Chapter 6

Fuel and Air Flow in the Cylinder

6.1) A four cylinder four stroke 3.0 L port-injected spark ignition engine is running at 2200 rpm on a
stoichiometric mix of octane and standard air at 100 kPa and 298 K. If the average octane flowrate
is 3.0 g/s, a.) what is the mass of fuel entering each cylinder per cycle ? b.) what is the volumetric
efficiency, and c.) assuming complete combustion, what is the rate of heat release ?

a) The mass of fuel entering each cylinder per cycle for a four stroke engine is:
     
2 1 2 · 60 1
mf = ṁf = (3.0)
N nc 2200 4
mf = 4.09 × 10−2 g

b) The volumetric efficiency can be calculated knowing the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio As = 15.03
(Table 3.5). Since the engine is port injected we obtain:

ṁa + ṁf ṁf (AFs + 1)

ev = N
=
ρi vd 2 ρi vd N2

We know that
Pi 100
ρi = = = 1.17 kg/m3
RTI (0.287)(298)

Substituting back in

(3)(15.03 + 1)
ev = 2200


(1170)(3.0 × 10−3 ) 2·60
ev = 0.74

c) The lower heat of combustion qlhc = 44.43 MJ/kg (Table 4.1)

Q̇ = ṁf · qlhc = (3.0 × 10−3 )(44,430)

Q̇ = 133 kW

1
2 CHAPTER 6. FUEL AND AIR FLOW IN THE CYLINDER

6.2) A carburetor has a pressure drop of 0.025 bar and a fuel-air ratio F A = 0.06 at a demand Dc = 0.4.
a.) What is the fuel-air effective area ratio Af /Aa ? b.) If the demand changes to Dc = 0.6, what is
the change in the fuel-air ratio F A ?
The fuel-air ratio F A is given by Equation 6.5
    1/2
ṁf 1.73 ρf Af 2(P∞ − P2 )
FA = =
ṁa Dc ρ∞ Aa (ρf )(c∞ )2

a) Therefore, using reference values of Figure 6.3

1/2  1/2
ρf · (c∞ )2 (749)(346)2
      
AF FA ρ∞ 0.06 1.17
= (Dc ) = (0.4)
Aa 1.73 ρf 2(P∞ − P2 ) 1.73 749 2(2500)
AF
= 2.90 × 10−3
Aa

b) If the demand Dc changes from 0.4 to 0.6, the pressure ratio P2/P∞ will change. The demand is:
" 1.43  1.71 #1/2
P2 P2
Dc = 3.86 −
P∞ P∞

The following Matlab root finding program is used to solve for P2/P∞ = 0.9038
function [ y ] = demand( pr )
% calculates roots of the demand equation (6.6)
dc=0.6;
y=dc-3.86*(pr.^1.43 - pr.^1.71)^(1/2);
end
and in the command line
z=fzero(’demand’, [.80 .99])
z = 0.9038
The carburetor pressure drops so

P∞ − P2 = P∞ (1 − P2/P∞ ) = (98,700)(1 − 0.9038) = 9495 Pa

Assuming AF /Aa is constant,

    1/2
1.73 7.49 2 · 9495
FA = (2.90 × 10−3 )
0.6 1.17 (749)(346)2
F A = 0.0778

This is an increase of about 30%

 3

6.3) Carburetor venturis are sized assuming the maximum quasi-steady flow during the intake stroke is
twice the average. Estimate the venturi throat diameter required for a four cylinder 5.0 L engine with
a volumetric efficiency of 0.9, and maximum speed of 6000 rpm. State clearly the assumptions you
need to make.
Assume a demand Dc = 1, so the maximum air flow is choked

ṁa,max = ṁa,cv
 (γ+1)
 2(γ−1)
2
= (ρ∞ ) (Aa ) (c∞ )
γ+1
= 0.579 (ρ∞ ) (Aa ) (c∞ )

Rearranging one obtains

 
ṁa,max
Aa = 1.73
ρ∞ c ∞

Since the maximum intake flow is assumed to be twice the average

 
2 · ṁa,intake
Aa = 1.73
ρ∞ c ∞

The airflow rate into the engine is found from the volumetric efficiency assuming direct injection into
the cylinders, so
 
N
ṁa,max = (ev ) (ρ∞ ) (vd )
2

Assuming a four stroke cycle and a single carburetor with four cylinders there will be continuous intake
flow through the carburetor serving the four cylinders so

ṁa,intake = ṁa

and
 
N
Aa = (1.73) (ev ) (vd )
c∞

Since
π 
d2


Aa = (Cd )
4
 21 "
6000

# 21
4 (1.73)(0.9)(5 × 10−3 )

4 (1.73)(ev )(vd )(N ) 60
d= · = · = 6.18 × 10−2 m
π (Cd )(c∞ ) π (0.75)(346)
d = 6.18 cm

Note that the diameter is proportional to the square root of the engine displacement and speed.
4 CHAPTER 6. FUEL AND AIR FLOW IN THE CYLINDER

6.4) What is the crank angle injection duration (deg) needed for a fuel injector in a single cylinder diesel
engine operating at 1500 rpm with a bsfc of 0.22 kg/kWh so that it produces 50 kW? The injector
effective area Af is 1.0 mm2 and pressure is 550 bar. The cylinder pressure is 50 bar.

