PDE 703 {GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND METHODS IN

EDUCATION}

ACTIVITY 1
1. Define communication

Communication can be defined as the process of sending and receiving information or

messages between individuals or groups through various mediums such as verbal, non-
verbal languages, written, or visual media.

1b. Why is communication regarded as a process in the teaching-learning situation?

Communication is regarded as a process in the teaching-learning situation because:

i. It involves the transmission of information, feedback, interaction and comprehension,

adaption and modification, and active engagement between the teacher and the learner
ii. It acknowledges the dynamic nature and the ongoing exchange of knowledge and ideas
between two parties.

2. What is the importance of communication in teaching?

Here are some key reasons why communication is important in teaching:
i. Transmitting information
ii. Enhancing understanding
iii. Engaging and motivating students
iv. Addressing individual needs
v. Building relationships and rapport
vi. Providing feedback assessment
vii. Collaborating with colleagues and parents
viii. Supports the overall development and success of students

3. Discuss any four barriers to effective communication in the teaching-learning situation

Here are 4 common barriers to effective communication:

i. Language Barriers: Language differences can pose a significant barrier to effective
communication. In multicultural classrooms or when teaching students whose first language is
different from the medium of instruction, language barriers can hinder understanding and limit
participation. Students may struggle to comprehend complex concepts, express themselves
clearly, or ask questions due to limited proficiency in the language of instruction.

ii. Physical Barriers: Physical barriers can hinder communication in the classroom. Large classroom
sizes, poor seating arrangements, noisy environments, or inadequate audiovisual equipment can
make it difficult for students to hear the teacher clearly or see visual aids. These physical barriers
 can lead to miscommunication, reduced engagement, and difficulties in following instructions or
learning from demonstrations.

iii. Psychological Barriers: Psychological barriers can arise from individual attitudes, emotions, or
perceptions that interfere with effective communication. For example, student anxiety, low self-
esteem, or fear of speaking up can inhibit their willingness to actively participate in class
discussions or ask questions. Similarly, teacher bias, lack of empathy, or negative attitudes
toward certain students can create a psychologically unsafe environment, discouraging open
communication.

iv. Technological Barriers: The increasing integration of technology in education can introduce its
own set of barriers to communication. Technical glitches, unreliable internet connections, or
inadequate familiarity with educational technology tools can disrupt the flow of communication
and hamper effective teaching and learning. Additionally, a lack of digital literacy among
teachers or students can limit their ability to effectively navigate and utilize digital platforms for
communication and collaboration.

4. Mention any 3 causes of noise in classroom communication

Here are three common causes of noise in classroom communication:

i. Environmental Noise: Environmental noise refers to any external sounds or disturbances that can
interfere with communication in the classroom. This can include sounds from nearby classrooms,
construction or maintenance work in or around the school building, traffic noise, or even noise
from neighboring areas. Environmental noise can make it challenging for students to hear the
teacher's instructions or explanations clearly, leading to misunderstandings and reduced
comprehension.

ii. Student Noise: Student noise refers to noise generated by students within the classroom itself.
This can include conversations among students, whispering, laughter, or noise from students
engaging in unrelated activities. When students engage in side conversations or engage in
disruptive behavior, it not only distracts their peers but also disrupts the teacher's ability to
effectively deliver instruction. Student noise can create a chaotic environment that makes it
difficult for everyone to focus on the lesson.

iii. Technological Noise: With the increasing use of technology in classrooms, technological noise
has become a significant factor affecting communication. This includes noise generated by
electronic devices such as ringing mobile phones, beeping notifications, or audio/video
malfunctions. Technological noise can be distracting and interrupt the flow of communication,
diverting students' attention away from the lesson and hindering effective teaching and learning.

5. Explain any four means of improving classroom communication

Here are four means of enhancing classroom communication:
 i. Active Listening: Encouraging active listening is a vital component of effective classroom
communication. Teachers can promote active listening by providing clear instructions,
asking thought-provoking questions, and actively engaging students in discussions.
Active listening involves paying attention, seeking clarification when needed, and
responding appropriately. Teachers can also incorporate activities that require students
to summarize or paraphrase information, fostering a deeper understanding of the
content and encouraging active participation.

ii. Clear and Concise Language: Using clear and concise language is crucial for effective
classroom communication. Teachers should strive to present information in a manner
that is easily understandable by students. Complex concepts should be broken down
into simpler terms, and unnecessary jargon should be avoided. Additionally, teachers
can employ visual aids, such as charts, diagrams, or multimedia presentations, to
complement their verbal explanations and enhance understanding.

