coatings
Article
Numerical Simulation and Multi-Objective Parameter
Optimization of Inconel718 Coating Laser Cladding
Sirui Yang 1 , Haiqing Bai 1,2, *, Chaofan Li 1 , Linsen Shu 1,2 , Xinhe Zhang 1 and Zongqiang Jia 1
Citation: Yang, S.; Bai, H.; Li, C.; Shu,
L.; Zhang, X.; Jia, Z. Numerical
Simulation and Multi-Objective
Parameter Optimization of
Inconel718 Coating Laser Cladding.
Coatings 2022, 12, 708. https://
doi.org/10.3390/coatings12050708
Academic Editor: Michał Kulka
Received: 20 April 2022
Accepted: 19 May 2022
Published: 23 May 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
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iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Coatings 2022, 12, 708. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings12050708
1 School of Mechanical Engineering, Shaanxi University of technology, Hanzhong 723000, China;
ysr981124@163.com (S.Y.); lcf186394@126.com (C.L.); shulinsen19@163.com (L.S.); zxh030899@163.com (X.Z.);
jzq5206@163.com (Z.J.)
2 Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Industrial Automation, Hanzhong 723000, China
* Correspondence: bretmail@snut.edu.cn
Abstract: Aiming at the difficulty of temperature control in the laser cladding process of high-
temperature nickel-based alloys, the influence of cladding parameters on the temperature of the
molten pool, and the quality of the cladding layer were explored. Firstly, through the analysis of the
finite element method, the Inconel718 single-pass cladding model was established on the surface of 45
steel by using parametric language and life–death element technology, the influence of different laser
power and scanning speed on the temperature of the molten pool center was explored, and reasonable
process parameters scope were selected. Secondly, taking the cladding parameters as independent
variables, and taking the dilution rate and forming coefficient of the cladding layer as the response
variables, using BBD (Box–Behnken Design) to design experiments the response surface analysis
method was used to establish the regression prediction model of the cladding process parameters and
response indicators, and the genetic algorithm was used to carry out multi-objective optimization to
obtain the best results. The optimal parameter combination is a laser power of 1756 W, a scanning
speed of 19.43 mm/s, and a powder feeding rate of 19.878 g/min. Finally, a multi-pass lap joint
experiment was carried out with the optimal parameters, and it was found that the cladding layer
has a dense and fine structure and a good metallurgical bond with the matrix, which can effectively
guide the actual production.
Keywords: laser cladding; numerical simulation; temperature field; response surface method;
multi-objective optimization
1. Introduction
Laser cladding is a dynamic instantaneous melting and solidification process, and
the physical and chemical phenomena in the forming process are quite complex [1]. The
temperature of the laser cladding process has a certain influence on the quality of the
final cladding layer. However, the experimental conditions at this stage are not enough to
monitor the temperature change of the molten pool in real-time. The finite element method
is used to establish a numerical model that fits the reality. Simulation can be carried out to
obtain the change of temperature field inside the molten pool, which provides a reliable
means for process selection and optimization [2,3].
In the laser cladding process, there is an inevitable relationship between the tempera-
ture and the quality of the cladding layer, and there is a complex nonlinear relationship
between the cladding parameters and the temperature of the molten pool [4]. It is of great
significance to improve the quality of the cladding layer and provide theoretical guidance
for the selection of laser cladding parameters [5,6]. Scholars have studied the temperature
during the cladding process. By establishing a simulation model of laser cladding tem-
perature and stress, it is found that the higher temperature changes are concentrated near
the cladding layer, resulting in small-scale structural deformation in the area where the
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cladding layer and the substrate are combined, and cracks are prone to occur. The effects of
different cladding parameters on the temperature field were studied based on phenomena
such as flow velocity, distribution, and fluid shape characteristics, and the validity of the
established model was proved through experiments [7–10]. However, in order to choose
appropriate process parameters, most scholars first use empirical methods to conduct a
large number of experiments to determine the approximate range of process parameters
and then use different mathematical methods to optimize [11–13]. These experimental
materials would be wasted.
However, the research on the cladding layer of a high-temperature nickel-based alloy
is mainly focused on the influence of temperature change on the cladding layer performance
and structure, and there are few studies on how to control the temperature of the cladding
process and select reasonable process parameters. This paper simulates the laser cladding
process based on the finite element method and life–death element technology. First of all,
the basic theoretical analysis and calculation of the temperature field establishes a single-
channel laser cladding Inconel718 simulation model, sets reasonable model parameters,
boundary conditions, constraints, etc., and obtains the temperature field distribution
of the molten pool during the cladding process. It uses a reasonable range of process
parameters, compares the experimental results with the simulation results, and verifies
the feasibility of the model from the macroscopic size of the molten pool. Taking the
cladding process parameters as independent variables and the cladding layer dilution
rate and forming coefficients as the response variables, using the BBD (Box–Behnken
Design) to design experiments, the response surface analysis method was used to establish
a regression model of the response variables and indicators, and the genetic algorithm
was used for multi-objective optimization to select the optimal one. The combination of
parameters and multi-channel lap joint experiments showed that the metallurgical bonding
was good and the surface had no obvious defects, which provided theoretical guidance for
subsequent research.

