, phones etc.
c. 4-dimensional: they occupy space, time and movement E.g. computers.

6. Based on Function
a. Non-projected visuals/media (photographs, diagrams, printed text, charts, models etc)
b. Projected visuals/media (slide, overhead projector (OHP), computer projection etc)
c. Audio media (cassette, compact disc, radio etc)
d. Motion media (video, films)
e. Computer media (computer based instruction, computer multimedia, 3D, computer
hypermedia.
f. Human-based media (instructor/trainer, tutor, role-plays, group activities).
g. Media for distance learning (handouts, video, computer etc)

Non-projected Media

They are media formats that do not need any power. They make instruction/training more
realistic and engaging. For isolated places, rural areas and schools with low budget, non-
projected visuals/media may be the only media that make sense.

They are easy to use.

Classification of Non-projected Media

a. Realia
b. Display Format
c. Actual non-projected media

Realia

This is a word coined to include real things, real events, real animals. NB: learner/trainee merely
(only) observes rather than interacts with the.

The main purpose for realia is to make instruction more realistic and engaging. They include:

a. Real object
b. Models
c. Mock-ups
d. Printed material and
 e. Field trips

Real Objects (Tools)

They include animate and inanimate objects brought to the classroom to make teaching and
learning more effective. They provide learners with concrete experience. They provide learners
with firsthand information.

Reasons why real objects are hardly used

1. Dangers involve in using them

2. The size
3. Cost
4. Unavailability
5. Not movable (static)

Model

Most of the time, it is difficult to bring the real objects to the classroom and when this happen
models of the real objects are used. Models are the use of materials such as paper, cardboard,
wood, clay or steel to imitate or represent real objects.

NB:

1. Models are representation of real object

2. Models can be larger or smaller or the same size as the real object.
3. They can provide learning experiences that real objects cannot provide.

Mock-Ups

Generally both models and mock-ups are representation of real objects/things.

NB:

1. Mockups are edited version of the models.

2. They are simplified representation of complex devices or processes.
3. They are normally differentiated from models by their usually larger size and by their
moving and operating parts.
4. They are complex than models.
5. They are normally found at the lab.

Field trip

In most cases neither the real objects nor models would be available. In these situation a field trip
is the means of providing realistic experiences to the learners. Field trips certainly provide the
realistic means for studying real things and real processes and for meeting real people in their
actual environment.

For a field trip to achieve its learning purposes, it should be properly conducted.

Conducting a field trip

When a teacher/instructor wants to successfully conduct a field trip, the following steps have to
be taken into consideration.

a. Planning
i. The teacher must have the clear idea of the purpose and objective of the trip.
ii. Make arrangement with school head, host and other teachers.
iii. Secure consent of the parents
iv. Make arrangements for transport

b. Preparing

i. the teacher has to justify the purpose of the trip with the entire group.

c. Conducting:

i. They have to arrive at the site on time.

ii. the teacher account for all travellers (students) before starting the return trip.

d. Follow UP

i. discussing the trip with students and asking them to write a report on the trip

ii. finally write a thank-you letter to the host, parents and all those who worked to make the
trip successful.

NB:

Models, mock-ups an field trips are recommended for learning when realism is essential for
learning.

Printed Materials

They are documents generated by word processors. They are prepared by students and teachers
to facilitate learning. These include textbook, story books, booklets, pamphlets, handouts,
worksheets, and any word-processed documents prepared by students and teachers to facilitate
learning.
NB: in other to used printed materials effectively, the main role of the teacher is to get the
learners actively involved with the materials.

The PQ4R Method derives its name from the six phases advocates for studying printed
materials.

(1) P – Preview – survey or skim through the chapter(s), determine the general topics
(2) Q – Question - make up questions about the section(s) to be read.
(3) R – Read – read the section carefully, trying to answer the questions generated from the
section
(4) R – Reflect – reflect on the text as you are reading it, trying to understand it.
(5) R – Recite – after finishing a section try to recall the information
(6) R – Review – after you finish the chapters go through it mentally recalling is main prints.

Advantages of Printed Materials

(a) Availability – they are common

(b) Flexibility – used in any place provided there is light
(c) Portability – easy to carry
(d) Economic – inexpensive
(e) User friendly – they don‘t need any technical skills to be used.

Actual non-projected visuals/media

These are small, common and inexpensive visuals or media formats that can be used anywhere.

Because they are small, common and inexpensive teachers/instructors often disregard their
usefulness in teacher.

 They can be used in many ways and at all levels of instruct.

 They can be used to make instruction/teaching more realistic, more understandable, more
clear and appealing.
 They are common
 They are easy to use.
 They are inexpensive

Examples: drawing, charts, still pictures, cartoons, graphs, posters, maps, photograph, models,
cartoons etc.

Drawing

They are graphical arrangement of lines to represent, places, things and concepts. They can be
used in all places of instruction from introduction to evaluation.
Charts

They are visual representation of abstract relationships such as chronologies, quantities, and
hierarchies.

 A chart should have a clear, well-designed instructional purpose.

 A well-designed chart should communicate its message primarily through visual channel.

Still pictures

They are photographic representation of people, places, and things. Examples are postcards,
illustrations from books, catalogues etc.

 They are inexpensive, convenient and easy to use.

 They help to teach specific lessons or topics.
 They can also be projected onto the screen by other projected visuals (e.g. opaque
projector).

Cartoons

They are line and drawings that are intentional abstraction of real people and events.

 They are fantasy visual formats with humor.

 They should be within the experiential (experience) and intellectual range of the students.
 Students should have adequate knowledge to decode the cartoons.

Graphs

They are visuals used to show statistical trends and patterns.

Posters

They are visual combinations of images, lines, colours and words.

 They are intended to hold viewers‘ attention to communicate brief message which is
usually a persuasive one.

Principles of Visual Designs

Visuals are concerned with sight. One way to sustain students‘ interest is to use good visuals.
Visuals are used to enhance teaching and learning.

The role of visuals in Education and Training

 Help understanding
 Make presentation more real
  Communicate without words
 Makes ideas and events easy to remember etc.
 Motivate learners
 For emphasis
 Make abstract ides concrete
 Direct attention
 Repeat information
 Show information at glance

Characteristics of good visuals

The characteristics of good visuals can be grouped under three alphabets. The ABC of a good
illustration; and the are as follows:

A – Accurate: information should be without mistakes.

Appropriate: should be relevant to the topic being taught.

Artistic: should be attractive to focus attention on the most important parts of the message.

B – Bold: should be bold enough to be read by students.

Brief: ideas presented should just be simple enough to be interpreted at a glance.

Bright: colour should be bright to attract attention.

C – Clear: message should be clear for easy understanding

Clean: soiled (dirty) surfaces should be avoided.

Careful: arrangement of elements should be carefully planned to reduce the effect required to

interpret the message.

PRINCIPLES OF VISUAL DESIGN

To achieve goals or characteristics, there are some guidelines or procedures for visual designers
to follow. The procedures are described in relation to (a) elements (b) pattern and (c)
arrangement

(a) Elements

The factors to consider under visual design elements are

(1) Visual elements (e.g. pictorial symbols, graphic symbols and verbal symbols)
 (2) Verbal elements (letter style, capitals, colour, size and spacing)

(b) Pattern

The pattern focuses on the overall look of the visuals as it will be displayed pedagogically.
The idea is to establish underlying pattern (making a decision on how the viewers‘ eyes will
flow across the display). The major factors that affect the overall look are:

 Alignment of the elements: the primary elements within visual display should be
positioned in such a way that they would have a clear visual relationship with each
other.
 Shape: another way to arrange the visual and verbal elements is to put them into a
shape that is already familiar to the viewer. This will enhance transfer of learning.
 Colour Scheme: when choosing a colour scheme for visuals, consider the harmony.
A colour harmony is a combination of colours that look good, pleasant and attractive.
One easier way of combining colours successfully is by using a colour plan. Colour
plan is described as a plan for a special combination of colours based on their
position on the colour wheel.
a. Complementary colours often harmonize well in terms of an overall colour scheme.
They are any two colours that lie opposite each other on the colour wheel). Examples are
(red and green, yellow and purple, orange and blue)
b. Analogous colours (colours that lie next to each other on the colour wheel. The do not
contrast. Examples are (yellow, yellow-green, green), (violet, red-voilet and red), (red,
red-orange, orange), (blue, blue-violet, violet)

NB: Avoid choosing analogous colours because they do not contrast, harmonize.

Choose complementary colour because they contrast and harmonize.

(c) Arrangements

Having chosen the way the visuals elements should be displayed, it is important to arrange the
individual elements within the pattern. Here are some factors to consider.

 Proximity: use principle of proximity by putting related elements close together and
moving unrelated elements apart. It is important because viewers normally assume that
elements that are not together are unrelated and elements that are together are related.
 Directional: if you want viewers to read your display in a particular sequence or focus on
some particular elements, several devices such as arrows and numbers can be used to
direct attention.

Preserving non-projected visuals

 Preserving non-projected visuals is problematic. One basic disadvantage of non-projected
using non-projected visuals in the classroom is that they are easily damaged as they are
passed on from teacher to students and from student to student.

NB: Mounting and laminating are the most effective technologies used to preserve non-
projected visuals, thereby contributing to the instructional effectiveness of non-projected
visuals.