iii. Nonverbal Communication: Nonverbal communication plays a significant role in

classroom interactions. Teachers can improve communication by being aware of their
nonverbal cues, such as body language, facial expressions, and gestures. Maintaining eye
contact, using appropriate facial expressions, and employing gestures that enhance
understanding can help convey messages more effectively. Similarly, teachers should be
observant of students' nonverbal cues to gauge their engagement, comprehension, and
emotional state.

iv. Feedback and Assessment: Regular feedback and assessment mechanisms are essential
for improving classroom communication. Teachers can provide timely and constructive
feedback to students, both individually and collectively, to acknowledge their efforts,
address misconceptions, and guide their learning progress. Assessments can take various
forms, such as quizzes, projects, or group discussions, allowing students to demonstrate
their understanding and receive feedback on their performance. This feedback loop
fosters two-way communication and helps identify areas where additional support or
clarification may be needed.

Activity 2
1a. Define the term “evaluation”

Evaluation can be defined as a systematic process of assessing something based on

predetermined criteria to determine its quality, effectiveness, or value. It involves collecting
and analyzing data to make judgments and provide feedback. The process includes setting
objectives, gathering data, analyzing it, making judgments, providing feedback, and using the
results to inform decision-making and improvement.

1b. Identify the main aspects of learning outcomes which we evaluate in school

In schools, the main aspects of learning outcomes that are typically evaluated include:

i. Knowledge Acquisition: Evaluating the extent to which students have acquired and retained
knowledge in specific subject areas. This includes assessing their understanding of facts,
concepts, theories, and principles relevant to the curriculum.
ii. Comprehension and Application: Assessing students' ability to comprehend and apply the
knowledge they have acquired. This involves evaluating their capacity to analyze, interpret, and
apply information to solve problems, make connections, and demonstrate critical thinking skills.
iii. Skills Development: Evaluating the development of various skills, such as communication,
research, problem-solving, teamwork, and creativity. These skills are crucial for student’s
academic success and their future personal and professional endeavors.
iv. Attitude and Values: Assessing students' attitudes, values, and ethical conduct. This includes
evaluating their behavior, moral reasoning, social responsibility, respect for diversity, and
adherence to ethical standards.
v. Personal and Social Development: Evaluating students' personal and social development,
including their emotional intelligence, self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, and ability to
collaborate effectively with others.
vi. Overall Progress and Growth: Assessing students' overall progress and growth over time. This
includes evaluating their ability to set goals, reflect on their learning, identify areas for
improvement, and engage in self-directed

2. Identify any four ways in which evaluation of learning outcomes is important

Here are four ways in which evaluation plays a significant role:

i. Feedback for Improvement: Evaluation provides valuable feedback to students, teachers, and
educational institutions. It helps identify strengths and weaknesses in learning and teaching
processes, allowing for targeted interventions and improvements. By understanding areas where
students are struggling or excelling, educators can tailor their instruction to meet individual
needs, adjust curriculum design, and implement effective teaching strategies.
 ii. Quality Assurance: Evaluation of learning outcomes serves as a quality assurance mechanism in
education. It ensures that educational standards are met and maintained, promoting
accountability and transparency. By assessing student performance against predetermined
criteria or standards, evaluation helps validate the effectiveness and credibility of educational
programs and institutions.

iii. Decision-Making and Resource Allocation: Evaluation outcomes play a crucial role in informed
decision-making and resource allocation. They provide evidence-based insights into the
effectiveness and impact of various educational interventions, programs, or policies. This
information enables policymakers, administrators, and stakeholders to make informed decisions
regarding curriculum development, instructional methods, allocation of resources, and strategic
planning.

iv. Student Accountability and Motivation: Evaluation holds students accountable for their learning
and motivates them to strive for improvement. By receiving feedback on their performance,
students become aware of their strengths and areas for development. This feedback helps them
set goals, track their progress, and take ownership of their learning. Evaluations also contribute
to a sense of achievement and provide incentives for students to actively engage in their
educational journey.

3. What educational implication does evaluation have as a basis for the classification of pupils

The evaluation of students' learning outcomes has educational implications for the classification
of pupils. It enables differentiated instruction, where students with similar learning needs are
grouped, allowing tailored instruction. Evaluation results also aid in providing individualized
support for struggling students and identifying high-achieving students who may benefit from
enrichment opportunities. Evaluation outcomes inform curriculum planning and development,
ensuring the curriculum meets students' needs. However, classification should be done carefully,
avoiding labels and promoting inclusivity and growth for all students.

