General Teaching Methods 02 - Notes

EDF 112: GENERAL TEACHING METHODS
TOPIC 1: COMMUNICATION
GENERAL TEACHING METHODS
COMMUNICATION
This is a process of passing information from sender to receiver.
Two processes of communication
 One-way process of communication: In this process information is passed

on from sender to receiver and no feedback is given back from receiver to
sender. Sources of information in a one-way process of information
include radio, TV, books and newspapers.
 Two-way process of information: In this process of communication,

information is passed on from sender to receiver and receiver gives
feedback to sender.
TEACHING
WHAT IS TEACHING?
 It is a process of arranging condition under which a learner changes

his/her ways of behaviour consciously in the direction of his/her own
goal.
 A process whereby a teacher imparts knowledge or intellectual values to

learners.
 A process of showing somebody how to do something so that he/she will

be able to do it independently.
 Any process that facilitates learning.
The Two Processes of Teaching
 One-way process of teaching: In this process a teacher gives information

to students/learners and students do not give feedback to the teacher.
Implication: This implies that:
a. A teacher is the only source of information.
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b. Students are semi-passive agents in the process of teaching and

learning.
c. Potential of learners may be repressed.
 Two-way process of teaching: In this process of teaching, a teacher gives

information to students and students give feedback to a teacher.
Implication: This implies that:
a. The process allows active participation of learners in a lesson.
b. The teacher and students are both the source of information.
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
These are guidelines which teachers follow in the process of teaching and
learning. Examples of teaching principles include:
 Understanding learners’ needs. For instance, some are fast learners, slow
learners, and others learn better though active participation.
 Begin a lesson from known to unknown, easy to difficult and from simple
to complex.
 Use teaching and learning resources in every lesson.
 Manage classroom behaviours appropriately.
 Re-teach any activity/work on which learners have not managed to meet

objectives of the lesson.
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION DURRING TEACHING
These can be defined as any interference that occurs between the

communicators, i.e. the sender of the message, and the receiver. The barriers
include:
 Noise: This can be through people having a conversation close by, a

ringing telephone, or external noise such as traffic outside a building.
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 Physical distractions: These include poor lighting, uncomfortable

sitting, unhygienic room, or an environment that is too hot or cold can
affect people's morale and concentration, which in turn interfere with
effective communication.
 Poor feedback: Feedback is the receiver sending back the message to

the sender as they have perceived it. Feedback is especially important
to help clarify information which is not understood.
 Poor listening skills: This can happen because of several reasons.

Reason can include not paying attention or day dreaming: hence some
or the entire message can get lost in the communication process.
 Poor Retention: Some students cannot always retain all the

facts/information about what is being told to them especially if they
are not interested or not attentive. This leads to communication
breakdown.
 Emotions: The emotional state of a person at a particular point of time

affects his/her communication with others as it has an impact on the
body language (nonverbal communication). Emotional state causes
some physiological changes in our body that may affect the
pronunciation, pressure of the speech, and tone of the voice of the
sender as well as the perception, thinking process, and information
interpretation of the receiver during verbal communication.
 Linguistic Barriers: Individual linguistic ability may sometimes

become a barrier to communication. The use of difficult or
inappropriate words in communication can prevent the people from
understanding the message. Poorly explained or misunderstood
messages can also result in confusion.
WAYS OF OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

DURRING TEACHING
Assignment
1. Describe any two ways you can use to address the following barriers in
a classroom.
a. Emotional barrier
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b. Linguistic barriers
c. Poor retention
d. Poor listening skills
2. Describe the following fundamental elements of communication.
a. Decoder
b. Encoder
c. Message
3. Relate the above fundamental elements of communication to

classroom situation.
CURRICULUM AND EDUCATION
Defining curriculum:
 A curriculum is a total programme of planned experiences conducted

by the government for public and private schools.
 Curriculum refers to all activities happening under school guidance,

whether planned or unplanned.
Types of Curricula
There are three types of curricula and these are:
 Academic/formal curriculum: This includes learning content and

activities to be covered or mastered by students in each subject in a
prescribed time frame (over a period of time).
 Extra curriculum: These include sporting activities, clubs and societies in

schools.
 Hidden curriculum: These include respect for elders, punctuality for

classes and tolerance.
EDUCATION (DEFINITIONS)
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 Education refers to what happens to us from the day we are born to the
day we die.
 Education is what survives when what has been learned has been
forgotten (B.F. Skinner)
APPROACHES TO EDUCATION
(METHODS OF EDUCATING/IMPARTNING KNOWLEDGE OR