DISPLAY FORMATS

They are media formats (devices) used to display visuals. OR any media format used to
showcase or exhibit certain information to the learners.

Examples:

a. Chalkboard/ Whiteboard
b. flip chart stand
c. cloth boards
d. magnetic boards
e. projector screen etc.

Chalkboard: is the oldest display surface used in the classroom (often called blackboard). Is
used by both the students and the teacher. The development of technology has produced a
modern form of chalkboard known as multipurpose board, white board or marker board
(because markers are used to write on it instead of chalk).

Bulletin board: the term bulletin means brief news of public interest. A bulletin board is a
surface on which bulletins are posted for public used.

PROJECTED VISUALS

These are media formats in which still images are enlarged and displayed on a screen. Such
projection is usually achieved by passing a strong light through (non) transparent film.

Examples are overhead projector (OHP), slides projector, filmstrip, computer image projection
(LCD).

Overhead projector: it has advanced rapidly to become the most widely used device in the
classrooms and training setting.

Computer Image Projector (Liquid Crystal Display): it is the latest technology for group
presentation or used to teach a large class. There is an audio portion built inside the modem
LCD, therefore once texts/images are displayed on the screen, it can provide talking to explain
the text/images. The most effective and efficient software/programme designed to be used with
the LCD is Microsoft Power Point.

NB: it can be used to teach a large class.

Slides Projector

The term ‗slide‘ refers to a small format photographic transparency contained in a frame and
individually mounted for one-at-a-time projection. Is a medium format used to project images on
the slides onto the screen.

Like other forms of projector visuals, slides may be used at all grade levels and for instruction
in all curriculum areas.

Filmstrip

A filmstrip is a roll of 35mm transparent film containing a series of related still pictures intended
for showing one at a time.

AUDIO-MEDIA

Audio media are media for recording and transmitting the human voice and other sounds for
instruction and training purpose. Examples are phonograph records, tape recorders, Public
Address System, Compact Disc etc. NB: To use media effectively requires an understanding of
the hearing-listening processes and thoughtful selection of materials based on one‘s obejctives.

The hearing – listening process

Hearing and listening are not the same thing. Hearing is a physiological process while listening
is psychological process.

The hearing/listening process is also a communication/learning process. As with visual

communication and learning, a message is encoded by a sender and decoded by a receiver.

The hearing/listening process

ENCODING: the ability of the sender to express his idea clearly to the receiver.

HEARING: the ability of the receiver to hear without difficulties.

LISTENING: the ability of the receiver to possess listening skills.

DECODING: the ability of the receiver to understand the idea.

Guidelines and principles for the use of Audio Media

To use audio communication effectively to facilitate teaching and learning, the following
guidelines and principles should be considered.

(1) The sender must organize and present a message which is within the field of experience
(e.g. vocabulary level) of the learner.
(2) The sound must not be too low or too high.
(3) The sender must not repeat the same thing always. If the same thing is repeated always it
become ―old news‖ and this will lead to auditory fatigue. Auditory fatigue is the process
by which the attention of a sound gradually decrease because the monotony (repetition)
of the sound.
(4) Visuals cues should be used to support the sound to ensure that information is clearly
understood.
(5) Listeners must be encouraged to focus their attention on the message.

Developing Listening Skills

Even though the average person speaks at the rate of about 100 to 150 words per minute, most of
u can comprehend spoken information at the rate of 350 to 300 words per minute.

We think faster than we hear. We should note that hearing is the foundation for listening.
And in an exclusive education listening is a gateway to learning. Therefore you should first
determine that all your students can hear normally.

Techniques to employ to improve the learners’ listening skills

 Before an audio presentation, let your learners be aware that you have a very important
message for them and assure them that they will only understand the message by listening
carefully and attentively.
 See to it that the sound is not too low nor not too high. Ask them if they get you right.
 Let the audience know that you are talking to them. In a classroom presentation tis can be
done by establishing proper eye contact-looking eye to eye at each learner for 2 or 3
seconds. NB: if it is audio cassette or radio presentation, you can utilize other techniques
and after talking about 8, 9 or 10 minutes, stop and play a very attractive jingle/sound for
1 or 2 minutes.
 Guide them: To guide the learners‘ listening, give the learners some objectives or
questions beforehand. Start with a short message then a question. Gradually increase the
length of the message and the number and complexity of questions.
 Give direction: Give the leaners directions when listening. Then assess learners‘ ability
to follow these directions.

NB: Audio media has got no visual portion.

It does not provoke attention.

FILM AND VIDEO (MOTION MEDIA)

Video and film is a combination of motion, colour and sound that makes events and ideas more
realistic and understandable. With motion media the learners can experience the past and the
present without leaving the classroom. they can also make available particular aspects of the
invisible world that otherwise would be incomprehensible.

NB:

a. Video and films, if used judiciously can be effective for teaching almost any topic and for
all types of learners in all the domains; cognitive, affective, motor skills and
interpersonal.
b. They can take learners anywhere and extend learners‘ interest beyond the walls of the
classroom.
c. Objects which are large to bring into the classroom and dangerous to observe such as an
eclipse of the sun, can be studied safely.
d. Time and expense of field trips can be avoided.
e. They can be used to provide baseline knowledge for learners.

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

a. Time saving
b. Reinforcement due to quick feedback
c. Private learning
d. Record keeping
e. Information management
f. Consistency

COMPUTER-BASED MULTIMEDIA

Multimedia refers to any combination of two or more media formats that are integrated to form
an informational or instructional programme. The term multimedia was described early
combination of various still and motion media (even life demonstration) for heightened
educational effect.

Designers have understood that individual learners respond differently to various information
sources and instructional method, so the chances of reaching an individual are increased when a
variety of media is used.

Hypermedia

Hypermedia refers to computer software that uses elements of text, graphics, video and audio
and is connected in such a way that the user can easily move within the information. Each user
chooses the pathway that is unique to his or her style of thinking and processing information.
Hypermedia provides learning environment that is interactive and exploratory. It is designed to
resemble the way people organize information with concepts and their relationships. These
relationships, or links are associations between ideas. It is based on cognitive theories especially
constructivistic theory of how people structure or construct knowledge and how they learn.

Interactive Video

Computer-based interactive video creates a multimedia learning environment that capitalizes on

the features of both video and computer-assisted instruction. It is an instructional delivery system
in which recorded video material is presented under computer control to viewers who not only
see and her the pictures and sounds but also make active responses that is responses affecting the
pace sequence of the presentation.

It is a valuable learning system for tasks that must be shown rather than simply told. They are
currently being used in a variety of instructional applications from teaching scientific
phenomenon to teaching special education students.

Virtual Reality

The users wear a special headpiece that contains 3-dimenstional liquid crystal video display and
headphone. It help in expansion of experiences for the user. It provides the opportunity for the
user to interact with the environment in a very unique way, giving the user the ultimate change to
grasp new ideas.
 CHAPTER FOUR

MEDIA USED IN DISTANCE LEARNING

There can be no Distance Learning (DL) without media. Some people call it ‗distance
education’ others call it distance teaching. Most people refer to is as ‗open learning’ or
‘flexible learning’. They can all be referred to as Distance learning.

Distance learning represents all types of remote (far-off) learning situations, with different
approaches.

Distance learning can be defined as structured learning that is experienced at some place away
from the living teaching and sometime after the live lesson.

Learners receive printed lessons, do written assignments and get feedback from the remote
teacher/instructor. Due to the tremendous growth of ICT distance learning has received
significant attention.

Distance learning is considered as the fastest growing form of domestic and international
education.

Advantages

1. Distance learning can be integrated into different learning situations where distance
equals either spaces or time.
2. At all levels of education (Elementary, Secondary, Post-Secondary, Universities etc),
Distance Learning can be used extensively to facilitate both on-campus and off-campus
learning.
3. Specialised subjects in schools for which there are not enough students to justify hiring a
teacher/professor, distance learning is the solution.
4. Private and public organizations (of all sorts) use Distance Learning to fill part of their
need for constant training and upgrading of their personnel. Distance learning prevent
organization from spending huge amount to train their personnel outside the organization
or outside the country. It also prevent the organization from wasting huge amounts of
money to engage other personnel to fill the vacancy created by their personnel who
would have travelled for training and upgrading.
5. Distance learning provides education for people who due to some reasons cannot travel.

Disadvantages

1) Family problem: there might be social, economic and family problems that can
negatively affect learning.
2) Inability to contact other members
 3) Lack of interaction
4) Lack of motivation
5) Lack of Extra Curricula Activities

NB: one of the greatest advantages offered by modern media and technologies is the ability to
instruct effectively without the presence of an instructor/teacher.

Generations of Media in Distance Learning

1st generation: started in the late 1800s in England and the United States. It is a two-way
communication by postal mail, which means the use of printed materials such as textbooks, self-
study materials and teaching letters.

2nd generation: started to make use of radio and telephone at the beginning of 20 th century.

NB: radio is a one-way audio medium effective for delivery to a large and widespread and
widely spread population, telephone were used for two-way individual tutoring.

3rd generation: developed during the 1950s with television and satellites. It was the era of ―the
University of the Air‖.

4th generation: started in 1970s and it was B.F. skinner who set the stage for this generation. It
brought computer and information technologies, with Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) and
Computer Based Training (CBT) as stand-alone delivery methods.

5th generation: emerged in the late 20th century with all-digital technologies, integrating
telecommunications and information technologies in digital as fine Networks.