2. Numerical Simulation
2.1. Theoretical Calculation
The laser cladding process is a dynamic physical metallurgical process with heat
transfer, mass transfer, and instantaneous change. It is difficult for the current numerical
simulation technology to fully consider all factors. Therefore, it is necessary to make
reasonable simplifications and assumptions for the experimental process and consider the
cladding process. The most influential factor in the process, reducing the complexity of the
model, while increasing the time cost of simulation calculations. The relevant assumptions
and simplifications are as follows:
(1) Assuming that the cladding material is isotropic, the temperature is higher than the
melting point, it is still processed in a solid state.
(2) The material’s specific heat, thermal conductivity, and other thermophysical pa-
rameters change with temperature, but the physical properties do not change with
temperature [14].
(3) The high-energy laser beam is assumed to be a moving heat source with a Gaussian
distribution [15].
(4) Assume that the initial temperature of the laser cladding environment is 20 degrees.
The temperature field of laser additive manufacturing is a typical nonlinear transient
heat conduction problem, so the following heat conduction equation is used in this order
value simulation:
∂( Tλ( T )) ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T
ρC ( T ) = (λ ) + (λ ) + (λ ) + α (1)
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
Coatings 2022, 12, 708 3 of 14

where C is the specific heat capacity of the material, ρ is the material density, λ is the
thermal conductivity, T is the temperature field distribution function, α is the internal heat
source, t is the heat transfer time, and C, λ changes with time [16].
The Gaussian heat source model in which the heat flux density obeys the normal
distribution satisfies the density expression equation:

3ηP 3r2
Q= exp (− ) (2)
πR2 R2
where Q is the heat flux density at the distance r from the center of the heat source, η is the
absorption rate of the laser energy by the workpiece, R is the laser spot radius, P is the laser
power, and r is the outer diameter of the Gaussian heat source distribution [17].
Before the laser beam and the powder reach the substrate, the energy exchange
between the laser and the powder satisfies the following formula:

dTP A df
CP = eA p ( T∞ − Tp ) + A p ε p σ(θ R4 − TP4 ) + η I P − m p L f (3)
dt 4 dt
where CP is the specific heat capacity of the powder, h is the heat exchange coefficient, Ap is
the surface area of the particles, T∞ is the temperature of the powder carrier gas, Tp is the
powder temperature, εp is the radiation coefficient, σ is the Boltzmann constant, θ R is the
radiation temperature, η is the energy absorption efficiency of the powder particles, I is the
laser energy density, mp is powder quality, Lf is the distance traveled by powder, and f is
coefficient of state of powder particles [18].
When setting the boundary condition of the laser cladding process, the initial tem-
perature distribution and boundary conditions need to be given according to the specific
environment of the experiment to facilitate the calculation and solution of the temperature
field. There are three heat transfer forms in the laser additive remanufacturing process:
heat conduction, convection, and radiation, so the boundary conditions are:

∂( T ) ∂( T ) ∂( T )  TS ( x, y, z, t)
Kx (T ) n x + Ky ( T ) ny + Kz ( T ) nz = q ( x, y, z, t) (4)
∂( x ) ∂(y) ∂(z)  s
h( Tα − TS )

where TS is the boundary temperature, qs is the heat source and surface heat flux density,
Tα is the ambient temperature of 20 degrees, h is the convection coefficient, nx , ny , nz are
the normals outside the boundary to obtain the direction cosine [19].

2.1.1. Materials and Properties

The base plate of this numerical simulation is 45 steel, and the cladding material is
Inconel718 alloy. The basic physical parameters are shown in Table 1. The thermophysical
properties of both vary with temperature, and their thermophysical parameters can be
known by consulting the literature [20].

Table 1. Basic physical parameters.

Density Phase Transition

Material Melting Point (◦ C)
(kg·m−3 ) Temperature Zone (◦ C)
45 steel 7850 1495 1490~1530
Inconel718 8240 1260 1260~1320

2.1.2. Heat Source Loading and Model Setting

Based on the previous experimental results, to determine the size of the single-pass
cladding layer, the base plate in the model is set to be 150 × 50 × 10 mm3 , and the single
cladding layer is 5 × 5 × 2 mm3 . When the laser spot moves on the substrate in a certain
direction at a constant speed, the powder is continuously fed to the substrate with the
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and then drop rapidly, forming a cladding layer. The three-dimensional model estab-
movement
lished by theoffinite
the laser, and software
element the temperatures
(ANSYS)ofisthe powder
shown and the
in Figure 1. substrate rise rapidly
and then drop rapidly, forming a cladding layer. The three-dimensional model estab-
and then drop rapidly, forming a cladding layer. The three-dimensional model established
lished by the finite element software (ANSYS) is shown in Figure 1.
by the finite element software (ANSYS) is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The 3D model.