SKILLS TO PEOPLE)
The methods include:
 Rote learning: Students learn by memorising concepts or ideas without

proper understanding.
 Mechanical Training: This is a method of learning whereby students

learn skills through training.
 Propaganda: This is a deliberate approach of presenting half-

truths/misinforming the public in an official way. This can be done
through radios, newspapers, advertisements and through meetings. This is
commonly used by politicians. For instance, informing people that only
politicians can bring developmental projects in an area.
 Indoctrination: It a method of teaching people to believe or accept

information without questioning it. The method in commonly used for
religious teachings/beliefs.
 Brain-wash: This is a systematically approach of imparting ideas in

learners and convince them to believe in things which they do not
understand.
TYPES OF EDUCATION
Education can be classified into three types: These are informal, formal and non-
formal education.
 Formal education: This is a form of education which is gained in

institutions such as schools and colleges.
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Characteristics of formal education
a. It is structured (has scope and sequence) and taught based on

syllabuses
b. It is facilitated by trained teachers
c. At the end of the course of study, students/learners receive

certificates for their achievements.
 Informal education: This is the kind of education which is gained at any

place and at any time. Examples include learning of the mother language,
occupation skills and good behaviours. Learning can occur through
singing, folk tales, observations etc.
Characteristics of informal education
a. There is no structure (no scope and sequence) and organisation of

the learning content since much of the learning is done
unconsciously.
b. There are no tests and no certification for learners.
 Non-formal education: This is a kind of education which is gained

outside the formal education situations. This education is aimed at
addressing certain needs in a community. It can be provided to people
through sensitisation meetings, training workshops and other meetings. In
this kind of education, there could be certification or not.
THE SYLLABUS, SCHEMES AND RECORDS OF WORK
DEFINING SYLLABUS
There are several definitions for a syllabus and some of them include:
 This is a curriculum document which shows a list of topics or concepts to

be covered in a particular subject and by a particular class.
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 It is a list of subjects, topics, tests etc, included in a course of study.
FUNCTIONS OF A SYLLABUS
 They help the government to control education in the country such that all
children in the country receive the same education.
 They allow headteachers, school inspectors and other officials from the
ministry of education to check whether the desired standards are achieved.
 They help teachers in preparing schemes of work.
 They help in setting up the base upon which examinations questions are
set.
Types of syllabuses
Syllabuses are designed according to the functions they serve. In secondary

schools we have two types of syllabuses. These are teaching syllabus and
examinations syllabus.
The Teaching Syllabus
 The teaching syllabus provides teachers with guidance in teaching.
 The syllabus has a statement of specific objectives.
 The syllabus has a statement of specific entry skills.
 Has a statement of specific topics.
 Has a statement of suggested teaching strategies and references
The Examinations Syllabus
 The syllabus shows the number of examination paper, marks (level of

attainment) allocated to each paper and time given for the paper.
 They show course topics and a list of reference books.
SCHEMES OF AND RECORDS OF WORK
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Schemes of Work: This is an interpretation of the syllabus showing the amount

of work to be covered by a teacher for a particular school term.
Components of Schemes: These are
 Week and Dates. In this column teachers indicate week-number,

beginning and ending dates of each week in a school term.
 Success criteria: These are descriptions of behaviours to be shown by

learners as an indication of learners’ achievement/attainment in a given
activity.
 Activities planned: The column indicates teaching and learning activities

to be covered in a week and in a school term.
 Teaching, learning and assessment methods: These are suggested

teaching methods to be used during teaching and learning in a particular
week.
 Resources: These are suggested teaching and learning resources to be

used during teaching and learning in a particular week.
 References: The column indicates reference materials based on which the

schemes of work were prepared.
(See the sample schemes of work provided to you to see its structure)
The Advantages of Using a Scheme of Work
 Helps teachers to prepare teaching and learning resources well in

advance.
 A scheme of Work makes a careful and logical arrangement of work to

be done.
 It encourages course work to be covered within a stipulated period of

time.
 In case of a teacher being posted away or sickness, it allows another

teacher to take over the class without much problem. In short, it allows
continuity of work.
 It is a good instrument to evaluate the coverage of the syllabus.

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RECORDS OF WORK
Record of work refers to a record of the actual work taught during lessons and
for a particular subject.
Components of the Records of work
It is basically made of two parts and these are Outcomes and Remarks.
1. Outcomes: This is where teachers indicate what has been covered

in a lesson. The recorded work must be brief and not a transfer of
work from the ‘Activities Planned’ column. The column must be
big enough for it to accommodate more information.
2. Remarks: The column indicates the degree of success and failure

of the lesson. It also indicates the possible suggestions for
improvement on areas of weaknesses of the lesson.
Functions of Records of Work
 It is a good instrument to evaluate coverage of the planned activities for a

particular school term, i.e. it serves as a testimony of the teacher’s
teaching.
 It reminds teachers what has already been covered with learners.
 Help teachers who are taking over the class to know where to begin
teaching.
 They show the successes and failures of the lesson and show what to do if
a lesson was a failure.
 They help head-teachers and officials from ministry of education check if

learners were really learning.
(Refer to the handout to see the structure)
LESSON PLAN
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 This is an outline of important points or ideas a teacher intends to cover in

