SOC SCI 111 REVIEWER (MODULE 1 to 4)

MODULE 1!
Nature vs. Nurture

• Nature
 a person develops his/her characteristics biologically (something that has developed
starting from the birth of the child).

• Nurture
 a person develops his/her characteristics through external factors, such as the
environment and the society (family, friends, relatives, etc.)

Identity vs. Self

• Identities
 Are “qualities, characteristics, beliefs, opinions, etc., that make a person unique from
others”.
 These are what is distinguishable by others, or what they perceive of us through our
actions.

• Self
 Is the “person of himself/herself”
 it is what others didn’t see in you because this is personal character this is what makes
up a person.

Dimensionalities of the Self/Identity

There are 4 different dimensionalities of self, namely SOCIAL FACTORS,

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS, HEREDITY FACTORS, AND PERSON-VOLITION
FACTORS.

• Social factors
 are the factors in the development of a person which includes all the person around
us, like our family members, relatives, friends, teachers, professors, and even
strangers, that might create an impression on you or affects your actions and thoughts
in life.

• Environmental factors
 are the factors in the development of a person that includes the environmental
structure, events, and such, which might give an impact on how a person could grow
in all aspects of his/her life.

• Hereditary factors
 are the factors in the development of the person that includes biological changes and
events, such as growth in height, puberty (growing of pubic hair, deeper voices for
male, broadening of hips, and the start of menstruation for female, etc.) that usually
affects the physical characteristics of a person.

• Person-volition factors
  are the inclination of a person that creates a social construct that sets him apart from
others.

What Philosophy says about the Self?

SELF
 it is defined to as “a unified being, essentially connected to consciousness, awareness,
and agency (or, at least, with the faculty of rational choice.)
Classical Antiquity
SOCRATES
 Greek philosophy was started by Socrates, with his aphorism/principle of “know
thyself,” which is also inscribed in the temple of Apollo at Delphi.
 He believed that the real self is not the physical body, but rather the psyche, or the
soul.

PLATO
 a student of Socrates
 also studied and explained thoroughly what the true essence of self is, which is then
founded by his mentor.
 Plato suggested that the “self is fundamentally an intellectual entity whose nature
exists independent from the physical world.

ARISTOTLE
 a student of Plato explained thoroughly how we could see the essence of self.
 Aristotle suggested that their ideal is subsumed in the phenomena. Aristotle called
the ideal essence and the phenomena of matter.
 He emphasized that these 2 co-exist and is dependent on one another.

Two lenses of Philosophy of Self in Greek Times:

• Rationalism
 explains self from the standpoint of what is ideal and true, and what is not is rooted
with senses.

• Empiricism
 according to it, there is no such thing as innate knowledge; all knowledge is derived
from experience–through the five senses or what is perceived by our brain.

Towards Modern Philosophy

ST. AUGUSTINE
 incorporated the views of Plato into his religious philosophy.

JOHN LOCKE, DAVID HUME AND IMMANUEL KANT

 were empiricist philosophers.
RENE DESCARTES
 was a dominant rational philosopher during the Middle Ages.

Contemporary philosophers have incorporated science into their theories in light of the
technological advancements that they have been exposed to.

Majority of contemporary philosophers were empiricists:

GILBERT RYLE, PATRICIA CHURCHLAND, AND MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY

 have incorporated biological and neuroscience in their philosophies.

What Science says about the Self?

Natural and social sciences encompass a number of disciplines that have deliberated
on and explained the concept and nature of the self.

• Biological/Physiological Sciences

• Neurophilosophy
 (Attributed to Paul and Patricia Churchland)
 is concerned with the association of the brain and the mind.

• Psychoneuroimmunology
 describes the shaping of the self as similar to how the human immune system
functions.

• Social Sciences

• Psychology
 the study of human behavior
 sees the self as a theoretical construct.

 Psychoanalysis
 (Proposed by Sigmund Freud)
 focuses on the “unconscious” as a core element of the self.

• Behaviorism
 maintains that the study of behavior should be made from an observable and
measurable perspective.

• Social Cognitive Theory

 considers behavior as a function of the environment and internal attributes.

• Humanistic Perspective
 draws its assumptions from the observed criticisms of psychoanalysis and
behaviorism. It believes that every individual has the ability to reach self-actualization
and transcendence and that each person is inherently good or possesses something
that is good.