Figure 1. The 3D model.
Figure 1. The 3D model.
The movement of the laser beam during the cladding process is simulated by means
The movement of the laser beam during the cladding process is simulated by means
of cyclic load distribution. The cladding layer formation process is simulated by the “life
The movement
of cyclic of the laser
load distribution. Thebeamcladding during theformation
layer cladding process
process is is simulated by the means
“life
and death cell” technique, that is, the laser beam moves to a certain unit block during the
ofand death
cyclic load cell” technique,The
distribution. thatcladding
is, the laserlayer beam movesprocess
formation to a certain unit block
is simulated byduring the
the “life
cladding process, and the unit block is activated, while the area where the laser beam does
cladding
and death process, and the that
cell” technique, unit is,
block
the is activated,
laser beam moveswhile the
to aarea where
certain unitthe laserduring
block beam does
the
not pass, the unit block in this area is not activated [21], do not participate in the previous
not pass,process,
cladding the unitand block
thein thisblock
unit area isis activated,
not activated while[21],
thedo notwhere
area participate in the
the laser beam previous
does
metallurgical bonding process of cladding materials, so as to realize the simulation of co-
metallurgical
not pass, the unit bonding
block inprocess
this area ofiscladding
not activated materials,
[21], dosonot
as to realize the
participate simulation
in the previousof
axial powder
coaxial powder feeding
feeding laser cladding
laser cladding process.
process.
metallurgical bonding process of cladding materials, so as to realize the simulation of co-
axial powder feeding laser cladding process.
2.2.
2.2. Analysis
AnalysisofofLaser
LaserCladding
Cladding Temperature
Temperature Field Field
Numerical
Numerical
2.2. Analysis of Lasersimulation
Claddingof
simulation of the
the temperature
temperature
Temperature Field field
field distribution
distribution in in the
the cladding
cladding processprocess
shows
shows that
that the
the laser
laser radiation
radiation center
center has
has the
the highest
highest temperature,
temperature, and
and the
the temperature
temperature
Numerical simulation of the temperature field distribution in the cladding process
gradually diffuses from the
the center to the
the outside. The gradient
gradientisisdenser than the
therear,
rear, as
shows that diffuses
gradually the laserfrom radiation center
centertohas outside.
the highestThetemperature, denser
and the thantemperature as
expected for heat transfer.
expected diffuses transfer. Through the previous experimental research, it is found that
gradually from theThrough
center tothe theprevious
outside. experimental
The gradient research,
is denseritthan is found that as
the rear, the
the laser
laser power
power andand scanning
scanning speed
speed have havethe the greatest
greatest influence
influence on the
on the quality
quality of theof the clad-
cladding
expected for heat transfer. Through the previous experimental research, it is found that
ding
layerlayer
among among the cladding
the cladding parameters
parameters [22], so[22],
thissosimulation
this simulation only considers
only considers the in-
the influence
the laser power and scanning speed have the greatest influence on the quality of the clad-
fluence
of theseoftwothese two parameters
parameters on the molten
on the molten pool temperature.
pool temperature.
ding layer among the cladding parameters [22], so this simulation only considers the in-
fluence of these two Field
2.2.1. Temperature
Temperature parameters on the molten pool temperature.
of Single-Pass
Single-Pass
2.2.1. Field of Cladding under Different Laser Power
Figure 2 shows
Figure 2 shows the cloud
the ofcloud diagram of
diagramCladding ofthe
thetemperature
temperature field of of
field Inconel718
Inconel718 alloy cladding
2.2.1. Temperature Field Single-Pass under Different Laser Power alloy clad-
in a single
ding passpass
in a single withwith
different laserlaser
different powers.powers. As Asthethe
laser power
laser power changes
changes from from 1200
1200WW to
2400Figure
W,W,the2theshows the cloud
maximum diagram
temperature of ofthethe temperature
molten pool field offrom
changes Inconel718
1978 ◦ Calloy clad-
to 3698 ◦ C.
to 2400 maximum temperature of the molten pool changes from 1978 °C to 3698
ding
With inthe
a single passof
increase with
laserdifferent
power, laser
the powers. As the laser power changespool fromgradually
1200 W
°C. With the increase of laser power, thetemperature
temperaturerange rangeof of the
the molten
molten pool gradually
toincreases,
2400 W, the maximum
and thethe actual temperature
actual molten
molten poolpool areaof the
area also molten pool
also increases.
increases. changes from 1978 °C to 3698
increases, and
°C. With the increase of laser power, the temperature range of the molten pool gradually
increases, and the actual molten pool area also increases.

(a) P = 1200 W (b) P = 2400 W

(a)Figure
P = 1200
Figure 2. W map
2. Cloud
Cloud mapof
oftemperature
temperature field (b) P
field distribution
distribution = 2400
under
under W laser power.
different
different

Figure 2. Cloud map of temperature field distribution under different laser power.
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Therefore,
Therefore, the the laser
laser power
power range
range is is selected
selected as as 1200
1200 W–2400
W–2400 W W When
When thethe laser
laser power
power
is
is PP ==Therefore,
1200
1200 W W (Figure
(Figure 2a),
2a), the
the temperature
temperature exceeds
exceeds the
the laser power range is selected as 1200 W–2400 W Whenthe melting
melting point
point of
of the
the cladding
cladding
laser power ma-
ma-
is
terial
terial
P = 1200 powder,
powder,
W (Figure and a
and 2a), good
a good cladding
the cladding
temperature layer
layer begins
beginsthe
exceeds to form.
to melting When
form. When the
pointthe power
power
of the is lower
is lower
cladding than
than
material
this,
this, itit is
powder, is difficult
difficult
and a good for
for the
the cladding
cladding
cladding layerpowder
beginsto
powder toform
to form.enough
form enough
When the with
with the
the substrate
power is lower metallurgical
substrate metallurgical
than this, it is
bonding.
bonding.
difficult for When
When the
the laser
the cladding power
power is
laserpowder toPPform
is == 2400
2400 WW (Figure
enough (Figure
with the2b), the
the temperature
2b),substrate
temperature in
in the
metallurgical molten
thebonding.
molten
pool
pool is
When too
isthe high,
toolaser
high,powercausing
causing is Pthe
the material
material
= 2400 to
to overburn,
W (Figure 2b), theand
overburn, and the
the clad
clad Inconel718
temperature Inconel718
in the moltenalloy
alloy may
may
pool is va-
va-
too
porize.
porize.
high, causing the material to overburn, and the clad Inconel718 alloy may vaporize.
The
The temperature
temperature cycle cycle curve
curve of of the
the molten
molten poolpool at at the
the same
same point
point under
under different
different
laser
laser power
poweris
power isisshown
shownin
shown ininFigure
Figure3.
Figure As
3.3.
AsAs the
thethelaser power
laser
laser power
power increases
increases
increases from
from 1200
from
1200 W
W to
1200 W2400
to W,
W, the
to 2400
2400 W,
the
peak
the peak
peak value
value of
of the
value ofthermal
the the thermal
thermal cycle curve
cyclecycle
curve gradually
curve increases,
gradually
gradually and
and each
increases,
increases, cycle
and each
each curve
cyclecycle
curvecurvehas
has aahas
sim-
sim-a
ilar
ilar heating–cooling
similar heating–cooling
heating–cooling process.
process.
process. The
The change
The change
change in laser
in in laser
laser power
power
power affects
affectsthe
affects theenergy
the energyabsorption
energy absorption of
absorption of
the
the substrate
substrate and and powder
powder materials.
materials. The Thehigher
The higherthe
higher thepower,
the power, the
power, the more
more energy
energy the material
the material
absorbs, resulting
absorbs, resulting in in aa gradual
gradual increase
increase in in temperature.
temperature.

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Variation
Variation of
of molten
molten pool
pool temperature
temperature under
under different
different laser
laser powers
powers at
at the
the same
same position.
position.