a lesson.
 It is a layout of how the teacher intends to handle a lesson from the

beginning to the end.
Structure of a lesson plan: See handouts
Importance of a Lesson Plan
 Teachers cannot remember everything which they intend to teach in a lesson, for
this reason, availability of a lesson plan during teaching acts as a reminder for a
teacher.
 A lesson plan encourages logical flow of ideas. In this context, learning

activities, use of resources in a lesson and presentation of content are presented
in an organised manner. For instance, teachers are able know what to do and
when to do a particular activity such as asking questions in a lesson, avoiding
omissions and preventing repetitions.
 Preparation of a lesson plan helps teachers to teach with confidence. They can
refer to it in the event that they have lost track or they are not sure of what to
do.
 It enables teachers to assess whether the lesson has achieved its intended
learning outcomes.
 It enables teachers to select and use appropriate teaching strategies, teaching

and learning resources for the lesson.
 It helps teachers to manage time properly. Time is appropriately distributed for
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the activities done in a lesson and the lesson ends in time.
TOPIC 3: SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING
TEACHING METHODS
Different people have defined teaching methods differently. Notable definitions

included:
 An instructional strategy used by teachers to impart knowledge or skills to

learners during teaching.
 A specific instructional process which differs from any other by the

diversities of specialized activities (Afolabi and Adesope, 2010).
During teaching, teachers use teaching methods in order to impart knowledge to

learners. Some of the methods include:
 Question and Answer method
 Discussion method
 Lecture method
 Role play
 Group work
 Demonstration method
 Assignment/project method
 Field trips method (Excursion)
 Inductive and deductive method
LECTURE METHOD
This is a teacher-dominated approach to teaching. It involves verbal presentation

of ideas, concepts, generalization and facts. The objective of this method is just
to provide students with information. Teachers do most of the work by talking
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while students are just passive or slightly involved by taking down notes and
asking few or no questions.
Advantages of the Lecture Method
 It is easy to use as no special apparatus/equipment is needed
 It is less demanding for teachers in terms of time for planning and

preparation.
 It is an efficient means of giving a vast amount of knowledge in a limited

amount of time.
 Large classes of students are easily handled by teachers.
 Helps students to develop listening skills.
 Helps students to acquire note-taking skills.
Disadvantages of the Lecture Method
 Students are passive listeners and do not participate in the lesson: hence it
may lead to boredom and learners may go asleep if not carefully planned.
 The method does not permit feedback from learners since they are passive
participants. As a result, students’ progress cannot be evaluated during the
lesson.
 The method cannot meet the different learning needs of students in

connection with individual differences.
 The method rarely gives students the opportunity to practice

communication skills.
 Students may show a tendency to accept the teacher as the “final

authority”. Consequently, accept his/her biases and prejudices at face
value.
 It encourages rote learning or memorisation.
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QUESTION AND ANSWER METHOD
It is a method based on the use of questions which are answered by students.

The pattern typically begins with the teacher asking a question and then
recognizing one student to answer the question.
Guiding principles/guidelines for teachers to observe when using Question

and Answer Method
 Questions must be clear and definite in meaning and wording.
 Questions should always deal with essentials/ should be relevant to t he

topic.
 Questions should be clear and straight to the point.
 Questions should suit the level of learners.
 Questions should stimulate real thought, questions suggesting the answers

should be avoided e.g. did Abraham show much faith when he offered his
son? Yes)
 Questions should be asked before a pupil is called upon to answer. Such

a procedure keeps all pupils active, thus assisting in the diagnosis of
difficulties – discovery of weaknesses. . Avoid leading questions –
leading questions result sometimes from poor ability to think and to
phrase questions. In Social Studies, such questions are blunders e.g.
Pericles was banished from Athens, was he not?
 Avoid questions that will admit different answers e.g. what do you see in
the compound? Possible answers – A child may see trees, another sheep,
and all will be right. A question that admits many answers is vague e.g.
what is the most important thing you notice about the object?
 Distribute the questions across the class or randomly
 Involve both volunteers and non-volunteers.

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 Ask the question, pause a little and name the student.
 Rephrase or reword the question if the student shows no sign of

understanding.
STRENGTHS QUESTION AND ANSWER METHOD
 They stimulate the interest of learners.
 They allow teachers to monitor progress of learners.
 They help teachers identify what learners already know.
 They help teachers in providing direction to learners thinking.
 They help teachers in disciplining learners.
 They help teachers to emphasize the main points of the lesson.
LIMITATIONS OF QUESTION AND ANSWER METHOD
 Questions may slow the progress of a lesson.
 Low order questions encourage learners to memorise materials which they

do not understand.
SKILL OF QUESTIONING
Success of teaching depends on how skilful teachers are with the use of
questions. The kinds of questions teachers ask influence the levels of thinking
operations pupils engage in.
Purposes of questioning
Questions have a wide range of educational purposes depending on the context

of the classroom. For instance, questions may be used for communication,
classroom management, reviewing, drawing attention, stimulating pupils’
thinking, evaluating pupils’ understanding, and building expression.
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 Questions for reviewing (checking pupils’ Relevant Previous