NB: The University of Cape Coast and University of Education, Winneba have introduced
Distance Education programs, especially for teachers. The main and only media used in Distance
Learning in Ghana organized by these two universities are printed material such as textbooks and
self-study materials.

Roles and advantages of media and technologies in distance learning

Computer Network in distance learning: computers is used to connect to people and resources
outside the classroom.

 Computer conferencing: this connects two or more computers together to deliver

information.
 A modem: is a device in a computer system that sends audio signals from one computer
to another over telephone lines to establish a connection.
  Information superhighway: this consists of fiberaptic strands smaller than human hair
that transmit multiple forms of information at the speed of light.
 Local Area Network (LAN): these networks are designed to help connect the computers
within the room or building.
 Wide Area Network (WAN): this describes the type of telecommunications that extend
beyond the walls of a room or building. Is a system of connecting with other networks
within an institution and beyond.

Television in Distance Learning

One-way Television: they refer to all television delivery systems in which programs are
transmitted to students without an interactive connection with the teacher.

Two-way video, Two-way Audio: this is fully interactive television with two way
communication of both audio and video or two-way television. This is achieved by equipping
both the sending and receiving sites with camera and microphone and interconnecting them by
some means capable of two-way transmission.

The Role of the Students in Distance Learning

Some years back distance learning instruction tended to treat learners as passive recipients.
Today with development of both hard and soft technology, interaction among students and
between sites is feasible provided when the facilities are available.

a. Students can become more engaged in their learning. It remains the responsibility of the
teacher to guide students on how to interact appropriately.
b. Students need to know how to use technologies to communicate with the teacher and with
each other, how to use the technologies to access the right information at the right tie and
how to operate some of these technologies.
c. They also need to know the ethics regarding the use of technologies and need to
understand communication etiquette.

The Role of the Teacher in Distance Learning

In Distance Learning, always the teacher is the original classroom at the distance sits., aside of
the learners.

Research indicates that Distance Learning programmes will be effective if the teacher and the
facilitator work together as a team.

The distance teacher and the facilitator should meet before the class starts to discuss goals for the
class and instructional strategies. Both teachers should be ready to attend to the leaners
technologically.
Distance Learning and Instructional Design

Distance learning is in the design of the content. Instructional Design is the process of creating
effective and efficient instructional programed based on the analysis of the learners, content and
the learning environment.

NB: In distance learning, the professor, teacher or instructor is replaced by media for either
transmitting information or organizing learning activities.

In classroom situation, because the instructor/teacher is present he/she normally does things right
(make necessary corrections) during the delivery. But in Distant Learning, because the teacher
will not be available, the instruction should be carefully and effectively designed before it is put
in the media.

In this regard, instructional Design is considered very important in Distance Learning.

Components of Distance Learning

The conditions of Distance Learning make it a necessity to have long-term instructional

planning, cost-analysis, curriculum and course development, instructional materials development
and maintenance, delivery plans and detail evaluation rules. Without all of these components,
distance Learning simply could not happen.

Which is the best medium to use in order to facilitate learning?

The best medium is the least costly one that can facilitate learning taking into consideration the
context of the teaching, instruction or training.
 CHAPTER FIVE

PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION AND LEARNING

Media being part of the learning environments influence learning in the context of instruction.
Thus the effectiveness of media is epitomized (modeled) in the instruction and learning.

NB: learning cannot be effective unless communication has taken place.

The purpose of education and training is to acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes. Learners can
do this independently, but most often they need help. The help that learners gain is what is
referred to as instruction/teaching or learning support.

Media being part of the learning environments can influence learning in the context of
instruction/teaching. Media (themselves) alone cannot influence learning. So it is essential to
know what instruction and learning are in order to use media effectively and efficiently in the
classroom.

Definition of Instruction

Instruction can be defined as the arrangement of information and environment to facilitate

learning. NB: Environment is not only where instruction takes place but also the methods, the
media and equipment needed to convey information and guide learners.

Instruction can also be defined as a set of events that affect learners cognitive in such a way that
learning is facilitated.

Arrangement of information and the environment constitute a set of events or activities. These
events can be arranged by the instructor/teacher, they can be provided by the teacher. The
teacher is also part of the learning environment. They can also be provided by the learner
himself/herself when a learner used his/her previous knowledge to interact with new information
construct knowledge. They can be provided by the media when the learner interacts with media.

The teacher can use the media as a presentation aid. NB: Instructional events can be external to
the learner and it can be internal to the learner e.g. learners pervious knowledge.

To design instruction effectively to facilitate learning, it is important to know how learning

occurs.

Definition of Learning

Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills and attitudes in order to function
successfully in the society. The process of acquiring knowledge, skills and attitudes is labeled as
learning.
The well-established definition of learning by most psychologists is, relatively permanent change
in behavior due to practice or experience.

Lets consider the following examples

a. If someone takes drugs such as marijuana or cocaine and as a result there is a change in
that persons‘ behavior it cannot be considered as learning. Because that change in
behavior is not as a result of acquisition of new knowledge (or mental construction of
knowledge).
b. If someone takes coffee and as a result study hard to acquire new knowledge, new skills
and new attitudes that bring change in that person behavior, this change of behavior can
be considered as learning because that change of behavior is relatively permanent and it
came as a result of acquiring new knowledge, new skills and new attitudes.

Situation stimulates the individual in such a way as to bring about the change in behavior. The
process that makes such change happens is called learning.

The situation that set the process into effect is called learning situation. Learning situation can
also be termed as learning events (Gagne, 1985).

Learning takes places all the time and it is that basis of human behavior.

How do we learn?

We learning by exchanging ideas with others, by reading, dreaming, trial and error, discovery
and investigation, by asking question, playing, just walking in the village/town/city and by
conversing with others watching television, seeing and hearing computer usage, listening and
telling others, being told, teaching others, thinking and reflecting etc.

Basically, all these techniques (types of learning) can be grouped into two categories. These are;

a. Incidental or functional learning

b. Intention learning

Incidental or functional learning: is learning without being aware; learning unconsciously.

Intentional learning: is learning that takes place due to our instructional effectors (intentional
arrangement of the information, media and the learning environment). That is learning that takes
place due to the intentional effort of both the teacher and the learner.

Even though we are very much concerned about the intentional learning.

a. Incidental learning, to some great extent, has influence on the intentional learning.
b. It sometimes form the foundation for human capabilities (memory content that enables
us to perform). It is the basis of concept development.
Theories of Learning

Media is used in the context of instruction to facilitate learning. To know how instruction works,
we have to know how learning occurs so that we can control the activities the media and
instruction to achieve the learning goals. NB: Theories of learning explain how learning occurs.

What is theory?

Theory is a set of statement that describes, explains, predicts and controls phenomenon of
interest.

Learning theory can be defined as a set of statement that explains, describes, predicts and
control behavior change. Learning theory explains how learning occurs.

How teachers/instructors view the role of media and technologies in the classroom depends very
much on their beliefs about how people learn.

Learning, as we have known, means so many different things to different people. Different
theorists are study different aspects of learning.

Let‘s consider the following learning theories: Behavioristic, Cognitivistic and Constructivistic
and their implications in instruction/teaching and the use of instructional media.

Behaviouristic Learning theory

They formed the cornerstone of traditional instructional technology. They proposed that
behaviour could change through the process of reinforcement from the environments. Also they
assumed that psychology of learning should restrict itself to the study of observable and
environmental events.

NB:

1. they focused on observable and environmental events.

2. What goes on in the mind of the learner during is irrelevant.

The behaviourists postulate that the acts and the actions of organisms that can be observed are
cause by the external factors (available stimulus and reward), so this theory normally referred to
as stimulus response theory (S-R theory).

Stimulus means anything that cause behavior to occur (it can be words, token or material).

Response means the reaction of the organism to the stimulus.

Cognitive Learning theory (information processing)

Cognitive learning theory or information processing theory is a type of learning that focuses on
the re-organization of one‘s perceptions in order to achieve understanding. It is basically
concerned with how information is perceived, processed and manipulated to deal with complex
task.

Cognitive theory was in the system together with behavioural theory but behavioural theory, in
America till the beginning of 1960s.

Cognitive psychology overlook behavioural psychology in the 1970s. cognitive learning theories
focus on unobservable/covert construct such as memory, semantic network/mental model,
schema theory, production systems, advance organizers, metacognition, cognitive
apprenticeship, motivation, attitudes, cognitive strategies, instructional conceptions etc.

Around 1960, Jerome Brunner who was known as cognitive Gestaltist set the centre for
Cognitive Studies that set the stage for new important work called Information Processing.

The intention was that what is important is what goes on in the mind when a learner is
performing-how information is perceived, processed, stored and retrieved or manipulated to
solve complex task.

In trying to explain they said, during leaning the learners experience the stimuli (information)
from the environments through their sensory receptors (hearing, seeing, feeling, smelling and
tasting)

The information perceived by the sensory receptors gets to the sensory buffer (store) in the
form of icons. Researchers indicate that the capacity of the sensory buffer is not terribly large (it
can store a very limited number of information). Icons will form even for information that is
exposed for only 1/20 of a second.

Icons (the information in the sensory buffer) will last only for one second, unless you attend to
them. Attention causes the information in the sensory store to passed along to the short term
memory. The short term memory can only hold information of seven times (1 8 9 3 4 1 1) at a
time.