• Sociology
 is the study of the collective behavior of people within society and focuses on social
problems encountered by individuals.

• Anthropology
 the study of human beings and their ancestors through time and space and in relation
to physical character, environmental and social relations, and culture.

• Political Science (PolSci)

 is concerned with the participation of individuals in establishing a government and
making political choices.

• Economics
 describes and analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and
services.
MODULE 2!

THE BIOLOGICAL BLUEPRINT

The physical self is shaped by biological and environmental factors.

Heredity
 is defined as the transmission of traits from parents to offspring. The traits are made
up of specific information embedded within one’s genes.

Genotype
 refers to the specific information embedded within one’s genes; not all genotypes
translate to an observed physical characteristic.

Phenotype
 is the physical expression of a particular trait.

o Each individual carries 23 pairs of chromosomes, which are threadlike bodies in the
nucleus of the cell and the storage unit of genes. The 23rd pair, also known as sex
chromosomes, determines the sex of an individual.

o Within each chromosome is the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which is a nucleic acid
that contains the genetic instructions specifying the biological development of every
individual.

Maturation
 known as the completion of the growth of a genetic character within an organism or
the unfolding of an individual’s inherent traits or potential.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONING

o As you grow up, you are exposed to environmental influences that shape your physical
self, including those from your social networks, societal expectations, and cultural
practices.

Family
 being your first social group, forms a crucial foundation of your development, including
that of your physical self.

o One aspect of physical beauty is a person’s body type. Contemporary media has
portrayed slim bodies as the ideal body type for women and muscular bodies for men.
Thus, adolescents indulge in activities that would enable them to achieve these ideal body
types.

o However, some adolescents may resort to unhealthy habits just to achieve the ideal body
type. It is important to remember that physical beauty is only skin-deep; that what matters
is feeling good about oneself and embracing a healthy perception of one’s physical worth.
ACHIEVING PHYSICAL WELL-BEING

1. Healthy eating. Following a healthy diet result in healthy skin, ideal weight, and better
stamina.

2. Embracing a healthy lifestyle. Physical activities such as walking, running, going to

the gym, and engaging in sports also contribute to a healthier body.

3. Maintaining proper hygiene. Taking care of your body by consistently following a

hygiene regimen can also help you feel good about yourself.

4. Being confident. Be secure in yourself, embrace a positive outlook toward various

situations and problems, and love and accept who you are.

THE SEXUAL SELF!

The Biology of Self

At birth, the sexual genitalia (penis for male, vagina for female) is a biological feature
that distinguishes males from females. Moreover, during puberty, observable changes in the
human body also known as secondary sexual characteristics begin.

When physiological changes are triggered within the adolescent’s reproductive

system, he or she is likely to experience sexual urges, become more sensitive to sexual stimuli
and feel sexual arousal.

Humans are likely to engage in sexual activities to satisfy sexual urges. However, the
kind of sexual activities they engage in may vary.

A person should be aware of his/her sexuality and sexual attributes in order to make
responsible decisions. Adolescents need to realize the importance of having informed choices.

Sexual Identity and Gender Orientation

• BIOLOGICAL SEX
 one’s assignment upon birth and is dependent on the physical feature.

• GENDER
 an identity that is learned and embraced by an individual.

• SEXUAL SELF
 vital aspect of one’s identity.

• GENDER ROLE
 refer to societal expectations of how men and women should act.
 Everyone has a basic idea of gender roles: men are assumed to be strong and
dominant while women are perceived to be submissive and demure.
 Sexual identity and gender orientation underlie one’s concept of self. A person
expresses his or her sexuality through individuality; one’s beliefs and behavioral lifestyle
are based on his or her own perceptions of sexuality.

THE CONSEQUENCES OF SEXUAL CHOICES

Sexual intercourse (copulation)

 the reproductive act in which the male organ (penis) enters the female’s reproductive
tract (vagina). Adolescent couples who engage in sexual intercourse are usually
overwhelmed by the sensations they feel during the act.

However, if the woman is fertile during the time of intercourse, pregnancy is likely to occur
and it lasts approximately nine months before the birth of the child. Having a child entails
a big responsibility and should not merely be a consequence of an impulsive moment. Physical
risks to having an early pregnancy may impact an adolescent’s development, including
miscarriage, emotional stress, and health risks to both mother and infant.