Knowledge (R.P.K.))
Questions can be used to review or find out what pupils know about a
subject or topic. A teacher can utilise questions to check the previous
knowledge of pupils. It is always a good idea that a teacher introduces
his/her lessons by reviewing pupils’ previous knowledge. By doing so,
the teacher can find out what pupils already know and he/she can quickly
adjust what to teach in accordance with pupils’ needs. Implementing this
process on a regular basis is very beneficial. This technique builds up
confidence in pupils and assures them of the relevance of the topic they
already have knowledge of. Questions can also be used to review the core
points they have learnt in the previous lesson. Sample question for the
lesson on properties of soil can be, Name the type of soil which you k
now?
 Questions to draw attention to main points or important feature of a

topic
Questions can draw pupils’ attention to core points of a topic as a way of
emphasizing a point.
 Questions for stimulating pupils’ thinking

Teachers can use questions to trigger pupils’ thinking. Diverse range of
questions can prompt low level of cognitive activity, such as recall of
facts and also high level of cognitive activity, such as, analysis, synthesis,
application or evaluation of knowledge. Appropriate questions can
stimulate and motivate pupils to think independently, objectively and
critically.
 Questions for evaluating pupils’ understanding of content (core

points, etc.)
Questions can be used to determine if pupils understand the lesson
content. When pupils’ answers show poor understanding, the teacher may
need to teach the content again adding extra assistance. When pupils’
answers show good understanding, the teacher can present a more
advanced content. Appropriate questions find out pupils’ difficulties and
problems in particular areas of the topic.
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 Questions for communication

Questions offer verbal interactions between pupils and teachers.
Appropriate questions help to increase the quality of pupils’
communication. Questions can help teachers to establish a friendly
atmosphere in the class.
 Questions for classroom management

Such questions seek to control classroom activities and cut down on
disruptive behaviour.
DISCUSSION METHOD
Discussion method is based on the philosophy that knowledge arises within the
students and not from any external source. The students take over the subject
from various points of view and the teacher serves as a moderator.
Advantages of the Discussion Method
 Students maintain a high degree of mental alertness to develop clear

thinking.
 Interest is maintained and a feeling of confidence as students learns to

express themselves freely.
 Students learn through discussion method through active participation and

involvement in the lesson.
 Discussion method provides good practice for problem-solving.
 It provides the teacher with information about the students which can aid
in a better understanding of the students.
 Teaching by discussion leads to positive attitudinal change because a

student may find his or her own values and beliefs challenged by the
views of fellow students
Disadvantages of the Discussion Method
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 A lot of time would be wasted before the students arrive at satisfactory

answers: hence the method cannot allow quick coverage of the syllabus.
 Students who have no background of the topic being discussed may

become bored or lose interest in the lesson: hence may not participate in
the lesson.
Some Guidelines/principles for the effective Discussion Method
 Set a topic/question for discussion (Use questions to introduce larger

issues and develop critical thinking). The topic /question to be discussed
should meet the level of the students/should be within students’
background.
 Use open-ended questions (those that cannot be easily answered with a

simple yes or no) to encourage participants to provide longer, more
thoughtful answers. Try not to answer your own questions. Avoid
rhetorical questions or those that have an obvious answer.
 Accept controversial answers to create an atmosphere of open inquiry and

debate. Encourage learners to assess and evaluate each other's solutions.
 The teacher should not allow some students to dominate the topic under
discussion.
 Treat all remarks as being serious and reject the irrelevant comments that
do not fit into the discussion. However, do this gracefully/diplomatically.
 Summarize the points frequently in order to guide your students towards

understanding the main concepts and principles of the topics under
discussion (Summarize the main concepts and principles of the topics
under discussion).
The Field Trip
This method involves taking learners on an excursion outside the classroom

for the purpose of making relevant observation for the purpose of obtaining
Technological and Vocational Information.
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The Advantages of the Field Trip
 It allows the students to engage fully in the activities of the study.
 It sharpens the students observational abilities.
 It helps to add reality to and verify how the area of coverage operates
in practice.
 Field trip is useful in developing all senses of the students.
 It provides opportunity for students to identify ways of spending

leisure time profitably.
 Things that cannot be brought to the classroom can be observed and

studied e. g. ecological succession, oceans, etc. Through direct
contact with different occupations provided by field trips students
learn and develop an appreciation of the
“world” of work outside of the school in relation to school work.
 Experience gained during a field trip can motivate students to read

about what they have observed, so as to harmonize actual field
experiences with information gathered from textbooks.
Disadvantages of field trips
 Field trip involves taking learners on an excursion outside the classroom

for the purpose of making relevant observation. For this reason, it
demands a lot of time than indicated on the school time table,
transportation arrangements are often difficult and may be expensive.
 Class supervision may prove difficult since students tend to move round.
 If not properly planned and organized, the field trip becomes a waste of
time and resources and takes away from valuable learning activities.
 Even after the most thoughtful preparation and planning, accidents can
and do occur in field trips.
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 A field trip may create conflicts with other classes since it involves using
time meant for other subjects.
Guidelines for field trips and educational visits