If the information in the short term memory is not rehearsed within 15 to 30 seconds, it will be
lost or forgotten.

For instance if someone tells you his/her telephone number you will probably forget it in 15
seconds unless you rehearse.

NB: Information in the short-term memory which is rehearsed gets to the long-term memory
which is permanent.
Learners therefore combine the information in the long-term memory to develop cognitive
strategies and skills for dealing with complex task.

Cognitive learning theories have contributed the most understanding how best to promote the
acquisition of general problem solving skills, metacognitive skills, cognitive strategies, higher
order thinking skills, learning strategies and problem solving skills in the domain.

If the information in the STM is not rehearsed it fades and cannot be transferred to LTM. To
overcome this teacher/instructors should encourage the students to recall what is learned at
interval.

Teachers should provide the learning environment that enables the learners to manipulate and re-
organize their perceptions to achieve understanding.

Based on the above explanation, the implication of cognitive theory (information processing) for
effective instruction and teaching; Teachers should

 Speak aloud so that learners can hear clearly what they are saying
 Write clearly so that learners can see.
 Do well to gain learners attention and interest
 Motivate leaners by creating desirable learning environment.
 See to it that all extraneous variable are controlled during teaching
 Give a piece of information at a time.
 Encourage learners to rehearse information
 Encourage learners to process information

Constructivistic Learning Theory

Actually this learning theory was originated from cognitive theory. However, it extends beyond
the beliefs of cognitivists. Constructivism gained its root and became dominant in cognitive
psychology in the mid 1990s.

Constructivism as a learning theory posits (position) that learners construct knowledge

individually (and socially) as they learn. Thus leaners construct knowledge (learning
experiences) based on their own mental and social activities.

Constructivism is a modern-day approach to teaching and learning whereby the knowledge

acquired by the students is not only what is given by the teacher in the classroom.

Implications of Constructivistic Theory of learning

 The goal of instruction is not to teach information but to create situations or learning
environments that enable the students to interpret information from their own
understanding.
  The teacher should act as facilitator, guiding and supporting learners in the process of
constructing knowledge.
 The acquisition of knowledge should include active construction of knowledge.
 Learning environment should be the direct replica of real life situation.
 Learning environment should be designed to promote leaner centered activities.
 Teacher should provide students with learning tasks that allow them to develop problem-
solving skills, critical thinking skills, and creative skills, and apply them in a meaningful
manner.

Implications of learning theories for the use of instructional media

It is evident from the theories of learning and its implications to instruction that instructional
media should be used to:

 encourage learners participation/active involvement e.g. computer based instruction

(CBI), Computer Hyper Media Instruction (CHMI), Programmed Text, Charts, Slide,
OHP, Filmstrip, field trip etc.
 arouse student interest E.g. TV, OHP, LCD, Computer, Slide Film, Computer charts, film
strips, printed text etc
 attract learners attention E.g. TV, OHP, LCD, Computer, Slide, Film, computer charts,
film strips, printed text etc.
 stimulate student thinking e.g. Sides, computer hypermedia and multimedia, pictures,.
Charts, filmstrips, printed texts etc.
 encourage feedback e.g. computer, video, LCD
 encourage problem solving e.g. computer multimedia, charts, printed text, audio
 encourage students to work collaboratively e.g. computer, video conferencing
 provide students with authentic and realistic task E.g. computer simulation, virtual
reality.
 Help students construct their own knowledge eg. Computer hypermedia

Which learning theory is the best?

Behaviorial learning theory is highly structured with some rules, the learner cannot go wayward.
It is very successful in learning recurrent skills or basic knowledge such as multiplication table
and acquisition of concepts and psychomotor skills such as key boarding, knowing how to
operate overhead projector etc.

Cognitive theory is to some extent, is not structured as the behavioural. It encourages

independent learning, it focuses on the organization of perception to achieve understanding. It is
very successful in teaching nonrecurrent skills (problem solving skills, learning how to learn and
complex cognitive skills).

Constructivism, the extreme (highest degree) form of cognitive, is highly unstructured and
encourages entirely independent learning. It enables the learner to explore and come out with
unique ideas. It is also very successful in teaching complex cognitive skills, problem solving and
learning how to learn. It enhances understanding and encourages social and realistic learning.

Which learning theory is the best depends on the interest of the instructor, the type of learning
outcome, and the nature of learns

Message

In instructional situation message refers to as content, information, goals. In classroom situation,

the teacher as a communicator must change ideas into messages that can be seen or heard or
sensed by each student in line with his own characteristics.

Message is information to be communicated.

Instructional Strategies and methods

Instructional strategies and instructional methods are often used interchangeably since they all
contribute towards the achievement of instructional goals. however, they are dissimilar.

Instructional strategy

A strategy is a teacher/instructor‘s approach to using information (message), selecting resources,

and defining the roles of students. It is a way in which instruction should be carried out in
specific circumstances. Examples of strategies are expository strategy, inquisitory strategy,
deductive inquisitory strategy.

Expository Strategy (Reception Learning)

This is a learning approach in which the instructor/teacher just present to the learners the
information needed to achieve the learning objective. This is to some extent, is teacher-centred
approach and treats learners as passive recipients.

Question

Which of the these instructional teaching strategies, to a large extent, treat students as passive
recipients in the classroom?

a. Discovery
b. Experimental
 c. Expository
d. Inquisitory

Discovery strategy

This is a learning approach in which the instructor/teacher creates the enable environments and
helps the learners to explore to achieve the learning objective. This, in other words, can be
regarded as learner-centred approach. Discovery learning is also known as experimental
learning.

Reception or expository learning is very good for acquisition of practical skills (psychomotor
skills). Example teaching learners/workers how to operate a certain machine eg. OHP. It is also
very good for teaching acquisition of concepts.
discovery approach is also very good for teaching of higher order capabilities for example
problem-solving skills, learning how to learn etc. discovery learning is however, time involving
as compared to expository learning.

Question

Which of the following learning is very good for teaching higher order capabilities?

a. Expository
b. Discovery
c. Inquisitor
d. Reception

NB: Discovery learning is also known as experimental learning

Reception learning is also known as expository learning

Instructional methods

Learning conditions influence which teaching/instructional method could be used.

Teaching/instructional methods can therefore be defined as procedures selected by the
teacher/instructor to help learners experience the message the teacher/instructor wants to put
across.

Instructional medium is anything that carries information to learners for instructional purpose.

NB: no method is effective than the other, the effectiveness of a given method depends very
much on the nature of learners and importantly the type of learning (content) to be internalized.

The following are categories of methods. They include

 Presentation/lecture
 Demonstration
 Discussion
 Drill and practice
 Tutorial
 Cooperative learning group
 Gaming
 Simulation
 Discovery
 Problem solving

(1) Presentation/lecture: is very effective in teaching historical aspect of various disciplines

and in exposing learners to something or to orient students or workers. It enables lecture
to expose learners to more information.
 It is not completely effective for teaching high order capabilities (problem solving
skills)
 It is more effective in teaching facts, principles and terminologies.

(2) Discussion: it involves the exchange of ideas and feelings among students or among
teachers. It can be used at any stage of instruction/teaching process. It can also be used to
promote development of creativity and problem solving skills in students. The following
media are very effective and conducive to discussion method. They are OHP, LCD Panel
or still images. Discussion method can also be effective after presentation by a
teacher/lecturer, audio, video or a film.

(3) Demonstration: in this method of teaching, the learner views a real or a lifelike example
of skill or procedures, it can be executed by the teacher or by the leaner. Demonstration is
effective in teaching psychomotor skills and some skills (eg. Application) under cognitive
domain.

(4) Tutorial: it can be in the form of a contact between a learner and a teacher or printed
material or computer. Tutorial methods are normally used to teach basic skills, such as
reading and arithmetic. They turn out to be most useful for verbal learning tasks in which
large amount of information must be presented.

(5) Drill and Practice: in drill and practice, the learner is led through a series of practice to
promote proficiency and fluency. It is not typically the function of drill and practice to
teach new concept or information. They are designed to reinforce skills taught elsewhere
may be by presentation, tutorials or other teaching systems. Drill and practice is
commonly used in facilitating learning of fact, learning of foreign language and building
 a vocabulary. Media format used are computer (CAI) programme instruction, laboratory
instruction and cassettes.

(6) Cooperative learning Group: is an instructional method whereby a group of learners

work together to maximize their own and each others learning. It is not the same as group
work. Cooperative working group is recommended for the development of problem
solving skills, social skills, and critical thinking skills in students.

(7) Discovery Method: this method utilizes inquiry approach to learning. The basic aim is to
foster a deeper understanding/high level understanding of a content that might have been
experienced previously by the learner. Media such as computers, video, slide, textbooks
and others can be used to facilitate discovery method.

(8) Problem solving: is an activity that a learner performs in a particular situation in order to
reach a goal. Solving problem consists of five kinds of activities (1) goal setting (2)
listing of possible solution (3) selecting the solute which is most satisfactory (4)
executing or performing the steps to solve the problem or achieve the goal and (5)
reflecting, monitoring and updating on the steps to solve the problems or to achieve the
goal. Case study is a typical example of problem solving.
 They are most effective for problem solving skills or high level capabilities
(application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation under cognitive domain)
(9) Simulation: the word simulation literally means imitation. It can be described as a
representation of certain features of real situation to achieve some learning/teaching
objectives/goals. It involves the learner confronting (manipulation and operating) a
model/mock ups. Simulation methods are used to train airline pilots, drivers, and medical
officer.
(10) Gaming: it creates a playing environment in which learners follow a set of prescribed
rules as they strive to achieve a challenging goal. It often require learners to use problem
solving skills or to demonstrate mastery of specific content demanding a higher degree of
accuracy and efficiency.
(11) Role play: it represents a conversational situation that focuses on the dialogue between
persons.