4. What are the methods used in evaluating cognitive learning outcomes?

Here are some common methods:

i. Written Assessments: Written assessments, such as tests, quizzes, or exams, are widely used to
evaluate cognitive learning outcomes. These assessments can include multiple-choice questions,
short-answer questions, essay questions, or problem-solving tasks. Written assessments
measure students' knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of
the subject matter.

ii. Projects and Presentations: Assigning projects or presentations allows students to demonstrate
their understanding and application of knowledge practically and creatively. Projects can involve
research, experimentation, analysis, or problem-solving, depending on the subject area.
 Presentations provide an opportunity for students to showcase their knowledge and
communicate their ideas effectively.

iii. Problem-Solving Tasks: Problem-solving tasks assess students' ability to apply their knowledge
and skills to real-life or hypothetical situations. These tasks require students to analyze a
problem, develop a solution, and justify their reasoning. Problem-solving tasks can be presented
in written format or a hands-on or practical context, depending on the subject area.

iv. Case Studies: Case studies present students with real-life scenarios or situations that require
analysis, critical thinking, and decision-making. Students are expected to apply their knowledge,
evaluate information, consider alternatives, and make recommendations based on the given
case. Case studies provide a holistic view of student’s cognitive abilities and their application of
knowledge to complex situations.

v. Observations and Portfolios: Observations and portfolios provide a more comprehensive

assessment of cognitive learning outcomes. Observations involve observing students'
performance during class activities, discussions, or group work, allowing educators to assess
their understanding, problem-solving skills, and critical thinking in real time. Portfolios, on the
other hand, showcase students' work and progress over time, including samples of completed
assignments, projects, reflections, and self-assessments.

vi. Online Assessments: With the integration of technology into education, online assessments have
gained popularity. These assessments can include interactive quizzes, online simulations, or
virtual lab experiments. Online assessments provide immediate feedback to students, allow for
adaptive testing, and provide data for analysis and tracking of learning outcomes.

5. Mention any 4 qualities of a good test

Four qualities of a good test include:

i. Reliability: A reliable test consistently produces similar results when administered multiple times
to the same group of individuals or under similar conditions. It ensures that the measurement is
stable and not influenced by random factors or irrelevant variables.
ii. Validity: Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. A
valid test accurately assesses the specific knowledge, skills, or abilities it aims to evaluate. It
ensures that the test results are meaningful and relevant to the construct being measured.
iii. Objectivity: Objectivity in a test implies that the scoring and interpretation of test responses are
fair and unbiased. A test with high objectivity has clear and well-defined scoring criteria that
minimize subjectivity and ensure consistent evaluation across different scorers or testing
instances.
iv. Authenticity: An authentic test reflects real-life or practical contexts and assesses relevant
knowledge, skills, or abilities. It aligns with the expectations and demands of the subject area or
domain being assessed. Authentic tasks and scenarios help ensure that the test measures what
students are expected to know and be able to do in real-world situations.

6. Construct one restricted and one unrestricted question

Sure! Here's an example of a restricted question and an unrestricted question:

Restricted Question: "What is the capital city of France?"

This question has a specific answer and limits the possible responses to a single correct answer, which is
"Paris." It restricts the respondent's options and focuses on testing their factual knowledge of the capital
city of France.

Unrestricted Question: "How would you improve access to healthcare in your community?"

This question allows for a wide range of responses and does not have a single correct answer. It
encourages the respondent to think critically and creatively about potential solutions for improving
access to healthcare in their community. The answers can vary based on individual perspectives,
experiences, and knowledge, allowing for a more open-ended and unrestricted discussion.

7. Construct one multiple-choice question

Here's an example of a multiple-choice question:

"What is the largest planet in our solar system?"

a) Mars

b) Jupiter

c) Saturn

d) Earth

Correct answer: b) Jupiter

In this multiple-choice question, the respondent is provided with four options to choose from. The
question tests their knowledge of the largest planet in our solar system, and they need to select the
correct answer, which, in this case, is option b) Jupiter.

Activity 3
1. Define reward and punishment

Reward can be defined as a positive consequence or incentive given to encourage desired behavior or
outcomes.
Punishment can be defined as a negative consequence or penalty imposed to discourage undesirable
behavior or actions.