They include the following:
 Prepare clear objectives for the trip
 Identify the place to be visited in advance
 Make a preliminary visit to the place
 If there is need for transport arrangements

do so in advance
 Give specific instructions to learners before

the trip
 Identify guides for visually impaired

learners
 Take precautions for learners with hearing

impairments in case of traffic cars
 When you are back at school, discuss the

trip or educational visit
 Ask learners to record the discussions
Role – Play
Meanings of role-play include:
 An immediate display of a situation, condition or circumstance by

selected members of a learning group (learners).
 Acting out a situation
Playing a part in a role play can be done either in a structured or unstructured

way. In a structured role-play, the actions or scenes are prepared in advance. For
instance, scripts are prepared and memorised by participants (actors or
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actresses). Unstructured role-play does not need to be practised. It is

spontaneously done by participants and participants use their own words.
Advantages of role-play
 Role-play arouses the curiosity of learners and in return they are

motivated to learn
 Learners with special needs are actively involved in the lesson
 It allows learners develop their social potentials
 It reinforces learners’ understanding by demonstrating situations or

conditions which words alone cannot explain clearly.
 Role – plays help to bring a real life situation into the classroom
Disadvantages of a role-play
 It is time consuming
 It is selective because not all learners are involved in the role

play
 Shy learners do not participate in a role-play; instead, fast learners

dominate the role-play.
Guidelines for role play

Guidelines include:
 Organise the situation and roles to be

played in advance
 Assign roles to learners
 Give them enough time to prepare for the

roles
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 Learners who are not involved in the role play should be taking important
notes during the role play
 Involve learners with special needs in the

roles
 Switch roles among learners
 Improve some areas by repeating the role play
 Summarise main points of the activity.
Classroom Management
Class management is a process by which a teacher gets his pupils to cooperate
and get a harmonised classroom life. The aim of classroom management is to
maintain a positive, productive learning environment, relatively free of
behavioural problems. It involves teacher control, guidance and direction of a
classroom
Classroom management involves the following activities; planning, organizing,

leading, coordinating, directing, supervising and reporting.
Classroom Planning: This is a systematic process of preparing for a lesson. It

involves preparing a set of decisions in advance about the classroom encounter.
It is a process of addressing issues related to “what to teach”, “how to teach”,
“when to teach”, “with what to teach” in the most effective and efficient
manners possible. Classroom planning is a short term type of planning and the
paper work on this is referred to as the daily lesson plan.
Organizing: Organizing the students as well as the physical and material

resources available in the classroom demands your managerial skills and
knowledge as a teacher. This involves the teacher’s ability to anticipate
classroom needs and ability to deal effectively with them at the appropriate time.
A class ought to be organized so that little opportunity as possible is afforded for
disruptions, noises and disorderly behaviours. This may involve grouping
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students or allowing a free activity class.
Classroom organization also involves the selection of competent class leaders,

thus, the teacher should watch out for leadership qualities in the students and
help develop such qualities by assigning certain duties to such students, as class
monitor, group prefect etc. Developing students for leadership role is part of
education. Instructional materials should be arranged within the reach of the
students. These materials should be properly cared for and maintained to be in
good condition for use at all times. Since these materials are meant to be
organized for optimal utilization, safeguarding them or keeping them out of
students’ reach could result into under-utilization or wastage.
Leading: Leading in the classroom is the process of influencing the behaviour

of the students to perform in a manner which will help the class achieve its goals
efficiently and effectively. A teacher is seen as a person who because of rich or
unusual experience or education or both in a given field is able to contribute to
the growth of other persons who come in contact with him (Good 1973).
Teacher behaviour patterns have been found to be significant determinants of
students’ academic performance (Morrison and McIntyre 1973). For effective
classroom management the teacher as a leader should: 1. Be warm,
understanding and friendly rather than being aloof, egocentric and restricted. 2.
Be responsible, business like and systematic rather than being evading,
unplanned and slipshod 3. Be stimulating and creative and imaginative rather
than being dull and routinely. The teacher should therefore be concerned with
the development of students’ trait of self reliance, independent thought and
cooperative activities right from the classroom setting.
Coordinating: Coordinating the efforts and activities of students by the class