Simulation and games can be used across all the learning categories. No method is better than the
other.

Communication Model

Transmission of information from a source to a receiver is termed as communication.

Communication models is a systematic way of describing the elements of communication

process.
The S-M-C-R model

The model consist of S(Source), M(Message), C (Content) R(Receiver)

SOURCE

All communication models consist of the source. The source is also referred to as the sender.
There are many kinds of sources in communication. In the classroom situation, the source can be
a teacher or instructional media.

With regard to human communication in learning situation, a source traditionally refers to a

teacher, a professor, a tutor, a trainer or a group of presenters.

Communication skills of the source or sender is ability to write, speak and reason. These
encoding skills differ among senders or sources. If sources lack encoding skills, communication
cannot be effective.

The message

It refers to the main information that the sender has for the receivers. In the classroom
instruction, the message is considered as an integral part of the communication.

CHAPTER SIX

SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO LEARNING

SYSTEM APPROACH

What is System?

According to Geriac & Ely (1980), a System Approach is nothing more or less than a
sophisticated way of identifying and solving complex problem. NB: the system approach is used
when complex problem exist.

System as a methodology

It can be used as a procedure/technique for solving complex problems in education

(learning/instruction).

System as way of thinking

It refers to a situation within which a problem, which needs design solution exists.
Instructional Design model which is popular and highly recognized in the literature on
instructional technology is Assure Model by Heinich and other (1996). This model is normaly
referred t as a scientific approach to teaching.

ASSURE is an acronym for;

1. A (Analysis of learners)
2. S (Statement of objectives)
3. S (Selection of Instruction Method, Media and Materials)
4. U (Utilization of methods, medial and materials)
5. R (Require learners participation), and
6. E (Evaluation of Content and Media.

The ASSURE Model limits itself to planning surrounding classroom use of media. It can be used
to plan a lesson. ASSURE Model, as it is, seems to be very effective for planning and utilization
of instructional media in (classroom) teaching process.

NB: It does not include selection of content.

ADAPTED MODEL

Adapted model is adapted from two comprehensive and recognized models;

1) System approach
2) Theories and principles of instruction/teaching and learning in the classroom
3) Theories and principles of medial utilization.

Seven (7) things to consider when planning your lesson according to F.,K Sarfo

SSASURE

1. Statement of objective
2. Selection of content
3. Analysis of learners
4. Selection of method, media and materials
5. Utilization of method, media and materials
6. Required learners participation
7. Evaluation of content method and media.

It include selection of content which is not in the ASSURE MODEL

Statement of Objectives

Instructional objectives in teaching and learning context is always derived from the educational
goal. Educational goal is broad. It takes a longer time to achieve educational goal.
What is Instructional Objective?

1. Instructional objective is the learning outcome that a teacher expects the learners to
achieve.
2. It is a statement of what the learner ought to achieve from the lesson.

The objective should be measurable and specific as possible.

Why Instructional Objectives?

1. It enables the teacher/instructor to make appropriate select of method, media and

material.
2. It enables the teacher to create the learning environments in which the objectives can be
reached.
3. It enables to students know what is expected of them.
4. Helps in systematic teaching
5. Helps in assessment
6. Help the instructor or teacher to design evaluative questions.

The ABCD’s of a Well Stated Objective

A well-stated objective should be specific and measurable. In addition to that according to

Heinich and group (1996) a well stated specific instructional objective should consist of the
following components:

A (for Audience),

B (for Behaviour),

C (for Condition), and

D (for Degree)

Audience

The effectiveness of any teaching/instruction or presentation is determined by the performance of

the learners/audience after experiencing the teaching/instruction. Therefore, in stating
instructional objective the focus should be on what the audience/learner can do after the end of
the lesson not what the teacher can do.

Behaviour

Other people refer to this component to as the performance. The heart of the objective is the
Verb describing the capability that the audience or the learner will have after instruction. The
verb should always state as the observable behvaviour (what the learner will be able to do after
completing the teaching.

Verbs such as know, understand, appreciate should be avoided.

Verbs like explain, define, describe state, demonstrate, etc should be used.

NB: Behaviour is about (what the learner will be able to do after completing the teaching).

Conditions

Statement of objective should include the conditions under which the behviour is to be exhibited.

Conditions should include the equipment, or tools that the students will be allowed or not
allowed to use in exhibiting/demonstrating the mastery of the objective or the behavior.

Example are below;

1. Without notes/textbooks, or any library material, by the end of the lesson students
should be able to locate mining towns in Ghana.

The bolded words in the above is the condition.

Degree

The final requirement of a well-stated objective is that is should indicate the standard, or
criterion by which acceptable behavior or performance will be judge. The degree can be stated in
quantitative or qualitative terms.

Example

1. By the end of the lesson, without notes, textbook students should be able to define
Educational technology in the matter that will be accepted by an expert from the field.
2. By the end of the lesson and by given a map of Ghana, students should be able to locate 4
Gold mining towns in Ghana.

NB: the underlined statement limits/specifies the criterion by which the acceptable performance
will be judged.

CLASSFICCATION OF OBJECTIVE

The selection of the instructional method, media as well as evaluation method depends on the
type of objective. Educational objective can be classified according to learning outcomes.

The oldest, common, popular and well-accepted three(3) domains/categories of learning

outcome, commonly refer to as Bloom‘s taxonomy of educational objectives are:
 a. Cognitive Domain
b. Affective Domain
c. Psychomotor Domain

Cognitive Affective Domain Psychomotor Domain

 Evaluation  Complex  Origination
 Synthesis characterization  Adaptation
 Analysis  Internalizing  Complex Overt
 Application  Organization Response
 Understanding/Comprehensi  Valuing  Mechanism
on  Responding  Guided response
 Knowledge  Receiving  Set
KCAASE R2VOIC  Perception
PSG-MeCAO

Question

―Mechanism‖ is a sub-domain under which of the following learning outcome?

a. Affective
b. Cognitive
c. Cognitive and affective
d. Psychomotor

Behaviours at the top levels of the (taxonomies) domains are more complex than the lower-level
behaviours.

We should not teach learners to acquire the simplest behaviours, down in the hierarchy,
separately before moving on to the complex behaviours, top in the hierarchy. Instead we should
teach learners to acquire both the simplest behaviours and complex behaviours instantly as they
would apply them in real life situation.

SELECTION OF CONTENT (subject matter)

This is the second step of Adapted model. Content: the body of knowledge that is provided to the
student. After instructional objective has been stated, the teacher has to select the content
(learning experience) that when the learners experienced will enable them achieve the specific
objective as stated.
In selecting the content the teacher should careful and honest. He/she should note that it is not
possible to teach everything that is to be learned within the designated time.

ANALYSIS OF LEANERS 3rd step in Adapted model

In order to choose methods and media rationally to facilitate teaching, it is better to know your
learners. This is the 3rd step of adapted model. It is not possible to analyse every variables of the
learners.

However, several factors are very critical for making good methods and media decisions. They
are;

1. General characteristics
2. Specific entry competencies
3. Learning styles

General characteristics

The general characteristics should be taken into consideration when you are using instructional
media to facilitate teaching/learning include descriptors such as:

 Age
 Gender
 Cultural and socio-economic factors

Specific entry competency

The entry behavior of learners (relevant previous knowledge). If your learners don‘t have you
have to help them to acquire before the lesson.

Learning Style

Individuals differ in their learning styles for processing information, constructing meaning from
it, and applying it to new situations. Some students are;

a. Slow learners
b. Fast learners
c. Concrete learners
d. Abstract learners
e. Linguistic learners
f. Random learners
g. Systematic learners
In this regard to this the selection of instructional methods, media and materials for productive
learning should take into consideration the individual learners learning styles.

Question

Which of the following elements of adapted model helps the teacher to know who the leaners
are?

a. The 4th element

b. The 5th element
c. The 6th element
d. The 5th element

SSASURE

SELECTION OF METHOD, MEDIA AND MATERIALS

This is the fourth step of Adapted Model for preparation and use of media effectively in the
classroom. The selection process is:

1. Deciding on the appropriate method for the given instruction (learning task).
2. Choosing a media format that it appropriate for carrying out the method and
3. Selecting, modifying, or designing specific materials within that media format.

Choosing a Method

The main key factors that should guide the choosing of instructional methods are: the
instructional objective, the capability of the teacher/instructor to use the chosen method,
and the nature of the learners.

Choosing a Media Format

Media format is a physical form in which message is incorporated and displayed. Examples of
media format are: overhead projector, flip chart, slide projector, video, computer etc.

Within these models the four most important factors that should be considered when selecting
media format are

 The instructional situation (large group, small group and individual).

 Learner variable (reader, non-reader and auditory preferences)
 Objective (cognitive, affective and psychomotor)
 The instructor capability of handling the chosen media effective.