Comparison of
Comparison
Comparison ofexperimental
of experimentaland
experimental andsimulation
and simulationresults,
simulation results, the
results, the effect of
effect of laser
of laser power
laser power on
power on the
on the
the
size
size of
of the
the molten
molten pool
pool is
is shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 4.
size of the molten pool is shown in Figure 4.

Figure
Figure 4.
4. The
The variation
variation rule
rule of
of the
the laser
laser power
power on
on the
the size
size of
of the
the molten
molten pool.
pool.

When
When the laser
the laser power
powerisis
laserpower low,
islow, the
low,the
the laser
laser beam
beam
laser beam only
only
only melts
melts aa part
a part
melts of
of the
of the
part the powder
powder in
in the
powder the
inspot
the
to form
spot
spot to a cladding
to form
form track,track,
aa cladding
cladding making
track, the molten
making
making the pool pool
the molten
molten area area
pool smaller. WithWith
area smaller.
smaller. the increase
With the in laser
the increase
increase in
in
power,
laser the energy
laser power,
power, the of theof
the energy
energy ofirradiation
the area area
the irradiation
irradiation of theof
area ofsubstrate
the increases,
the substrate
substrate so that
increases,
increases, so the
thatdepth
so that the and
the depth
depth
width
and of the
and width
width ofmolten
of the
the moltenpool pool
molten increase rapidly,
pool increase
increase and atand
rapidly,
rapidly, the at
and same
at thetime,
the samemore
same time,powder
time, more materials
more powder
powder mate-are
mate-
melted
rials
rials are to form
are melted
melted to a cladding
to form layer,
form aa cladding the height
cladding layer,
layer, the of the
the heightcladding
height of of the layer
the cladding also
cladding layer gradually
layer also increases.
also gradually
gradually
Therefore,
increases. the higherthe
increases. Therefore,
Therefore, thehigher
the laser power,
higher the thepower,
the laser
laser larger the
power, themolten
larger pool
larger the
the area. pool
molten
molten pool area.
area.

2.2.2. Temperature
2.2.2.
2.2.2. Temperature Field
Temperature Field of
Field of Single-Pass
of Single-Pass Cladding
Single-Pass Cladding
Cladding atat Different
Different Scanning
at Different Scanning Speeds
Scanning Speeds
Speeds
The
The laser
The laser power
laser power
power isis 1800
is 1800
1800 W,W, and
W, and the
and the temperature
the temperature field
temperature field cloud
field cloud diagram
cloud diagram
diagram of of laser
of laser cladding
laser cladding
cladding
Inconel
Inconel 718 alloy under different scanning speeds is shown in Figure 5. With the increase
Inconel 718
718 alloy
alloy under
under different
different scanning
scanning speeds
speeds isis shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 5.
5. With
With the the increase
increase
in
in scanning speed, the maximum temperature of the molten pool decreased from 2960 K to
in scanning
scanning speed,
speed, the
the maximum
maximum temperature
temperature of of the
the molten
molten pool
pool decreased
decreased from from 2960
2960 K
K
2327
to K. The temperature field has a similar change under different scanning speeds. The
to 2327
2327 K.K. The
The temperature
temperature fieldfield has
has aa similar
similar change
change under
under different
different scanning
scanning speeds.
speeds.
temperature distribution area in the center of the molten pool does not change significantly.
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Thetemperature
The temperaturedistribution
distributionarea
areaininthe
thecenter
centerofofthe
themolten
moltenpool
pooldoes
doesnot
notchange
changesignif-
signif-
icantly.Compared
Compared
icantly. Compared with
with thewith the
laserthe laserthe
power,
laser power,
change
power, thein
the change inthe
thescanning
the scanning
change in scanning speed
speed hasspeed hasno
nosignifi-
signifi-
no significant
has effect
on
cantthe
cant maximum
effect
effect onthe
on temperature
themaximum of the molten
maximumtemperature
temperature pool.
ofthe
of themolten
moltenpool.
pool.

(a)vv==15
(a) 15mm/s
mm/s (b)vv==19
(b) 19mm/s
mm/s

(c)vv==23
(c) 23mm/s
mm/s
Figure5.
Figure
Figure 5.Cloud
5. Cloudmap
Cloud mapof
map oftemperature
of temperaturefield
temperature fielddistribution
field distributionunder
distribution underdifferent
under differentscanning
different scanningspeeds.
scanning speeds.
speeds.

Throughnumerical
Through
Through numericalsimulation,
simulation,
simulation,itititisisisfound
found
found that
that
that the
the thescanning
scanning
scanning speed
speed
speed inthe
in the range
in the
range of15–
range
of 15–
of
23 mm/s
23 mm/s
15–23 mm/s cancan
can form
form aa better
form better
a bettermolten
molten
molten pool
pool pool morphology.
morphology.Figure
morphology. Figure
Figure666shows
shows
showsthethe thermal cycle
thermal cycle
cycle
curves of
curves
curves of the
of the center
center of
of the
the molten
molten pool
pool at atdifferent
differentscanning
scanningspeeds.
speeds. The
The thermal
The thermal cycle
thermal cycle
cycle
curves
curves have
have a
a similar
similar change
change process,
process,
curves have a similar change process, but the but
but the
the peak
peak time
time is
is different.
different. This
This is
is because
because
This is because the the
the
higher
higher the
the scanning
scanning speed,
speed, the
the shorter
shorter the
the time
time to
to form
form the
the cladding
cladding
higher the scanning speed, the shorter the time to form the cladding layer of the same layer
layer of
of the
the same
same
length.The
length.
length. Thescan
The scanspeed
scan speedjust
speed justchanges
just changesthe
changes theenergy
the energyabsorbed
energy absorbedby
absorbed bythe
by thesubstrate
the substrateand
substrate andpowder
and powderper
powder per
per
unittime.
unit
unit time.
time.