teacher is a crucial aspect of classroom management activities. Coordinating is
the systematic process of integrating and synchronizing the class efforts to
achieve the desired goals. This is a group-process coordination, which is much
more emphasized in the classroom than self-process coordinating, in which any
student may relate his activities to those of others by collaboration, cooperating
or observation. For effective coordination, you (teacher) must be able to
translate your plan into activities involving the students. The teacher is expected
to apply theories of behaviour and development (learnt in psychology) and
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techniques of teaching learnt in methodology to actual classroom situations.
Directing: The teacher is the director of knowledge, who motivates, influence

and guides the student’s actions in the classroom towards the attainment of
the lesson objectives. These are various teaching or instructional
techniques for teacher’s use. These include lecture method, questioning
method, group teaching, individual instruction, project method, activity
method, story - telling technique, play way method and non-graded
instruction. Details of these techniques are beyond the scope of this course.
However, you should be conversant with these techniques to know when and
how to use them effectively. Any technique chosen must be relevant,
appropriate and adequate for the lesson. To be an effective classroom director,
the teacher must know the subject matter and must use clear, fluent and
appropriate language to communicate. Furthermore, the teacher must ensure
two-way directional communication, that is, communication from the teacher to
the students and vice-versa, in a free and democratic atmosphere.
Classroom Controlling: This is the process of ensuring that the objectives of

the subject are achieved possibly with minimum effort. This involves using
expert knowledge and experience to oversee, evaluate and improve the
conditions and methods of doing things connected with the teaching and
learning process. This is also known as supervising (Nwankwo 1981).
Controlling in the classroom management enables the teacher to maintain order
(rules and regulation) in the class. The teacher assumes the role of a pacesetter,
an innovator, an evaluator, a guidance-counsellor and indeed a model to the
students. He should, however, be loyal to his ideals and ideas, while he should
respect the beliefs, right, worth and dignity of the students. He should be
approachable. For instance, a teacher who comes late to the class or who chews
(gum, kolanut etc) in the classroom might find it difficult to check these
activities among his students.
Evaluating students’ progress : This is judging class activities in relation to the

stated objectives. Evaluation depends on clearly stated objectives and efficient
instruments for measuring extent to which change has taken place towards
objectivities (Farrant 1980). Evaluating students may be summative (which is
meant for certification or grading of students at the end of a course) formative
23
(which is meant for a feedback on student progress through a unit), or diagnostic

(which is meant for determining prerequisite skills for placement).
Students could be evaluated using objective or subjective (essay) tests,

self-report technique or observational technique. The teacher must ensure
that whatever method is used must be valid (that is, the evaluating
procedure should measure what it is intended to measure) and be reliable
(that is, it must be trust worthy and must not be doubtful)
Reporting: The teacher needs to give constant progress report of the students in
his class. This would serve as a means of promptly intimating the appropriate
authorities, for instance, the school, the parents, the employers, the scholarship
or bursary award institutions and even the students themselves with
performances and problems in the classrooms so that necessary actions could be
taken for improvement. The teacher acts as information manager. In order to do
this, the teacher keeps adequate records of the student’s performance. The report
form classroom manager (the teacher) serves as a means of feedback in
classroom management activities.
Importance of effective class management
 It helps to keep a class under control for better use of time. No time is
wasted in trying to control the class.
 It helps to reduce cases of unacceptable behaviours from learners
 It allows learners to concentrate on given tasks since there are no

disturbances.
 It encourages orderliness
 It promotes cooperation, mutual and friendly relationship between the

teacher and learners
Strategies for effective classroom management
Teachers can do the following to ensure effective classroom management:
 Establish good personal relationship with students.

24
 Effective preparation of lessons, i.e. teachers need to be well prepared for

lessons
 Should anticipate difficulties or behavioural problems from learners and

react immediately before problem the escalates
 Effective organization of teaching resources and students work during

lessons
 In conjunction with learners, set class rules to guide and limit the
behaviour of learners
 Avoid picking favourites i.e. treat all learners equally
 Observe punctuality at all times to instil the same in learners
 Adherence to teachers’ professional competencies (Characteristics of an

effective teacher). Examples of characteristics of an effective teacher
which promotes effective classroom management include:
a. Ability to know learners characteristics
b. The mastery of subject matter
c. Ability to communication effectively
d. Ability to create good rapports
e. Teachers personality (Good personality)
Ability of the teacher to know the characteristics of learners in his/her

classroom Characteristics
Learner’s characteristics will include age, sex, attitude, socioeconomic

background, level of influences, previous knowledge, interest and so one. The
knowledge of the above will equip the teachers to be able to understand
student’s behaviours and performances. This will also make him to assist the
students more promptly and effectively and by so doing you will become friends
of the students and thus enjoy their cooperation and respect. The knowledge of
children’s psychological development, pretest, interviews and discussions with
students helps the teacher to know more of his students’ characteristics which
will help him to determine the student’s interest and ability more accurately.
25
The Mastery of the Subject Matter