Aside from pregnancy, another consequence of impulsive and careless sexual

intercourse is the risk of acquiring sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Among common
STDs are:

• Syphilis
 an infection that develops due to T. pallidum bacteria. These bacteria can spread
between people through direct contact with a syphilitic sore. These sores may
develop on the skin or mucous membranes of the vagina, anus, rectum, lips, or
mouth.
 Syphilis is most likely to spread during oral, anal, or vaginal sexual activity.
People rarely pass the bacteria on through kissing. The first sign is a painless sore
on either the genitals, rectum, mouth or another part of the skin. Some people do not
notice the sore, as it does not cause pain. These sores resolve on their own.
However, if a person does not receive treatment, the bacteria remain in the body.
They can remain dormant in the body before reactivating and damaging organs,
including the brain.

• Gonorrhea
 a bacterial infection. You can get infected when the bacteria enter your body through
the penis, anus, vagina, or mouth, often during unprotected sex. You can also get or
pass gonorrhea by sharing sex toys that haven’t been washed or covered with a
new condom. If a pregnant woman has gonorrhea, she can pass it on to her baby
during birth. In women, the most common site of infection is the cervix. The cervix is
the opening from the vagina to the uterus (womb). In men, the infection tends to
start in the urethra, the tube that helps urine exit the body.

• Chlamydia
 a common sexually transmitted disease. It is caused by bacteria called Chlamydia
trachomatis. It can infect both men and women. Women can get chlamydia in the
cervix, rectum, or throat. Men can get chlamydia in the urethra (inside the penis),
rectum, or throat.
 • Genital Warts
 are the most common sexually transmitted disease (STD). Certain types of HPV
cause genital warts. These types don’t cause cancer. Treatments can get rid of
genital warts, but once you have genital warts and HPV, you can always give the
STD to someone else. It’s important to use condoms and practice safe sex

The most alarming sexually transmitted disease is acquired immune deficiency

syndrome (AIDS) caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). It can be
transmitted by contact between broken skin, wounds, or mucous membranes and HIV-
infected blood or blood-contaminated body fluids.

RESPONSIBLE SEXUAL BEHAVIOR ENTAILS THE FOLLOWING:

▪ Respect for one’s body. It means taking care of one’s body and avoiding activities
that undermine one’s worth and respect.

▪ Maturity in thoughts and deeds. It refers to being objective, rational, and calm,
instead of being swept by one’s emotions.

▪ Being guided by one’s personal beliefs and core values. Everyone, especially
an adolescent, should always be grounded by his/her personal principles and self-
worth.

▪ Being future-oriented. Instead of focusing on the present, a person should always

weigh his or her present actions with possible consequences in the future.

Contraceptives
 are products used to prevent pregnancy by women and men. Each individual has
their own choice in what contraceptive they or want to use, so one must assess its
or preference first before providing the best contraceptive.

NATURAL FAMILY PLANNING

The natural family planning methods do not include any chemical or foreign body
introduction into the human body. Most people who are very conscious of their religious beliefs
are more inclined to use the natural way of birth control. Some want to use natural methods
because it is more cost-effective.

Abstinence
 This natural method involves abstaining from sexual intercourse and is the most
effective natural birth control method with an ideally 0% fail rate.
 It is also the most effective way to avoid STIs.
 However, most people find it difficult to comply with abstinence, so only a few of them
use this method.

The Calendar or Rhythm Method

 Also called the rhythm method, this natural method of family planning involves
refraining from coitus during the days that the woman is fertile.
  According to the menstrual cycle, 3 or 4 days before and 3 or 4 days after ovulation,
the woman is likely to conceive.
 The process of calculating the woman’s safe days is achieved when the woman
records her menstrual cycle for six months.
 She subtracts 18 from the shortest cycle and the difference is the first fertile day.
 She also subtracts 11 from the longest cycle, and this becomes the last fertile day.
 Starting from the first fertile day until the last day, the woman should avoid coitus to
avoid conception.
 It has an ideal fail rate of 5%, but when used it has a typical failure rate of 25%.