Figure 6.
Figure6.
Figure Variation
6.Variation of
Variationof molten
ofmolten pool
moltenpool temperature
pooltemperature under
underdifferent
temperatureunder differentscanning
different scanningspeeds.
scanning speeds.
speeds.

Comparison
Comparisonof
Comparison of experimental
ofexperimental
experimentalandand simulation
andsimulation results,
simulationresults, the
results,the effect
theeffect of
effectof scanning
ofscanning speed
scanningspeed on
speedon
on
the size
thesize
the of
sizeof the
ofthe molten
themolten pool
moltenpool is shown
poolisisshown in
shownin Figure
inFigure 7.
Figure7.7.
Coatings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 15
Coatings 2022, 12,
Coatings 2022, 12,708
x FOR PEER REVIEW 77 of
of 14
15

Figure 7. Variation rule of scanning speed on molten pool size.

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Variation
Variation rule
rule of
of scanning
scanning speed
speed on
onmolten
moltenpool
poolsize.
size.
The scanning speed affects the time that the laser heat source acts on the substrate.
The scanning speed affects the time that the laser heat source acts on the substrate. substrate.
The lower the scanning speed, the more energy absorbed per unit area of the substrate
The
The lower the scanning speed, the more energy absorbed perper
unitunit
areaarea
of the
of substrate and
and thelower
largerthe
thescanning
molten poolspeed,
area.the
Asmore energy
the scanning absorbed
speed increases, the energy the substrate
absorbed
the
and larger
the the molten
larger the poolpool
molten area.area.
As the
As scanning
the speed
scanning increases,
speed the the
increases, energy absorbed
energy absorbed by
by the substrate and the powder per unit area decreases, and most of the energy is lost,
the
by substrate
the and and
substrate the powder
the per unit
powder per area
unit decreases,
area and most
decreases, and of the of
most energy
the is lost, is
energy which
lost,
which reduces the area of the molten pool. Therefore, the higher the scanning speed, the
reduces
whichthe the areathe
reduces of area
the molten pool. Therefore,
of the molten the higher
pool. Therefore, thethe scanning
higher speed, the
the scanning smaller
speed, the
smaller molten pool area.
the molten pool area.
smaller the molten pool area.
2.2.3. Numerical Simulation
2.2.3. of Molten Pool Size and Experimental Verification
2.2.3. Numerical
Numerical Simulation
Simulation ofof Molten
Molten PoolPool Size
Size and
and Experimental
Experimental Verification
Verification
In In
order to verify
order to whether
verify whetherthethe
temperature
temperature field distribution
field distributionof of
thethe
established model
In order
is consistent withto the
verify whether
actual the temperature
situation, the size of field
the distribution
molten pool of the established
obtainedestablished
byby
model
model
numerical
is
is consistent
consistent with
with the
the actual
actual situation,
situation, the
the size
size of
of the
the molten
molten pool
pool obtained
obtained by numerical
numerical
simulation
simulation is compared
is compared with thethe
with experiment
experiment under
under thethe
same
same parameters.
parameters. In In
thethe
central
central
simulation
area of the is compared
molten pool, the with the experiment
temperature versus under the same
displacement parameters.
distribution is In theincentral
plotted the in
area of the molten pool, the temperature versus displacement distribution is plotted
area
vertical of the molten
scanning pool,
path widththe temperature
and depth versus
direction, displacement
as shown distribution
in Figure is
8, and plotted
thethe in the
range
the vertical scanning path width and depth direction, as shown in Figure 8, and range
vertical
above scanning
thethe
melting path
point width and isdepth
temperature direction, beas shown in Figure 8,ofand the range
above melting point temperature considered
is considered to to the
be width
the widthand depth
and depth the molten
of the molten
above
pool [23].the melting point temperature is considered to be the width and depth of the molten
pool [23].
pool [23].

(a) Temperature measurement location and direction

(a) Temperature measurement location and direction

(b) Measurement of the width of the molten pool (c) Determination of the depth of the molten pool
(b) Measurement of the width of the molten pool (c) Determination of the depth of the molten pool
Figure 8. Schematic
Figure diagram
8. Schematic of temperature
diagram measurement.
of temperature measurement.
Figure 8. Schematic diagram of temperature measurement.
The size of the molten pool obtained by comparing experiments and simulations is
shown in Table 2. The errors of the molten pool results obtained by experiment and simu-
Coatings 2022, 12, 708 8 of 14

lation are relatively small. It can be approximated that the established three-dimensional
model, heat source function, and boundary condition settings are more reasonable.

Table 2. Comparison and error of molten pool size.

Program Simulation Results (mm) Experimental Result (mm) Error

Laser Power Scan Speed Width
Width Depth Width Depth Depth (%)
(W) (mm/s) (%)
1200 15 1.728 0.438 1.635 0.416 5.6 5.3
1800 19 1.867 0.502 1.847 0.488 1.1 2.8
1800 15 1.992 0.670 1.986 0.652 0.3 2.7
2400 15 2.223 0.881 2.175 0.879 2.2 0.2
1800 23 1.826 0.398 1.831 0.383 0.3 3.9

3. Laser Single-Pass Cladding Experiment

3.1. Experimental Equipment
The laser cladding experiment uses a 3 kW flexible fiber laser cladding system. The
system consists of a YLS3000 semiconductor laser, ABB six-degree-of-freedom robot, ZF
annular cladding head, CWFL water cooling device, and RH-DFOM double-tube powder
feeding device (Figure 9). It mainly includes a software system, laser, numerical control
system, powder conveying system, protective gas conveying device, and workbench. The
45 steel specimen with a substrate size of 150 × 50 × 10 mm3 was finely ground and
polished before cladding to improve the flatness and wiped with anhydrous ethylene to
remove the surface oil.
The sample observation equipment adopts an ultra-deep microscope (modelVHX-
7000) (Figure 10), the section of Inconel 718 laser cladding is cut along the vertical direction
of the cladding layer by wire cutting equipment, and then the section is ground and
polished with sandpaper. Finally, the sample was corroded with 4% nitric acid alcohol
for about 30 s, and the surface of the sample was wiped with alcohol and dried. The
cross-section of the cladding layer was observed using a super-depth-of-field microscope.
The cladding material is Inconel718 powder (Figure 11), and the powder is sealed and
dried to ensure that it is dry, the cladding layer is Inconel718 alloy powder, the powder
particle size is 40–106 µm, the bulk density is 4.1–4.6 g/cm3 , and the powder uniformity is
high. The chemical compositions of the substrate and powder are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Chemical composition of 45 steel and Fe45 powder (mass fraction, %).