An ill prepared teacher will not only embarrass himself but also lose selfrespect.
Students often look unto the teacher as an authority in the subject matter he
teaches. A good teacher should prepare very well and know far more than he
intends to cover. Students know when a teacher does not know more of the
subject and they often seize this opportunity to ridicule and embarrass the
teacher by asking questions and making counter - productive observations.
Ability to Communication Effectively
Successful teaching implies effective communication. Generally speaking good

classroom communication should include the following:
 Explain ideas clearly
 Pronouncing words distinctly and correctly
 Writing legibly on the chalk board
 Using instructional media correctly
The ability to express your thought and feelings accurately to the other person is
very important in human interpersonal communication process. As a teacher you
should be learned in communication skills to be able to teach successfully. The
teacher is usually the source of the message. He should therefore use simple but
appropriate words for his message. He should also select effective
channel/medium of communication. In addition to these he should reduce or
eliminate communication barriers along the channel of communication. His
writing should be familiar to the students. In order to remove misinterpretation
and ambiguities, instructional media should be used to illustrate concepts.
Ability to Create Good Rapport
The teacher should be able to create good rapport between the students and
himself and among the students themselves. In other words the teacher should
create a friendly environment in the classroom. When the teacher develops
interest in the students they are likely to reciprocate by loving and respecting the
26
teacher. “Teachers can show friendliness by being consistently polite, taking

time to listen and avoiding situations that undermine student’s self concept”
(Oyinloye G. K. 1988). Being friendly with students, however is not to make
one too intimate to the point of developing an unhealthy relationship. Other
important ways to build rapport with students is to regard them not as empty
vessels to be filled with knowledge, but as individual in their own right. They
must be given permission not only to consult with the teacher in the classroom
alone, but also outside it, when students have such free access to the teacher, it
helps to narrow down the psychological distance which normally exists between
the teacher and the students.
Teacher’s personality (Good personality)
“The way the teacher dresses, speaks and conducts himself in front of his class
will go a long way in helping him to control the class effectively” (Bello, 1981).
A well dressed teacher will command more respect than a shabbily
dressed teacher. A teacher should dress moderately well and not to call
attention unduly to himself. He should therefore not be sensational. The
teacher’s dresses should be neat, simple and well tailored. The choice of
colours is important, therefore his clothes, shoes, caps should be selected
to complement each other. In short, there should be no colour riot. The
manner in which the teacher carries himself (deportment) whether smartly
or sluggishly, and the way he conducts himself whether with dignity or
debasement (comportment), portrays him to the students as either agile
and business like or lazy and carefree. Mannerisms such as foaming in the
mouth, using of meaningless words, scratching of the body repeatedly, could put
the teacher to ridicule and earn him nick names from the students. The attitude
of the teacher to his work and the type of leadership he adopts are important as
that can affect control. A teacher that is always punctual to class will by his or
her example discourage late coming and truancy by students. The teacher’s
leadership style whether democratic, authoritarian or laissez fair is also
important. For example, a democratic class where the students take part in
decision making process will be more acceptable to them than an authoritarian
class; but care must be taken by the teacher so that students do not abuse this
privilege and erode the authority of the teacher.
27
TEACHING AND LEARNING RESOURCES
The meaning of teaching and learning resources

These are materials that a teacher uses during the teaching and learning process
in order to facilitate learning.
Differences between Teaching Resources and learning resources
Teaching Resources Learning Resources

They are teacher centred (Are used They are learner centred (Are used
by teachers) by learners)
Are used for reviewing lessons Are used for summing up lessons
Are used for introducing new ideas
or concepts
Importance of teaching and learning resources
 They facilitate learners’ understanding of abstract ideas into concrete ones
 They simplify complex and difficult ideas for easy learners’

understanding.
 They enhance learners’ learning experiences by involving more senses in

learning concepts.
 They attract the attention of learners during teaching and learning.
 They enhance learners’ capacity for memory by providing structure and

imagery.
 They promote active learning and involvement of more learners in a

lesson.
28
Categories of Teaching and Learning Resources

There are three main categories of teaching and learning resources. These are:
 Visual aids: These are resources which help learners to learn through
seeing.
 Audio aids: These are resources which help learners to learn through
hearing.
 Audio-visual aids: These are resources which help learners to learn using
both senses of sight and hearing.
Types of Teaching and Learning Resources
There are three main types of teaching and learning resources. These are:
 Illustrations: These include pictures, charts, drawings and photos.
 Real Objects: These include plants and models
 Activities: These include projects, role-play and field trips
Qualities of teaching and learning resources
 They should be accurate and relevant (e.g. diagrams) for the subject to
avoid confusing learners.
 They should be attractive to draw learners attention
 They should be brief and with essential information. Detailed illustrations