Basal Body Temperature

 the woman’s temperature at rest.
 BBT falls at 0.5⁰F before the day of ovulation and during ovulation, it rises to a full
degree because of progesterone and maintains its level throughout the menstrual
cycle, and this is the basis for the method.
 The woman must take her temperature early every morning before any activity, and if
she notices that there is a slight decrease and then an increase in her temperature,
this is a sign that she has ovulated.
 The woman must abstain from coitus for the next 3 days.
 The BBT method has an ideal fail rate of 9% and a typical use fail rate of 25%.

Cervical Mucus Method

 The basis of this method is the changes in the cervical mucus during ovulation.
 To check if the woman is ovulating, the cervical mucus must be copious, thin, and
watery.
 The cervical mucus must exhibit the property of spinnbarkeit, wherein it can be
stretched up until at least 1 inch and feels slippery.
 The fertile days of a woman according to this method is as long as the cervical mucus
is copious and watery and a day after it. Therefore, she must avoid coitus during these
days.
 When used typically, it has a fail rate of 25%.

Symptothermal Method
 simply a combination of the BBT method and the cervical mucus method.
 The woman takes her temperature every morning before getting up and also takes
note of any changes in her cervical mucus every day.
 She abstains from coitus 3 days after a rise in her temperature or on the fourth day
after the peak of a mucus change.
 Symptothermal method has an ideal failure rate of 2%.

Ovulation Detection
 an over-the-counter kit that can predict ovulation through the surge of luteinizing
hormone that happens 12 to 24 hours before ovulation.
 The kit requires the urine specimen of the woman to detect the LH.
 The kit is 98% to 99% accurate and is fast becoming the method of choice by women.

Lactation Amenorrhea Method

 Through exclusive breastfeeding of the infant, the woman is able to suppress
ovulation through the method of lactation amenorrhea method.
 However, if the infant is not exclusively breastfed, this method would not be an
effective birth control method.
  It is also best to advise the woman that after 3 months of exclusive breastfeeding, she
must make plans of choosing another method of contraception.

Coitus Interruptus
 one of the oldest methods of contraception.
 The couple still proceeds with the coitus, but the man withdraws the moment he
ejaculates to emit the spermatozoa outside of the vagina.
 The disadvantage of this method is the pre-ejaculation fluid that contains a few
spermatozoa that may cause fertilization.
 Coitus interruptus is only 75% effective because of this.

Hormonal Contraception
 These hormonal contraceptives are effective through the manipulation of the
hormones that directly affect the normal menstrual cycle so that ovulation would not
occur.

Oral Contraceptives
 Also known as the pill, oral contraceptives contain synthetic estrogen and
progesterone.
 Estrogen suppresses the FSH and LH to suppress ovulation, while progesterone
decreases the permeability of the cervical mucus to limit the sperm’s access to the
ova.
 To use the pill, it is recommended that the woman takes the first pill on the first Sunday
after the beginning of a menstrual flow, or the woman may choose to start the pill as
soon as it is prescribed.
 Advice the woman that the first 7 days of taking the pill would still not have an effect,
so the couple must use another contraceptive method on the initial 7 days.
 If the woman has skipped one day of taking the pill, she must take it the moment she
remembers it, then still follow the regular use of the contraceptive.
 If the woman has missed taking the pill for more than one day, she and her partner
must consider alternative contraception to avoid ovulation.
 Side effects for OCs are nausea, weight gain, headache, breast tenderness,
breakthrough bleeding, vaginal infections, mild hypertension, and depression.

Transdermal Patch
 a combination of both estrogen and progesterone in a form of a patch.
 For three weeks, the woman should apply one patch every week on the following
areas: upper outer arm, upper torso, abdomen, or buttocks.
 At the fourth week, no patch is applied because the menstrual flow would then occur.
 The area where the patch is applied should be clean, dry, and free from any
applications. And without any redness or irritation.
 Patches can be worn while bathing or swimming, but when the woman notices that the
patch is loose, she should immediately replace the patch.