C Si Mn Ni Cr Fe
45 steel 0.45 0.24 0.65 0.22 0.2 margin
Coatings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15
Inconel718 0.08 0.35 0.35 55 21 margin

Figure9.9. The
Figure The33kW
kWfiber
fiberlaser
lasercladding
claddingmachine.
machine.
Coatings 2022, 12, 708 9 of 14

Figure 9. The 3 kW fiber laser cladding machine.

Figure 9. The 3 kW fiber laser cladding machine.

Figure 10.
10. Super-depth-of-field microscope.
microscope.
Figure 10.Super-depth-of-field
Figure Super-depth-of-field microscope.

Figure 11. Microscopic image of Inconel718 alloy powder.

Figure11.
Figure 11.Microscopic
Microscopicimage
imageof
ofInconel718
Inconel718alloy
alloypowder.
powder.

According to the previous experimental research, the distance between the nozzle
According
Accordingtotothetheprevious
previousexperimental
experimentalresearch, the the
research, distance between
distance betweenthe nozzle and
the nozzle
and
the the surface
surface of theofworktable
the worktable
was was adjusted
adjusted to be to
25be
mm,25 mm,
the the radius
radius of oflaser
the the laser
spot spot
was
and the surface of the worktable was adjusted to be 25 mm, the radius of the laser spot
2was
mm,
was
2 the
mm,initial
2 mm,
the initial preheating
preheating
the initial
temperature
temperature
preheating was setwas
temperature
setdegrees,
to 20
was
to 20 degrees, and(Ar)
and argon
set to 20 degrees,
argon
and argon was(Ar)
usedwas
(Ar) as
was
used
the as the protective
protective gas duringgasthe
during the cladding
cladding process, process,
shielding shielding
gas flow gas
6~10flow 6~10 L/min.
L/min.
used as the protective gas during the cladding process, shielding gas flow 6~10 L/min.
3.2. Experimental
3.2. Experimental Design and and Results
3.2. Experimental Design
Design andResults
Results
Duringthe
During thelaser
lasercladding
cladding process,
process, thethe matrix
matrix andandthe the cladding
cladding powderpowder
absorbabsorb dif-
different
During the laser cladding process, the matrix and the cladding powder absorb dif-
ferent energy,
energy, resultingresulting
in in different
different degrees degrees
of of melting
melting effect effect
of the of the matrix
matrix and andpowder.
the the powder.The
ferent energy, resulting in different degrees of melting effect of the matrix and the powder.
The partially
partially meltedmelted matrix
matrix material
material willwill diffuse
diffuse intointothethe molten
molten powder,
powder, which
which will
will have
have a
The partially melted matrix material will diffuse into the molten powder, which will have
a certain
certain dilution
dilution effect
effect on on the
the melted
melted powder
powder melt.
melt. We
We usually
usually use
use the
the dilution
dilution rate
rate to
to
a certain dilution effect on the melted powder melt. We usually use the dilution rate to
represent the
represent the diffusionresult
result of thethe matrix material
material [24]. Within
Within a certain range,
range, the lower
lower
represent thediffusion
diffusion resultof of thematrix
matrix material[24]. [24]. Withinaacertain
certain range,the the lower
the dilution
the dilution rate,
rate, the
the better,
better,thethecalculation
calculationformula:
formula:
the dilution rate, the better, the calculation formula:
H
 = H H
 = hη +=H (5)
(5)
(5)
h+H h + H
where H is the depth of the molten pool, h is the cladding height.
whereHHisisthe
where thedepth
depthof of themolten
moltenpool,
pool,hhisisthethecladding
claddingheight.
height.
The overall qualitytheof the cladding layer is represented by the forming coefficient of
The overall
The overall quality
quality of the
of the cladding
cladding layer
layer is represented by the
the forming
forming coefficient of of
the cladding layer. Within a certain range, theis larger
represented by
the forming coefficientcoefficient
of the clad-
the
the cladding
cladding layer.
layer. Within
Within a certain range,
a certainquality
range, the the larger
larger the forming
the forming coefficient of the clad-
ding layer, the better the forming of the cladding layer. coefficient
The forming of the cladding
coefficient is
ding
layer, layer,
the of the
better better the
the forming forming quality of the cladding layer. The forming coefficient is
the ratio the width of thequality
cladding of layer
the cladding layer. of
to the depth Thetheforming
moltencoefficient is the ratio
pool. To express, the
the
of ratio of the width of the cladding layer to the depth of the molten
the width of the cladding layer to the depth of the molten pool. To express, the formula: pool. To express, the
formula:
formula:
W
ϕ= (6)
H
where W is the width of the cladding layer, H is the depth of the molten pool.
Based on the response surface method, with laser power (A), scanning speed (B), and
the powder feeding rate (C) as independent variables, and dilution rate as the response
variable, BBD (Box–Behnken Design) was used to design the experiment. Within the scope
of the process, use the response module of Design-Expert to design the experimental plan.
The level codes of each factor determined by the numerical simulation results are shown in
Table 4, and the specific experimental scheme and results are shown in Table 5.
Coatings 2022, 12, 708 10 of 14

Table 4. Cladding parameters and coding level table.

Parameter Factor Level −1 0 1

Laser power (W) 1200 1800 2400
Scanning speed (mm/s) 15 19 23
Powder feeding rate (g/min) 16 18 20

Table 5. Experimental scheme and results.