The injection duration (Equation 6.10) is given by:

mf
∆t =
(2ρf ∆P )1/2 Af

and the crank angle function ∆θ is

∆θ = 360 · N · ∆t

The cycle average fuel consumption rate is

 
50
m˙ f = bsf c · Ẇb = (0.22) = 0.183 kg/min
60

The mass of fuel injected per cycle is

ṁf 0.183
mf = = 1500 = 2.44 × 10−4 kg
(N/2) ( /2)

So the injection duration is

2.44 × 10−4
∆t = = 8.41 × 10−4 s
(2 · 840 · 500 × 105 )1/2 (1 × 10−6 )

The crank angle duration is

 
1500
∆θ = (360)(N )(∆t) = 360 (8.41e − 4)
60
∆θ = 7.5degrees
 5

6.5) If the diesel injector in problem (6.4) has a nozzle diameter dn of 0.30 mm, what is the spray angle ?
Assume the cylinder temperature is 800 K.

The spray angle is given by Equation 6.13

 1/2 √ !
θ 4π ρg 3
tan =
2 A ρl 6

The cylinder gas density ρg during injection is

P 5000
ρg = = = 21.8kg/m3
RT (0.287)(800)
   
Ln 1.0
A = 3.0 + 0.28 = 3.0 + 0.28 = 3.93
dn 0.3
 1/2 √ !
θ 4π 21.8 3
tan = = 0.149
2 3.93 840 6
θ = 16.9degrees

As the cylinder pressure and temperature increase during compression, the corresponding increase in
gas viscosity will increase the spreading angle.
6 CHAPTER 6. FUEL AND AIR FLOW IN THE CYLINDER

6.6) For the engine fuel injector in problem (6.5), what is the spray tip penetration versus time ? Determine
the time and crank angle interval for the fuel to reach the cylinder wall. The engine bore is 150 mm.
Assume a centrally located injector.
The spray tip penetration is given by Equation 6.17

 1/4  1/4
∆P 1/2 294
S = 3.07 (tdn )
ρg Tg

From the previous problem,

Tg = 800 K
Pg = 5000 kPa
P 5000
ρg = = = 21.8 kg/m3
RT (0.287)(800)
1/4 1/4
500 × 105
 
−3 1/2 294
S = 3.07 (0.3 × 10 ) (t)1/2
21.8 800

Assuming a centrally located injector, then

b
s=
2
 2  2
b 1 150 × 10−3
t= · = = 2.17 × 10−3 s
2 1.61 2 · 1.61

The crank angle interval is

 
1500

∆θ = 360 · N · ∆T = 360 2.17 × 10−3
60
∆θ = 19.5degrees
 7

6.7) A diesel fuel injector has a total orifice area of 0.15 mm2 with an average Cd = 0.60. If the average
pressure difference between the fuel injector and cylinder is 400 bar, a.) what is the amount of diesel
fuel injected over a 8 ms period ?. b.) If the engine has a 50% thermal efficiency and operates at 1500
rpm, estimate the power (kW) produced by the engine.

a) The mass of fuel injected over a time ∆t is

1
mf = (2ρf ∆P ) 2 (CD ) (Af ) (∆t)

1
= 2 · 840 · 400 × 105 2 (0.6) 0.15 × 10−6 8 × 10−3

mf = 1.87 × 10−4 kg = 0.187 g

b) The heating value is

Q = (mf ) (qlhv ) = 1.87 × 10−4 (42,940)
Q = 8.03 kJ

c) The engine power is

     
N N 1500
Ẇ = W =η·Q· = (0.5)(8.03)
2 2 60 · 2
Ẇ = 50.2 kW
8 CHAPTER 6. FUEL AND AIR FLOW IN THE CYLINDER

6.8) To illustrate the effect of combustion chamber geometry on swirl amplification consider an axisymmetric
engine where at bottom center the velocity field of the air inside the cylinder is approximately vr =
vz = 0 and vθ = Vo (2r/b). The cylinder has a bore, b, and the piston has a disk-shaped bowl of
diameter, d, and depth, h. The motion is said to be solid body since the gas is swirling as though it
were a solid. If at top dead center the motion is also solid body and angular momentum is conserved
during compression, what is the ratio of the initial to final swirl speed, ωo /ω1 , as a function of the
compression ratio and the cylinder geometry? The moment of inertia of solid body rotation of a disk
of diameter, d, and depth, h, is I = πρhd4 /32.
At bdc the moment of inertia I0 is
1 π
b2 s + d4 h