Obtaining Specific Materials

Materials can be defined as a collection of items in various media or formats. Examples are
video cassette, audio cassette, CD, slides etc.

According to Heinich et al. (1996) obtaining appropriate materials are basically involves three
alternatives. They are:

1. Selection available materials

2. Modifying existing materials or
3. Designing new materials

Selecting available materials: when the materials available (at the media centre, learning
recourse centre, library etc) will help your learners achieve the objective, take them and use.

Modifying existing materials

When the materials available do not completely enable the learner to achieve the instructional
objective you have to modify it a bit to suit your interest and enable them to achieve the
instructional objective.

Question

1. After Mrs. Brako planned her lesson in English she found out that the materials at hand
do not match her objectives. Which is the best thing that she can do?
a. Modify the available materials
b. Change the objectives to match with the available materials
c. Teach the lesson the following day
d. Carry out the lesson as planned and use the materials at hand.

2. When materials does not completely enable the learners to achieve the instructional
objective, you have to ……….
a. Utilize the material
b. Modify the material
c. Design the material
d. Use the material
3.

Designing new materials

If the above two suggestions (selecting available materials and modifying materials) are not
possible the only alternative is to design/develop your own materials that will enable the learners
to achieve the instructional objective.

UTILIZE MEDIA AND MATERIALS

This is the fifth step in the adapted model. Is the use of media and materials by the teacher (if it
is teacher centered) or by the students (if it is student centered) to facilitate learning. To utilize
media and materials effectively to facilitate learning, five main principles ought to be considered.
They are ―5Ps”

1) Preview materials
2) Prepare the materials
3) Prepare the environment
4) Prepare the learners
5) Present experience

Question

As instructional technologist, the District Director of Education has engaged you to design a
training workshop to enable teachers acquire knowledge in how to utilize instructional methods,
media and materials in teaching to facilitate learning. Write five (5) specific things that your
training would focus on.

a. Preview material
b. Prepare material
c. Prepare environment
d. Prepare learners
e. Provide the learning experience

Preview the materials

The teacher must have a deep understanding or thorough knowledge of that particular material.

Prepare the materials

To avoid, tension, anxiety and any embarrassment teachers/instructors have to prepare the media
and materials to support the instructional activities they have planned.

Question

To avoid tension, anxiety and any embarrassment. The teacher should

a. Preview the materials

b. Prepare the materials
c. Prepare the environment
d. Prepare the learners

Prepare the Environment

Wherever the instruction is to take place, the instructor should see to it that things are properly
arranged to ensure smooth presentation.

Prepare the Learners

It is known that what are learned from activities depend greatly on how the learners prepared for
the lesson. To achieve this,

 Gaining learners attention by using media such as slide, video, LCD, Overhead Projector,
film or any attractive picture/chart.
 Use motivating statement that creates the need to know.
 Use cues that direct attention to specific aspect of the lesson.

Providing the Learning Experience

The teacher/instructor has to preset his lesson like a professional. Stand and ensure eye contact.
If the teacher is student centred the teacher/instructor must play his/her role as a facilitator
helping the students to explore.

Question

The ……….element of adapted model helps The teacher to utilize the instructional materials
during teaching.

a. 7th element
b. 6th element
c. 5th element
d. 4th elemet

Question

Mr. Maxwell borrowed a material from his college teacher to teach. In the teaching process he
realized that he cannot use the materials. Which step of classroom presentation technique did he
ignore?

a. Prepare the materials

b. Require learners participation
c. Delivery
d. None of the above

REQUIRE LEARNER’S PARTICIPATION

This is the sixth step of the Adapted Model. The most effective learning situations are those that
require learners to perform activities. Learners participate effectively when interacting with slide,
filmstrip, (still picture and text) than when watching TV and film (motion pictures).

NB: psychomotor skills are learned better if practiced while the skills are being performed in
films.

EVALUATION OF CONTENT, METHOD AND media

This is the seven (final) step of Adapted Model. For effective learning is evaluation of content,
method and media. Evaluation is made before, during and after instruction/teaching.

CHAPTER SEVEN

CLASSROOM PRESENTATION TECHNIQUES AND AUDIO VISUAL

SHOWMANSHIP

Effective teaching requires advance planning and training. Effective planning indicates that the
teacher should prepare well before their presentation.

To teach effectively indicates that, taking into consideration their lesson plans,
teachers/instructors should plan, prepare and practice to master very well how they will take
control of the content, learners, media and the materials and finally themselves.

Guidelines on how to plan and prepare presentation in the classroom (or anywhere),
classroom presentation and skills needed to use instructional media effectively in teaching

Classroom showmanship

An effective presentation begins with thorough planning. These brief guidelines apply to
classroom instruction as well as more formal presentation. The guidelines have been stated in
relation to

a. Getting ready
b. Setting up and
c. Presentation

Getting Ready

a. Planning: an effective classroom presentation begins with planning. The following

guidelines will help you plan your presentation. They are
 Specify your objectives
 State the content that will enable you achieve the objective.
 Analyse your learners
 Specify the benefit and rationale for the learners
  Identify the key points to cover in line with the objective and the learners
variables
 Identify the sub points and supporting details
 Organize the entire ideas

b. Rehearse
 Use key words.
 Mentally run through the presentation to review each idea in a sequence
 Try to practice in a room similar to where you are going to present over and over
again.
 Rehearse even when you are bathing , eating or driving to take control of yourself,
the content and the materials.
 Practice answers to questions. Think of how you will react to their questions. Do
this to take control of your learners.

Setting up

 Check your equipment in advance of your presentation. Change the classroom

arrangement to suit your presentation if necessary.
 Prepare materials and environment.

Preparation

A. Anxiety
 It is normal to think of what will happen to you and your presentation. Nervousness and
excitement are normal before and during presentation. Some anxiety and concern are
important for effective and dynamic presentation, but over anxiety can be harmful to your
presentation.
 Proper planning and preparation would reduce your anxiety.

B. Delivery
 Stand up when presenting
 Face the learners
 When using chalkboard or wall charts, don‘t talk with your back to the learners
 Move while you speak. But don’t over do it.

C. Voice
 Use a natural or conversation style
 Don‘t read your presentation copiously from a book or from a screen or from a
chalkboard.
 Use a comfortable pace. Do not talk too fast and do not talk too slow
  A pause or silence after a key word is important
 Don‘t speak until you have established eye contact with your learners and maintain this
through the presentation
D. Gestures
 Use natural gestures, learn to use gesture in front of the class to reduce anxiety, gain
learners attention and add meaning to your presentation.
 Don‘t put your hands in your pocket; don‘t play with a pen or other objects.

AUDIO VISUAL SHOWMANSHIP

1. Using real Objects and Models

 Familiarize yourself with the real objects and models.
 Practice your presentation with real objects and models
 Be sure your presentation with real objects and models.
 Be sure your learners do not get wrong impression of the size, shape or colour of the real
object and the models.
 Encourage your learners to handle the object if possible.
 Store the objects out of sight when they are not in used.

2. Using Drawings, Charts, Pictures etc

 Use large visuals that everyone can see. Use it at the right time.
 Use visuals that do not contain irrelevant details.
 Cover irrelevant materials with plain paper.
 Post visuals on any one of the display format such as an easel, chalkboard etc by using
cellotape.
 Limit the number of pictures used in a given period of time. It is better to use a few
visuals well than to overwhelm (surprise) your learners with more unexplained visuals.
 Use just one picture at a time, except for purposes of comparison.
 Keep your audience attention and help them learn from a visual by asking direct
questions about it.
 Provide written or verbal cues to important information contained in the visuals.
 Dispose off visuals when you are not using them.
3. Using a Flip Chart
Flip chart is simple to use but if you don‘t take care its simplicity can fool you. For
effective use
 Watch the position: place the flip chart or overhead projector screen at a 45 degree
angle and near the corner of the room.
  Face the class when speaking.
 Use lettering and figures large enough for all to see.
 Turn a flip-chart page to a blank one when you have finished referring to it.
 If the flip chart pages have been prepared in advance, leave blank pages between each
prepared sheet so that the next prepared page will not show through.
 Provide summary sheet at the end instead of flipping through the pages.

4. Using a Chalkboard or a Whiteboard

 Put extensive drawing or writing on the board before class.
 Organize in advance what you want to and where you want to write on the board.
 Cover materials such as text or extensive lesson materials with wrapping paper until you
are ready to use.
 Eye contact with students is important
 Vary your presentation techniques
 Print neatly
 Check the visibility of the board from several position
 Use colour for emphasis
 Use drawing aids to make your drawing professional

5. Using the OHP

 The OHP should not be an impediment (hindrance) to students view
 The students should face the screen which is positioned in front and the centre in the
classroom
 Get attention: as soon as learners get seated switch the OHP on for two seconds then
switch it off.
 Place the transparency so that the bottom of the transparency faces the screen.
 Use outline to introduce the lesson
 Reveal Section: learners are very curious so is possible use a sheet of paper to reveal one
portion at a time as you talk about the point.
 Point to images with a pencil on the transparency on the stage not on the screen.
 Be spontaneous: plan ways to add meaningful details to the image during projection.
 Avoid doodling (careless sketch): for sketches and random notes use the chalkboard, do
not use the transparency as a doodle pad.
 Turn off the projector when not referring to what is on it.
 Use outline to summarize.