distract the attention of learners from important points.
 Illustrations should be bold enough to be seen clearly from the back of the
class.
29
 Use relevant colours for the features illustrated. For example, use green
for vegetation and blue for water. Clear for learners to get the message
Teaching and Learning Using Locally Available Resources (TALULAR)
Not all teaching and learning materials can be readily available for use during
teaching and learning. Some of them can be made using the locally available
resources.
Advantages of using locally available resources.
The advantages include:
 Locally available resources are cheap and sometimes can be obtained at

no cost: hence they help teachers to save money
 Locally available resources are not complicated technologically: hence,

do not require technical skills to use them. As a result, they are easy to
use.
 Since resources are locally available, teachers can ask learners to find
some resources from their homes for classroom use. This helps to save
time teachers spent during resource mobilisation.
 Use of locally available resources attracts the interest of learners: hence

learners motivate them to learn.
 Use of locally available resources serves as an effective solution in

situations where factory or already-made resources are expensive to buy
or are not available in schools.
 By collecting and using resources from the local environment, it suggests

exposing learners to resources which they are familiar with. This helps
learners understand and appreciate the role of the environment in relation
to teaching and learning.
30
Improvising Teaching and Learning Resources
Improvisation is the art of making something using materials or resources from

the immediate or the local environment. For example, if a school has no balls,
teachers can ask learners to make balls using papers or cloth rags.
Advantages of using improvised resources.
 Improvised resources are easy to use since they are not complicated
technologically and do not require technical skills to use them.
 Use of improvised resources attracts interest of learners: hence learners

motivate them to learn.
 Use of improvised resources serves as an effective solution in situations

where factory or already-made resources are expensive to buy or are not
available in schools.
 Use of improvised teaching and learning resources promotes creativity

among teachers. Notably, teachers can produce a lung model using an
empty plastic bottle, balloons and ball point pens than waiting to purchase
a lung model from a shop.
 Use of improvised resources saves money since most of the materials can
be obtained at no cost.
31

General Teaching Methods 02 - Notes

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EDF 112: GENERAL TEACHING METHODS

GENERAL TEACHING METHODS

This is a process of passing information from sender to receiver.

Two processes of communication

 One-way process of communication: In this process information is passed

 Two-way process of information: In this process of communication,

 It is a process of arranging condition under which a learner changes

 A process whereby a teacher imparts knowledge or intellectual values to

 A process of showing somebody how to do something so that he/she will

 Any process that facilitates learning.

The Two Processes of Teaching

 One-way process of teaching: In this process a teacher gives information

Implication: This implies that:

a. A teacher is the only source of information.

b. Students are semi-passive agents in the process of teaching and

c. Potential of learners may be repressed.

 Two-way process of teaching: In this process of teaching, a teacher gives

Implication: This implies that:

a. The process allows active participation of learners in a lesson.

b. The teacher and students are both the source of information.

 Use teaching and learning resources in every lesson.

 Manage classroom behaviours appropriately.

 Re-teach any activity/work on which learners have not managed to meet

BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION DURRING TEACHING

These can be defined as any interference that occurs between the

 Noise: This can be through people having a conversation close by, a

 Physical distractions: These include poor lighting, uncomfortable

 Poor feedback: Feedback is the receiver sending back the message to

 Poor listening skills: This can happen because of several reasons.

 Poor Retention: Some students cannot always retain all the

 Emotions: The emotional state of a person at a particular point of time

 Linguistic Barriers: Individual linguistic ability may sometimes

WAYS OF OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

d. Poor listening skills

2. Describe the following fundamental elements of communication.

3. Relate the above fundamental elements of communication to

CURRICULUM AND EDUCATION

 A curriculum is a total programme of planned experiences conducted

 Curriculum refers to all activities happening under school guidance,

There are three types of curricula and these are:

 Academic/formal curriculum: This includes learning content and

 Extra curriculum: These include sporting activities, clubs and societies in

 Hidden curriculum: These include respect for elders, punctuality for

(METHODS OF EDUCATING/IMPARTNING KNOWLEDGE OR

The methods include:

 Rote learning: Students learn by memorising concepts or ideas without

 Mechanical Training: This is a method of learning whereby students

 Propaganda: This is a deliberate approach of presenting half-

 Indoctrination: It a method of teaching people to believe or accept

 Brain-wash: This is a systematically approach of imparting ideas in

 Formal education: This is a form of education which is gained in

Characteristics of formal education

a. It is structured (has scope and sequence) and taught based on

b. It is facilitated by trained teachers

c. At the end of the course of study, students/learners receive

 Informal education: This is the kind of education which is gained at any

Characteristics of informal education

a. There is no structure (no scope and sequence) and organisation of

b. There are no tests and no certification for learners.

 Non-formal education: This is a kind of education which is gained

THE SYLLABUS, SCHEMES AND RECORDS OF WORK

 This is a curriculum document which shows a list of topics or concepts to

 It is a list of subjects, topics, tests etc, included in a course of study.