I0 = (ρ0 )
8 4
and at tdc I1 is
1 π
d4 h


I0 = (ρ1 )
8 4
Since angular momentum is conserved

I1 w1 = I0 w0

The swirl amplification is therefore

"  #
4
ρ0 b4 s + d4 h
 
w1 I0 ρ0 b s
= = = +1
w0 I1 ρ1 d4 h ρ1 d h

Since the mass of gas in the cylinder is constant

m = ρ0 V0 = ρ1 V1

So
ρ0 V1
=
ρ1 V0

The compression ratio r is

 2  
V0 b2 s + d2 h b s
r= = = +1
V1 d2 h d h

So
 2
s d
= (r − 1)
h b

and
"  # "  #
4 2
w1 1 b s 1 b
= +1 = (r − 1) + 1
w0 r d h r d

w1 b 2


For r ≫ 1 w0 ≈ d

The swirl amplification is proportional to the square of the diameter ratio.

 9

6.9) An engine has a mean piston speed Ūp of 10.0 m/s and a clearance volume height h of 5 mm. What is
the characteristic length L, integral scale l, Taylor microscale λ, and Kolmogorov microscale η at the
end of compression? Compare your calculations with Example 6.2, and explain the differences. Assume
the fluid kinematic viscosity at the end of compression is 100 × 10−7 m2 /s and Cη = Cλ = 1, Cl = 0.2.

At the end of the compression stroke, the characteristic length L = h, the clearance volume height.

L = h = 5 mm

The integral scale l is

l = (C1 ) (L) = (0.2)(5) = 1 mm

The Taylor microscale λ is

 1/2
15 −1/2
λ= (Ret ) (l)
Cλ

up 10
ut = = = 5 m/s
2 2

ut · l (5) 1 × 10−3
Ret = = = 500
µ 100 × 10−7

so
 1/2
15 −1/2
λ= (500) (l) = 0.17 mm
1

− 1/4 − 1/4 − 3/4

η = (Cn ) (Ret )−3/4 (l) = (1) (500) (1) = 0.0094 mm = 9.4 microns

Compared with Example 6.2, the piston speed had doubled and the clearance height is halved. As
a consequence, the integral scale is halved, the Taylor microscale and the Kolmogorov microscale are
approximately halved, and the turbulent Reynolds number is unchanged.
 10 CHAPTER 6. FUEL AND AIR FLOW IN THE CYLINDER

6.10) A single cylinder two stroke carbureted engine of 85 mm bore and 110 mm stroke is operating at 2500
rpm. It has a compression ratio r = 8, is fueled with gasoline, and is running rich with an equivalence
ratio φ = 1.2. If its indicated power is 20 kW with inlet air temperature of 345 K, inlet pressure
of 101 kPa and exhaust pressure of 105 kPa, compute its scavenging ratio Sr . Use Figure 4.4 to es-
timate the indicated thermal efficiency ηOtto of an equivalent fuel-air cycle, and assume η/ηOtto = 0.80.

The scavenging ratio Sr is the ratio of the actual mass of charge to the ideal mass at Ti and Pe that
would just fill the cylinder at bottom dead center.

ṁi
Sr =
ρs Vc N

From Example 3.2, the molecular mass M of a mixture of octane and air is ≃ 30.4, so the mixture
density ρs is
Pe M 3
ρs = = (101)(30.4)/(8.314)(345) = 1.07 kg/m
Ru Ti

The cylinder volume Vc is

π 2 r π 8
Vc = b s = (0.085)2 (0.110) = 7.13 × 10−4 m3
4 r−1 4 8−1

Assuming 2 and 4 stroke fuel-air cycles have approximately the same indicated efficiency, from Figure
4.4 or from the Ottofuel.m program, ηf a is 0.33, so ηi = (0.80)(0.334) = 0.27.
The energy supplied by the gasoline is Q̇i = Ẇi /ηi = 20/ 0.267 = 74.85 kW.
The fuel flow rate is ṁf = Q̇i /qc = 74.85/44, 510 = 1.68 × 10−3 kg/s.
The air flow rate ṁa is

ṁa = ṁf /FA

= ṁf /(FAs φ)
= (1.68 × 10−3 )/(0.0655)(1.2)
= 2.14 × 10−2 kg/s

The scavenging ratio Sr is thus

ṁa + ṁf
Sr =
ρs Vc N
(2.14 × 10−2 ) + (1.68 × 10−3 )
=
(1.06)(7.13 × 10−4 )2500/60
= 0.73