6. Using Video
  Sightlines: Check lighting, seating and volume control to be sure that everyone can see
and hear the presentation.
 Mental Set: Get students mentally prepared by briefly reviewing previously related
study.
 Advance Organizer: List on the chalkboard the main points to be covered in the
presentation.
 Vocabulary: Explain to the learners any new vocabulary before the presentation.
 Role Model: It is important to get involved in the programme. Watch attentively with the
learners, laugh, respond and do everything with the learners. Note the major points and
write them on the chalkboard.
 Reverse and pause if you have to.

Questions and Answers on this chapter

1. In classroom showmanship voice training is part of ………..

a. Getting ready
b. Setting up
c. Presentation (under presentation we have Anxiety, Delivery, Voice, Gesture)
d. thinking of what to present
2. The use of gestures helps the teacher to
a. finish his presentation within the stated time
b. identify learners who do not pay attention
c. reduce anxiety
d. promote learners participation and contribution in the lesson.
3. For effective use of diagrams/pictures in teaching it is advisable to always
a. display all your visuals at a time
b. add as many colours as possible to make it attractive
c. dispose off visuals when not in use
d. make more copies of the visuals and give to learners
4. In the use of video to teach ‗Advance organizer‘ refers to
a. listing of main points to be covered
b. organizing learners before the presentation
c. putting all devices together before presentation
d. setting up the place in order
5. In the use of OHP, it is always important that
a. the student faces the screen
b. the teacher faces the screen
c. both the teacher and the student face the screen
d. none of the above
6. Which of the following skills refers to AV showmanship ―OHP‖?
a. Advance organizers
 b. Reveal section
c. Sightlines
d. Use large visuals
7. Which of the following skills does not refer to classroom showmanship ―Rehearse‖?
a. Practice answers to questions
b. Present in an empty classroom
c. Use gestures when presenting
d. Mentally run through the points
8. AV showmanship ‗Flip chart‘ indicates that teachers should act as role models.
a. True
b. False
9. It is not appropriate to read copiously from a book when teaching in the classroom.
a. True
b. False
10. In the use of OHP to teach ―reveal sections‖ means
a. The OHP should not be impediment to learners view
b. Show one point at a time as you talk about it
c. Expose the transparency for the learners to see
d. Put the transparency on the stage one at a time
11. In the use of video to teach, it is important that the instructor always faces the learner so
that he could establish proper eye contact.
a. True
b. False
12. It is not appropriate to put your hands in your pocket whiles presenting because
a. It does not show respect
b. Your movement may be restricted
c. You may not be able to use gestures properly
d. Your learners may feel bored
13. It is not appropriate to read copiously from a book or a screen because
a. You may not be able to speak louder
b. You may shiver
c. Your learners may not see your face well
d. You may not be able to establish proper eye contact
14. In the use of flip chart, it is always import that
a. The stand is place at the center in front of the class
b. The stand is place near the corner in front of the class
c. The stand is place near the corner 45 degrees in front of the class
d. The stand is placed near at the corner at 45 degrees in front of the class.
15. Sightline is a strategy in the use of
a. Video
 b. P. A. system
c. OHP
d. Audiovisuals
16. Transparency is the essential for the OHP
a. True
b. False
17. In the guidelines for classroom showmanship, the element of ―Voice‖ is part of
…………..
a. Setting up
b. Delivery
c. Presentation
d. Getting ready
18. Avoiding doodling is a strategy in the use of
a. Video
b. OHP
c. Audio media
d. Flip chart
19. Gestures are used in presentation to …………….
a. Add meaning to the message
b. Enable the presenter finish on time
c. Make the lesson interesting
d. Make teaching simple
20. Anxiety during presentation could be reduced by ………..
a. Establishing proper eye contact
b. Planning properly
c. Using gestures
d. Preparing adequately
21. In the use of OHP, it is always important that
a. The teacher faces the screen
b. The student face the screen
c. Both the teacher and the student face the screen
d. None of the above
22. For effective use of visuals in teaching, it is advisable to always
a. Dispose visual when not in use
b. Expose visuals throughout in your teaching
c. Display all your visuals at a time
d. Add as many colours
23. It is important to familiarize yourself with the real object before using it so that the
learners will pay attention.
a. True
 b. False
24. Gestures must always be used in presentation to help the auditory learners
a. True
b. False

