Complement: is the obligatory part of a phrase, without which the

phrase/clause/sentence is not complete.

Verbs: Intransitive, Transitive and Ditransitive

All verbs take a subject. But all verbs do not necessarily take an object.

Intransitive verbs: take no object (only subject):

Examples:

I smile (all the time). He smiles (for no reason). You smile (please when they
arrive and you welcome them). Please smile (for a few seconds).

Go, come, sleep, walk, ETC.

Transitive verbs: Take an object (must take an object).

Eat, know, see, write, buy, ask, want, like, play, learn, bring, hear, listen to,
carry, pass, order, book, ETC.

He writes a poem/an essay/ a letter/ it/. He will write that.

I know ….. I know that. He knows it. They know you.

Ditransitive verbs: Take TWO objects.

Examples:

send, give, take, buy, lend, bring, tell, sell, pass, order, gift, put, mail, write,
book, keep, ETC.

He gave me a book. [a book is the direct object and me is the indirect object]

He will send a letter to you. [a letter is the direct object and to you is the
indirect object]

Objects are generally called complement. A complement can be NP (noun

phrase), PP (preposition phrase), TP (tense phrase) or CP (complementizer

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phrase). All the transitive and ditransitive verbs take a complement (transitive
verbs take one complement and ditransitive verbs take two complements).

For example:

I know you/it/the man. [you, it, the man: NP]

I know about you/it/the man/ this matter. [about you, about it, about the man,
about this matter: PP]

I know that you are smart. I know who you are going to see. I do not know
whether you will come tomorrow.

[the highlighted parts-that you are smart, who you are going to see, whether
you will come tomorrow: CP]. In these sentences: CPs are
subordinate/dependent clauses.

Want:

*I want

I want [this book].

I want to go. To go: clause (non-finite clause)

I like [to swim].

I ask [you] [a question].

I ask [you to be punctual].

[the highlighted parts- to go there, to swim, to be punctual: TP]. In these

sentences: TPs are subordinate/dependent clauses.

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Head of a Phrase

- Phrases are headed internally, that is, the head of the noun phrase (NP) is a
noun (N), and the head of a verb phrase is a verb (V) and so on.

- A phrase has one and only one head. that is, a (single) phrase cannot have
multiple heads.

- The head is the obligatory (must) component in a phrase

- A phrase that is headed by a lexical category is a lexical phrase (e.g. NP, VP)

- A phrase that is headed by a functional category word (D, T, C) is a functional

projection (e.g. DP: Determiner Phrase, TP: Tense Phrase, CP:
Complementizer Phrase)

- A lexical phrase is covered by a functional phrase

- [TP [VP]]

- [DP [NP]] The boy

Determiner is the Functional Category with respect to the Noun (Phrase) as

Tense is the Functional Category with respect to the Verb (Phrase).

D -> N (+/- definiteness)

T -> V (+/- Time/tense)

Boys are taking breakfast.

The boys are taking breakfast.

[TP [DP the [NP boys]] [VP are taking [DP [NP breakfast]]]]

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I want to go.

I wanted to go.

I will want/like to go.

I saw a boy. I bought a book.

I saw the boy. I bought the book.

Therefore: every NP is within a DP and every VP is within a TP.

Structure of a phrase: X-bar frame

- A phrase is a structured unit containing related parts

- Relation between the head and the other parts (if any) is fundamental relation
in a phrase
- X-bar schema provides the structural frame of a phrase.
- XP => Spec(ifier) - X’
- X’ => X – Comp(lement)
- X’ => X’ – Adjunct
- Phrase (XP) => Spec-Head-Comp (adjuncts/modifiers)
- X is a variable (N, V, P, T, C, etc)
- X-bar structure is binary: branching nodes (XP and X’ branch into not more
than two branches)

X=N

XP = NP

X=V

XP = VP

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Examples

i. NP: students

NP

N’

students

ii. NP: the students

NP

Spec N’

the N

students

iii. NP: the students of English Syntax

NP

D N’

the N PP

students P NP

of English Syntax

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Head

Verb: Arguments and Adjuncts

Arguments are essential component(s)/part(s) required by a head

(verb/noun/adjective/Preposition, etc). In other words, arguments are obligatory
element/component/member.

Arguments: Subject and object, Spec-ifier and Comp-lement

Adjuncts are additional/extra/optional elements/components/members of a head.

Adjuncts are Adverbs or adverbials

Specifier vs Complement

Subject argument: Specifier

Object argument: Complement

I write a book.

Arguments (2) are: I and a book

Specifier: I

Complement: a book

I gave you a pen.

Arguments (3) are: I, you and a pen

Specifier: I

Complements: you, a pen

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I want [a pen].

Arguments (2) are: I and a pen

Spec: I

Comp: [NP a pen]

[I want] [to go]. [I want] [you to go].

Arguments (2) are: I and to go

Spec: I [NP]

Comp: to go [TP], you to go [TP]

I inquired about you. They inquired [about the matter]

Arguments (2) are: I and about you

Spec: I

Comp: about you [PP]

I know that you are smart. I know you. I know about you. I like to sing. I like this. I like
that you are on time.

Arguments (2) are: I and that you are smart

Spec: I [NP]

Comp: [that [you are smart]] [CP]

Complement vs Adjunct

Complement: Obligatory/essential

Adjunct: Additional/optional/extra

I want to go to the market.

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Arguments (2) are I and to go

Adjunct (1): to the market

I want to go to the market to buy fruits to eat in the morning tomorrow.

Arguments (2) are I and to go

Adjuncts (5): to the market, to buy fruits, to eat, in the morning, tomorrow

I went to the market to buy fruits to eat in the morning tomorrow.

Arguments (1): I

Adjuncts (5): to the market [PP], to buy fruits [TP], to eat [TP], in the morning [PP],
tomorrow [NP]

I went to the market [so that I can buy some fruits].

Adjuncts (2): to the market [PP], so that I can buy some fruits [CP]

[That you are smart] is known to all.

[To go there] is not easy.

He writes …..

He writes a letter on a paper with a pen in the morning to express his desire to go
home to see his family.

He sleeps.

Eat:

The boy will eat a cake.

The boy will eat a cake {in the morning}.

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EAT: EATER, EATEE

EAT (the boy, a cake)

Smile:

He smiles.

He smiles {very enthusiastically}.

SMILE: SMILER, -

SMILE (He, )

Give:

They gave me a pen.

GIVE: GIVER, RECEIVER, OBJECT OF GIVING (SOMETHING to GIVE)

GIVE (they, me, a pen)

Adjective:

Proud, jealous

I am [proud [of you]].

They are [jealous [of you]]

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