Laser Power Scanning Speed Powder Feeding

H (mm) H (mm) W (mm) η ϕ
(W) (mm/s) Rate (g/min)
1 1200 19 20 0.235 0.278 1.412 0.458 6.01
2 2400 15 18 0.763 0.458 2.087 0.625 2.73
3 1800 19 18 0.488 0.418 1.786 0.539 3.66
4 2400 23 18 0.623 0.475 1.925 0.567 3.09
5 1800 19 18 0.478 0.435 1.874 0.522 3.92
6 1800 23 20 0.335 0.325 1.554 0.507 4.64
7 2400 19 16 0.792 0.514 2.574 0.606 3.26
8 2400 19 20 0.554 0.448 1.882 0.553 3.40
9 1800 23 16 0.512 0.372 1.732 0.579 3.38
10 1200 23 18 0.356 0.330 1.381 0.519 3.88
11 1200 15 18 0.416 0.466 1.635 0.472 3.93
12 1800 15 20 0.445 0.354 1.758 0.557 3.95
13 1800 19 18 0.495 0.445 1.747 0.526 3.53
14 1800 19 18 0.503 0.441 1.755 0.531 3.49
15 1800 19 18 0.482 0.407 1.865 0.542 3.87
16 1800 15 16 0.665 0.432 2.134 0.606 3.21
17 1200 19 16 0.375 0.334 1.594 0.529 4.25

4. Results and Discussion

Based on the experimental results, the Design-Expert software was used to fit the
above results, and a regression model of dilution rate, forming coefficient, and cladding
parameters were established. The model was analyzed by variance analysis, as shown in
Tables 6 and 7, where the P and F values were used to determine the significance of the
analysis object, usually when the p-value is less than 0.05, the more significant the effect
of this factor on the response value. The mean square indicates the degree of influence
of the influence factor on the response value. The larger the mean square value of the
influence factor, the more significant the influence of the factor on the response result. Lack
of fit indicates the reliability of evaluating the fitted equation, and a value greater than 0.1
indicates that the model is significant and the fitted equation is good. R2 represents the
correlation of the model. The closer it is to 1, the better the correlation [25]. The correlation
coefficient R2 of the dilution rate model is 0.9708, and the correlation coefficient R2 of the
forming coefficient model is 0.9402. These values are all close to 1, so the model correlation
is good. Adep Precision is a measure of the signal-to-noise ratio. A value greater than 4 can
be used for simulation [26]. The signal-to-noise ratio for the dilution rate model is 19.723,
and the signal-to-noise ratio for the forming factor model is 16.095, both of which are much
larger than 4, so both models can be used for simulation.
It can be seen from Tables 5 and 6 that the laser power (A) and powder feeding rate
(C) have very significant effects on the dilution rate and forming coefficient (p < 0.0001), the
scanning speed (B), AB, and B2 have more significant effects on the dilution rate (p < 0.05),
AC, B2 , C2 had significant effects on the forming coefficient, and other factors had no
significant effect on the dilution rate and forming coefficient. By comparing the mean
square value, it is determined that the primary and secondary order affecting the dilution
rate is A > C > AB > B > B2 . The primary and secondary order that affects the forming
coefficient is A > C > C2 > AC > B2 . After removing the factors that are not significant to the
Coatings 2022, 12, 708 11 of 14

response value, the quadratic regression fitting equation of different cladding parameters
to the dilution rate and forming coefficient is finally obtained as follows:

η = 2.855 × 10−4 × A − 0.021 × B − 0.013 × C − 1.093 × 10−5 × AB

(7)
+9.609 × 10−4 × B2 + 0.67518

where η is dilution rate, A is laser power, B is scanning speed, and C is powder feeding rate.

ϕ= 5.014 × 10−3 × A + 0.902 × B − 4.425 × C − 3.375 × 10−4 × AC

(8)
−0.023 × B2 + 0.1457C2 + 29.10998

where ϕ is forming coefficient, A is laser power, B is scanning speed, and C is powder

feeding rate.
Table 6. Analysis of variance for dilution rate optimization model.

Sum of Degree of Mean

Source F p -
Square Freedom Square
Model 0.031 9 0.00346 25.85 0.0001 significant
A 0.017 1 0.017 130.12 <0.0001 -
B 0.000968 1 0.000968 7.24 0.031 -
C 0.0075 1 0.0075 56.14 0.0001 -
AB 0.00276 1 0.00276 20.62 0.0027 -
AC 0.000081 1 0.000081 0.61 0.4618 -
BC 0.000132 1 0.000132 0.99 0.353 -
A2 0.000157 1 0.000157 1.17 0.3148 -
B2 0.00163 1 0.00163 12.16 0.0102 -
C2 0.000455 1 0.000455 3.41 0.1074 -
Residual 0.000936 7 0.000134 - - -
not
Lack of Fit 0.000651 3 0.000217 3.05 0.155
significant
Pure Error 0.000285 4 0.0000712 - - -
Cor Total 0.032 16 - - - -

Table 7. Variance analysis of forming factor optimization model.

Sum of Degree of Mean

Source F p -
Square Freedom Square
Model 8.15 9 0.91 12.23 0.0016 significant
A 3.92 1 3.92 52.91 0.0002 -
B 0.17 1 0.17 2.31 0.1724 -
C 1.91 1 1.91 25.79 0.0014 -
AB 0.042 1 0.042 0.57 0.4759 -
AC 0.65 1 0.65 8.75 0.0212 -
BC 0.068 1 0.068 0.91 0.3713 -
A2 0.022 1 0.022 0.3 0.5992 -
B2 0.54 1 0.54 7.35 0.0302 -
C2 0.89 1 0.89 12.05 0.0104 -
Residual 0.52 7 0.074 - - -
not
Lack of Fit 0.37 3 0.12 3.22 0.1439
significant
Pure Error 0.15 4 0.038 - - -
Cor Total 8.67 16 - - - -