Please help answer these questions

25. In classroom showmanship voice training is part of ………..

e. Getting ready
f. Setting up
g. Presentation
h. thinking of what to present
26. The use of gestures helps the teacher to
e. finish his presentation within the stated time
f. identify learners who do not pay attention
g. reduce anxiety
h. promote learners participation and contribution in the lesson.
27. For effective use of diagrams/pictures in teaching it is advisable to always
e. display all your visuals at a time
f. add as many colours as possible to make it attractive
g. dispose off visuals when not in use
h. make more copies of the visuals and give to learners
28. In the use of video to teach ‗Advance organizer‘ refers to
e. listing of main points to be covered
f. organizing learners before the presentation
g. putting all devices together before presentation
h. setting up the place in order
29. In the use of OHP, it is always important that
e. the student faces the screen
f. the teacher faces the screen
g. both the teacher and the student face the screen
h. none of the above
30. Which of the following skills refers to AV showmanship ―OHP‖?
e. Advance organizers
f. Reveal section
g. Sightlines
h. Use large visuals
31. Which of the following skills does not refer to classroom showmanship ―Rehearse‖?
e. Practice answers to questions
f. Present in an empty classroom
 g. Use gestures when presenting
h. Mentally run through the points
32. AV showmanship ‗Flip chart‘ indicates that teachers should act as role models.
c. True
d. False
33. It is not appropriate to read copiously from a book when teaching in the classroom.
c. True
d. False
34. In the use of OHP to teach ―reveal sections‖ means
e. The OHP should not be impediment to learners view
f. Show one point at a time as you talk about it
g. Expose the transparency for the learners to see
h. Put the transparency on the stage one at a time
35. In the use of video to teach, it is important that the instructor always faces the learner so
that he could establish proper eye contact.
c. True
d. False
36. It is not appropriate to put your hands in your pocket whiles presenting because
e. It does not show respect
f. Your movement may be restricted
g. You may not be able to use gestures properly
h. Your learners may feel bored
37. It is not appropriate to read copiously from a book or a screen because
e. You may not be able to speak louder
f. You may shiver
g. Your learners may not see your face well
h. You may not be able to establish proper eye contact
38. In the use of flip chart, it is always import that
e. The stand is place at the center in front of the class
f. The stand is place near the corner in front of the class
g. The stand is place near the corner 45 degrees in front of the class
h. The stand is placed near at the corner at 45 degrees in front of the class.
39. Sightline is a strategy in the use of
e. Video
f. P. A. system
g. OHP
h. Audiovisuals
40. Transparency is the essential for the OHP
c. True
d. False
41. In the guidelines for classroom showmanship, the element of ―Voice‖ is part of
…………..
e. Setting up
f. Delivery
g. Presentation
h. Getting ready
42. In classroom showmanship, orderly organizing your presentation is part of
a. Getting ready
b. Setting up
c. Presentation
d. Thinking of what to present
43. Avoiding doodling is a strategy in the use of
e. Video
f. OHP
g. Audio media
h. Flip chart
44. Gestures are used in presentation to …………….
e. Add meaning to the message
f. Enable the presenter finish on time
g. Make the lesson interesting
h. Make teaching simple
45. Anxiety during presentation could be reduced by ………..
e. Establishing proper eye contact
f. Planning properly
g. Using gestures
h. Preparing adequately
46. In the use of OHP, it is always important that
e. The teacher faces the screen
f. The student face the screen
g. Both the teacher and the student face the screen
h. None of the above
47. For effective use of visuals in teaching, it is advisable to always
e. Dispose visual when not in use
f. Expose visuals throughout in your teaching
g. Display all your visuals at a time
h. Add as many colours
48. It is important to familiarize yourself with the real object before using it so that the
learners will pay attention.
c. True
d. False
49. Gestures must always be used in presentation to help the auditory learners
c. True
d. False
50. In Educational Technology, mode refers to …………………….
a. Instructional media
b. Teaching method
c. Stimulus presented
d. Commonly used media
51. Which instructional media is appropriate for teaching content such as ―surgical
operation‖ that might be dangerous to view directly?
a. Tape
b. Video
c. Model
d. Slide
52. According to Thomas and Robinson (1972) which of the following enable the student to
use printed material effectively?
a. SQ3R
b. PQ3R
c. PQ4R
d. SQ4R
53. In organizing field trip asking learners to write a report about the trip is part of
a. Planning
b. Follow-up
c. Preparing
d. Conducting
54. If a visual contains a message that is above the level of the learner, the visual is
considered not to be ………………
a. Brief
b. Accurate
c. Appropriate
d. Careful
55. Evaluation is important in the teaching and learning process. Which of the following
options below (A-D) will best indicate how the teacher can evaluate his teaching method
before the lesson?
a. By asking learners questions
b. By rehearsing
c. By reading for more information about the method
d. By watching a video of the method
56. All the following are hard technology EXCEPT ……
a. Model of mosquito
 b. Puppet made of cardboard
c. Instructional strategy for teaching how to design a chart
d. A chart showing Ghana‘s rainfall distribution from January to July
57. In the hearing listening process, it is important to pay attention to ………….
a. Encode
b. Hear
c. Listen
d. None of the above option (A-C)
58. What is the name given to pictures, symbols, lines and text that are used to facilitate
teaching/instructional and learning?
a. Pattern
b. Element
c. Arrangement
d. Alignment
59. Which instructional medium is more effective for teaching language?
a. Slide
b. Video
c. Tape
d. OHP
60. Which instructional method is best for teaching a visual learner?
a. Discussion
b. Questioning
c. Demonstration
d. None of the above questions
61. Devices on which visuals are showcased for learners to see are called ………..
a. Device format
b. Display format
c. Flip chart stand
d. Liquid crystal display
62. In the Hearing Listening Process, hearing is …………
a. Understanding
b. Psychological
c. Involuntary
d. Physiological
63. In an instructional situation where the learner has to be able to jump a hurdle, which of
the following instructional media will be mostly appropriate to achieve the objective?
a. Model
b. Tape recorder
c. PAS
d. Animation
64. One main difference between models and mock-ups is that ……
a. Mock-ups give more details than models
b. Models are usually large than mock-ups
c. Models are three dimensional figures
d. Mock-ups have same size as the object
65. A model must either be smaller or larger than the real object
a. True
b. False
66. Around 1907, Educational Technology was originally called ….
a. Instructional Devices Education
b. Audio-visual Education
c. Visual Education
d. Audio Education
67. The word ―technology‖ was derived from the Greek word ―technos‖ meaning ―art‖ In
ancient Greeks when people talked of art they were talking about ………………
a. Technical means for improving productivity
b. Techniques and ideas used in drawing, painting and sculpture
c. Scientific products and devices for teaching
d. Scientific devices for drawing, painting and sculpture
68. Which of these scholars is regarded as the father of Educational Technology is the history
of Educational Technology is traced to the teaching machine?\
a. B. F. Skinner
b. Jerome Brunner
c. Jean Piaget
d. John Dewey
69. In Educational Technology, mode refers to
a. Instructional media
b. Teaching method
c. Stimulus presented
d. Commonly used media
70. Which of the following instructional media is appropriate for teaching content such as
volcanic eruption that might be dangerous to view directly?
a. Tape
b. Video
c. Model
d. Slide
71. Adapted model indicates that if the materials available will help your learners achieve the
learning objective………
a. Pick the material
b. Pick the material and modify it
 c. Design new material
d. Modify the material
72. Which of the following is NOT considered as a quality of good visual for pedagogical
purpose?
a. Beautiful
b. Bright
c. Clean
d. Careful
73. All the following instructional media are examples of audio equipment EXCEPT
a. Computer multimedia
b. Computer hypermedia
c. Overhead projector
d. Video
74. In conducting field trip, justifying the purpose of the trip to the learners is part of
a. Planning
b. Preparing
c. Conducting
d. Follow-up
75. In conducting field trip, the 3rd step is
a. Planning
b. Preparing
c. Conducing
d. Follow-up
76. If a visual contains a message that is devoice of any ambiguity that visual is said to be
a. Appropriate
b. Accurate
c. Brief
d. Careful
77. Short-term memory is also referred to as ………….
a. Sensory buffer
b. Selective attention
c. Working memory
d. Long-term memory
78. Evaluation as an important aspect in the teaching and learning process is done
a. At the beginning of the lesson
b. At the presentation stage of the lesson
c. At the conclusion stage of the lesson
d. At every stage of the lesson
79. Which of the following factors influence the statement of instructional objectives?
a. Cost of teaching
 b. Teaching content
c. Method of teaching
d. None of the above
80. All the following are examples of hard technology EXCEPT
a. Adapted model
b. Model
c. Printed materials
d. Mock-ups
81. In the hearing-listening process which of the following depends on the sender of the
message?
a. Encoding
b. Decoding
c. Hearing
d. Listening
82. What is the name given to pictures, symbols, lines and text that are used to facilitate
teaching/instruction and learning?
a. Pattern
b. Element
c. Arrangement
d. Alignment
83. The …………element of adapted model helps the teacher to utilize the instructional
materials during teaching
a. 7th element
b. 6th element
c. 5th element
d. 4th element
84. ―Mechanism‖ is a sub-domain under which of the following learning outcomes?
a. Affective
b. Cognitive
c. Cognitive and affective
d. Psychomotor
85. Which of the following instructional media is more effective for teaching language?
a. Slide
b. Video
c. Tape
d. OHP
86. Computer is preferred to real object when realism is essential in teaching?
a. True
b. False
87. Technically speaking, realia is an example of model
 a. True
b. False
88. One can practice effectively as instructional technologist without the use of a computer.
a. True
b. False
89. The systematic application of scientific devices, methods, techniques and systems
approach to solve complex problems is referred to as …..
a. Educational Technology
b. Instructional Technology
c. Technology
d. Technology for learning
90. Instructional media are used to carry the following except
a. Pictures
b. Sound
c. Medium
d. Printed text
91. All the following are functions of media except
a. Provide learning objective
b. Select learning content
c. Stimulate previous learning
d. Gain learners attention
92. Models and display formats are under which category/categories of instructional media?
a. Projected visuals
b. Non-projected visuals
c. Projected visuals and non-projected visuals
d. Non-projected visuals and realia
93. In the process of visual design, which of the following focuses on the overall look
(appearance) of the visual.
a. Pattern
b. Verbal arrangement
c. Visual arrangement
d. Arrangement
94. Store objects out of sight when they are not in use so that
a. The learners will participate in the lesson
b. The instructor can take control of himself
c. The learners attention will not be disrupted by the objects
d. The learners will not get wrong impression about the objects

95. It is good to put extensive drawing on the board before the class starts so that \
a. Learners can draw
 b. Learners will see it clearly
c. Learners attention will be gained
d. Instructional time will not be wasted
96. By the end of the lesson, the learner will be able to precisely measure the length of the
table with the aid of a measuring tapes. The underlined word in the above stated
instructional objective is the
a. Audience
b. Degree
c. Condition
d. Behavior
97. All media could be instructional media. Computers are sometimes used in the education
office to keep students records. For this purpose we say these computers are instructional
media.
a. True
b. False
98. When encoding message the sender must avoid repetition.
a. True
b. False
99. If instructional media are categorized into their functions them group activities becomes
a. Audio media
b. Motion media
c. Human based media
d. Non projected visual
100. Printed materials could be disadvantageous to learners because
a. They are not portable
b. They are not common and readily available
c. Not all learners will pedagogical benefit from them
d. They are not flexible to use
101. Which of the following will mostly help students to construct their own
knowledge?
a. PA system
b. Computer hypermedia
c. Flash cards
d. Text
102. Which of the following would bet teacher real insect to learners?
a. Field trip
b. Mock-ups
c. Model
d. Video
103. Which of the following instructional medial is more appropriate for demonstration
teaching method?
a. OHP
b. Opaque projector
c. Video
d. Printed text
104. One of the challenges associated with the use of models to teach in the classroom
is that
a. models may be larger or smaller than real objects
b. models are expensive as compared to mock-ups
c. models may give wrong impression about the real objects
d. models may disrupt learners attention
105. All the following play a common role in the process of designing instructional
materials to facilitate teaching and learning except ……….
a. Text
b. Sound
c. Pictures
d. Symbols
106. One of the functions of computer in the domain of instruction is computer-based
instruction. Which of the following is true about computer based instruction?
(a) The instructor is the main pedagogical agent
(b) The computer is the main pedagogical gent
(c) The computer is used to collect data
(d) The computer is used for self instruction
107. Which of the following elements of adapted model helps the teacher to known
who the learners are?
a. The 4th element
b. The 5th element
c. The 6th element
d. The 3rd element
108. Select the odd one out of the items below
a. Bulletin board
b. Cloth board
c. Cardboard
d. Chalkboard
109. In video production the process of removing or adding images, sound and text to a
video to suit ones desire is termed as
a. Editing
b. Revising
c. Recording
110. In the communication process which of the following does not depend on the
learner?
a. Encoding
b. Decoding
c. Listening
d. Learning
111. The following are audio visual device except
a. Video
b. Computer
c. Mode
d. Radio
112. The principle of which the following learning theories indicates that the
instructional media should be used to enable learners to explore?
a. Constructivist learning theory
b. Behavior learning theory
c. Cognitive learning theory
d. Situated cognition learning theory
113. One of the following instructional media when effectively integrated in
teaching/instruction allows individual learners to progress at different rates, cover
different materials, and even participate in different activities to achieve the instructional
objective
a. Video
b. Computer
c. LCD projector
d. OHP
114. Which of the following teaching methods is an example of inquisitor strategy?
a. Problem solving
b. Lecture
c. Demonstration
d. Drill-and-practice
115. Before designing visuals it is important to first of all
a. Gather materials
b. Plan the visual based on the students needs analysis
c. Know the interaction of colours
d. Find resources
116. Absolutely, educational technology focuses on the use of ICT tools such as
computer, video, radio, OHP, LCD etc to facilitate teaching and learning.
a. True
b. False
117. Which of the following theory encourage students to be engaged in independent
learning?
a. Behaviourism
b. Cognitive
c. Constructivism
d. Situated cognition
118. Drill and practice are more appropriate for the acquisition of ……skills.
a. Interpersonal
b. Non-recurrent
c. Problem solving
d. Recurrent
119. The colours that lie opposite to each other on the colour wheel are known as
………..colours.
a. Analogous
b. Complementary
c. Secondary
d. Primary