2. Mention the factors, which aid discipline in the classroom

The factors that aid discipline in the classroom are:

i. Clear and Consistent Rules: Establishing clear and consistent rules and expectations for behavior
helps create a structured learning environment. When students know what is expected of them
and the consequences of not following the rules, it promotes self-discipline and a sense of
responsibility.

ii. Positive Reinforcement: Recognizing and reinforcing positive behavior through praise,
encouragement, or rewards can motivate students to continue displaying appropriate conduct.
Positive reinforcement fosters a positive classroom atmosphere and encourages students to
make good choices.

iii. Effective Classroom Management: Teachers who implement effective classroom management
techniques can prevent disruptive behavior and address issues promptly when they arise. Well-
managed classrooms provide students with a sense of security and enable them to focus on
learning.

iv. Engaging and Relevant Lessons: When lessons are engaging and relevant to students’ interests
and abilities, they are more likely to be attentive and actively participate. Engaging lessons
reduces the likelihood of disruptive behavior resulting from boredom or disinterest.

v. Supportive Teacher-Student Relationships: Building positive and supportive relationships with

students fosters a sense of trust and respect. Students are more likely to follow rules and
instructions when they feel valued and understood by their teachers.

vi. Collaboration with Parents: Involving parents or guardians in the educational process and
communicating regularly about students' behavior and progress can positively influence
students' behavior. Parental support and reinforcement of classroom rules at home can
complement efforts made in the classroom.

vii. Conflict Resolution Strategies: Equipping students with conflict resolution skills helps them
manage disagreements or interpersonal issues constructively. When students feel empowered to
resolve conflicts peacefully, it contributes to a more harmonious classroom environment.

viii. Emotional Regulation Techniques: Teaching students strategies for managing emotions and
stress can help reduce disruptive behavior stemming from frustration or emotional distress.
Students learn to cope with challenges effectively and maintain self-control

3a. Why do teachers give rewards in school?

Here is a list of reasons why teachers give rewards in school:

 i. Reinforcing Positive Behavior
ii. Motivation and Engagement
iii. Recognizing Achievement
iv. Building a Positive Classroom Culture
v. Behavior Management
vi. Promoting Effort and Growth Mindset
vii. Enhancing Classroom Participation

b. Enumerate the principles underlying effective punishment

i. Proportionality: Punishment should match the seriousness of the offense.

ii. Consistency: Punishment should be applied equally to all students for similar misconduct.
iii. Immediate and Certain: Punishment should be prompt and students should understand the
consequences of their actions.
iv. Constructive: Punishment should help students learn from their mistakes and develop better
behaviors.
v. Teach Alternative Behaviors: Punishment should focus on teaching and reinforcing positive
behaviors.
vi. Respectful and Dignified: Punishment should be administered with respect for students' dignity
and self-esteem.
PDG 708 {RESEARCH METHODOLOGY EDUCATION}

1
1. Define the term research

Research can be defined as a systematic process of gathering and analyzing information to gain
knowledge and understand a specific topic or phenomenon.

2. What is educational research propose and report writing?

Educational research proposal writing is the process of planning a research study in education, while
research report writing involves presenting the findings of the study in a structured manner.

2
1. Define the term educational research

Educational research can be defined as the systematic investigation and study of educational theories,
practices, policies, and phenomena to generate knowledge and improve educational systems, teaching
methods, curriculum development, and student learning outcomes.

2. Why is educational research embedded in the PGDE program

Educational research is embedded in the Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) program for several
reasons:

i. Evidence-Based Practice: Educational research provides a foundation of evidence-based practice

in teaching and learning. By engaging in research, future teachers can explore and understand
the latest research findings, theories, and methodologies that inform effective teaching
strategies. This helps them make informed decisions and employ research-based approaches in
their classrooms.

ii. Reflective Practice: Educational research encourages teachers to critically reflect on their
teaching practices and assess their effectiveness. Through research, teachers can identify areas
for improvement, investigate the impact of different instructional methods, and refine their
teaching approaches based on evidence and data.
 iii. Curriculum Development: Educational research is crucial for developing and enhancing
curriculum materials and instructional resources. By conducting research, teachers can identify
the needs and interests of their students, evaluate existing curricula, and design or adapt
instructional materials that align with best practices and promote student engagement and
learning.

iv. Professional Development: Engaging in educational research as part of the PGDE program fosters
ongoing professional development for teachers. Research activities encourage teachers to stay
updated with the latest developments in education, explore emerging trends and innovations,
and continuously improve their teaching skills and knowledge.

v. Contribution to the Field: Educational research conducted within the PGDE program allows
teachers to contribute to the broader educational community. By conducting research, teachers
can generate new knowledge, insights, and practices that can be shared with other educators,
researchers, and policymakers, thus contributing to the advancement and improvement of the
field of education.

Overall, embedding educational research in the PGDE program helps future teachers develop a strong
foundation in evidence-based practice, critical thinking, and continuous professional development,
enabling them to become effective and informed educators who can positively impact student learning
outcomes.

3. Differentiate between research propose and report writing

Research Propose is a document outlining the planned research project, including objectives,
methodology, and expected outcomes, seeking approval and funding. While;

Research Report is a comprehensive document presenting the findings, analysis, and conclusions of a
completed research study, including background, methodology, results, discussion, and
recommendations.