Figure 12 shows the normal distribution of residuals of the model. The 17 groups
of residuals are approximately linearly distributed on a straight line, indicating that the
distribution of standardized residuals meets the requirements of normal distribution. The
difference between the predicted and actual values of the equation is shown in Figure 13,
 −0.023  B2 + 0.1457C2 + 29.10998
where φ is forming coefficient, A is laser power, B is scanning speed, and C is powder
feeding rate.
Figure 12 shows the normal distribution of residuals of the model. The 17 groups of
Coatings 2022, 12, 708 12 of 14
residuals are approximately linearly distributed on a straight line, indicating that the dis-
tribution of standardized residuals meets the requirements of normal distribution. The
difference between the predicted and actual values of the equation is shown in Figure 13,
and
andall
alldata
datapoints
pointsare
areevenly
evenlydistributed
distributedon
onboth
bothsides
sidesof
ofthe
theline,
line,further
furtherdemonstrating
demonstrating
the
thevalidity
validityof
ofthe
themodel.
model.

Figure12.
Figure 12.Normal
Normaldistribution
distributionof
ofresiduals.
residuals.

Figure13.
Figure 13.Relationship
Relationshipbetween
betweenthe
thepredicted
predictedvalue
valueand
andactual
actualvalue.
value.

5. Multi-Objective Genetic Algorithm Optimization and Verification

The genetic algorithm is an adaptive probabilistic search algorithm that simulates
the natural evolution process. It has better global optimization ability and is suitable for
dealing with multi-objective optimization problems. The independent variables involved
in multi-objective optimization are laser power X1 , scanning speed X2 , and powder feeding
rate X3 . The objective function is the regression equation of dilution rate and forming
coefficient. Taking the minimum dilution rate and maximum forming coefficient as the
goal, a multi-objective optimization model and model constraints are established:

 = [η, − ϕ]
Fmin
 1200(W) ≤ X1 ≤ 2400(W)
(9)
s.t 15(mm · s−1 ) ≤ X2 ≤ 23(mm · s−1 )
16(g · min−1 ) ≤ X3 ≤ 20(g · min−1 )


where ηis dilution rate, ϕ is forming coefficient, X1 is laser power, X2 is scanning speed,
and X3 is powder feeding rate.
Solving using software writing programs based on the genetic algorithm. The popula-
tion number was set to 100, the genetic algebra was 40, the crossover probability was 0.9,
and the mutation probability was 0.01. Finally, the optimal solution was obtained as the
 s.t 15(mm  s )  X 2  23(mm  s )
 −1 −1
16( g  min )  X 3  20( g  min )
where ηis dilution rate, φ is forming coefficient, X1 is laser power, X2 is scanning speed,
and X3 is powder feeding rate.
Coatings 2022, 12, 708 13 of 14
Solving using software writing programs based on the genetic algorithm. The popu-
lation number was set to 100, the genetic algebra was 40, the crossover probability was
0.9, and the mutation probability was 0.01. Finally, the optimal solution was obtained as
laser
the power
laser of 1756
power W, the
of 1756 scanning
W, the scanningspeed of 19.43
speed mm/s,
of 19.43 and
mm/s, thethe
and powder feeding
powder rate
feeding of
rate
19.878 g/min.
of 19.878 g/min.
Using the
Using the above
above conclusions,
conclusions, single-pass
single-pass and
and multi-pass
multi-pass cladding
cladding experiments
experiments were
were
carried out with a laser power of 1800 W, a scanning speed of 19 mm/s, a powder
carried out with a laser power of 1800 W, a scanning speed of 19 mm/s, a powder feeding feeding
rate of
rate of 20
20 g/min, andaalap
g/min, and lap rate
rate of
of 50%
50% [27].
[27]. The
The macroscopic
macroscopic morphology
morphology of of the
the cladding
cladding
layer was obtained. As shown in Figure
layer was obtained. As shown in Figure 14. 14.

(a) Cross-sectional morphology of sin- (b) Cross-sectional morphology of multi-channel

gle-channel cladding. cladding.
Figure
Figure 14.
14. Surface
Surface morphology
morphology and
and cross-sectional morphology of
cross-sectional morphology of cladding
cladding layer.
layer.

The surface morphology obtained by laser cladding under the optimal parameters is
smooth and has no obvious defects, and the surface of the cladding layer with multiple
overlaps is relatively flat, the heat-affected
heat-affected zone is narrow, and the metallurgical bond
between the matrix and the cladding layer is good. The connection
connection is tight, indicating that
the quality of the cladding layer is high. Moreover,
Moreover, the measured macroscopic size of the
molten pool
pool is
is similar
similartotothe
thenumerical
numericalsimulation,
simulation, indicating
indicating that
that thethe numerical
numerical simula-
simulation
can effectively
tion guide
can effectively the actual
guide production.
the actual production.

6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
Based on
Based on the
theresponse
responsesurface
surfaceanalysis
analysismethod,
method, the laser
the power
laser powerhashas
thethe
most significant
most signifi-
impact on the quality of the cladding layer. The quadratic regression prediction
cant impact on the quality of the cladding layer. The quadratic regression prediction model of
the dilution
model of therate and therate
dilution forming coefficient
and the formingwas established,
coefficient wasand the genetic
established, algorithm
and was
the genetic
used for multi-objective optimization. The optimal parameter combination was obtained
as the laser power of 1756 W, the scanning speed is 19.43 mm/s, and the powder feeding
rate is 19.878 g/min. The verification experiments of single-pass and multi-pass cladding
layers were carried out with the optimal parameters. The metallurgical bonding between
the matrix and the cladding layer was good, indicating that the quality of the multi-layer
cladding layer obtained under the optimal parameters was good.

Author Contributions: We declare that all authors contributed to the study conception and design.
Material preparation, experimental data collection and analysis were performed by S.Y., C.L. and H.B.
The first draft of the manuscript was written by S.Y.; S.Y., H.B., C.L., L.S., X.Z. and Z.J. commented on
previous versions of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: We declare that all data is true and available.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Coatings 2022, 12, 708 14 of 14

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