Vaginal Ring
 releases a combination of estrogen and progesterone and surrounds the cervix.
 This silicon ring is inserted vaginally and remains there for 3 weeks, then removed on
the fourth week as menstrual flow would occur.
 The woman becomes fertile as soon as the ring is removed.
 The vaginal ring has the same effectivity rate as the oral contraceptives.
Subdermal Implants
 are two rod-like implants embedded under the skin of the woman during her menses
or on the 7th day of her menstruation to make sure that she is not pregnant.
 It contains etonogestrel, desogestrel, and progestin.
 It is effective for 3 to 5 years.
 Subdermal implants have a fail rate of 1%

Hormonal Injections
 consists of medroxyprogesterone, a progesterone, and given once every 12 weeks
intramuscularly.
 The injection inhibits ovulation and causes changes in the endometrium and the
cervical mucus.
 After administration the site should not be massaged so it could absorb slowly.
 It has an effectiveness of almost 100%, making it one of the most popular choices for
birth control.
 Advise the woman to ingest an adequate amount of calcium in her diet as there is a
risk for decreased of bone mineral density and to engage in weight-bearing exercises.

Intrauterine Device
 An IUD is a small, T-shaped object that is inserted into the uterus via the vagina.
 It prevents fertilization by creating a local sterile inflammatory condition to prevent
implantation.
 The IUD is fitted only by the physician and inserted after the woman’s menstrual flow
to be sure that she is not pregnant.
 The device contains progesterone and is effective for 5 to 7 years.
 A woman with IUD is advised to check the flow of her menstruation every month and
the IUD string, and also to have a pelvic examination yearly.

Chemical Barriers
 such as spermicides, vaginal gels and creams, and glycerin films are also used to
cause the death of sperms before they can enter the cervix and also lower the pH
level of the vagina so it will not become conducive for the sperm.
 These chemical barriers cannot prevent sexually transmitted infections; however, they
can be bought without any prescription.

Diaphragm
 works by inhibiting the entrance of the sperm into the vagina.
 It is a circular, rubber disk that fits the cervix and should be placed before coitus.
 If a spermicide is combined with the use of a diaphragm, there is a failure rate of 6%
ideally and 16% typically.
 The diaphragm should be fitted only by the physician and should remain in place for 6
hours after coitus.
 It can be left in place for not more than 24 hours to avoid inflammation or irritation.

Cervical Cap
 another barrier method that is made of soft rubber and fitted on the rim of the
cervix.
 It is shaped like a thimble with a thin rim and could stay in place for not more than 48
hours.
Male Condoms
 a latex or synthetic rubber sheath that is placed on the erect penis before vaginal
penetration to trap the sperm during ejaculation.
 It can prevent STIs and can be bought over the counter without any fitting needed.
 Male condoms have an ideal fail rate of 2% and a typical failure rate of 15% due to a
break in the sheath’s integrity or spilling.
 After sexual intercourse, the condom is removed to be disposed of.

Female Condoms
 Also, latex rubber sheaths that are specially designed for females and pre-lubricated
with spermicide.
 It has an inner ring that covers the cervix and an outer, open ring that is placed against
the vaginal opening.
 These are disposable and require no prescription.
 The failure rate of female condoms is 12% to 22%.

Surgical Methods
 One of the most effective birth control methods is the surgical method. The two kinds
of surgical methods are used by either the male or the female and would ensure that
conception is inhibited after the surgery for as long as the client lives.

Vasectomy
 Males undergo vasectomy, which is executed through a small incision made on each
side of the scrotum.
 The vas deferens is then tied, cauterized, cut, or plugged to block the passage of the
sperm.
 This procedure is done with local anesthesia, so advise the patient that mild local
pain can be felt after the procedure.
 Advise the patient to use a backup contraceptive method until two negative sperm
count results are performed because the sperm could remain viable in the vas
deferens for 6 months.
 There is a 99.5% accuracy rate for vasectomy and has a few complications.

Tubal Ligation
 In women, tubal ligation is performed by occluding the fallopian tubes through cutting,
cauterizing, or blocking to inhibit the passage of both the sperm and the ova.
 After menstruation and before ovulation, the procedure is done through a small incision
under the woman’s umbilicus.
 A laparoscope is used to visualize the surgery, and the patient is under local
anesthesia.
 The woman may return to her sexual activities after 2 to 3 days of the operation.
 Educate that the menstrual cycle would still occur and make sure that coitus before
ligation is protected to avoid ectopic pregnancy.
 The effectiveness of this method is at 99.5%.

The reproductive system is our tool as humans multiply or procreate. However, the
earth would become unlivable if the growth of the population continues to boom. You have a
choice among all these birth control methods, and these are only a call to be a responsible
parent and citizen.
MODULE 3!

ROLAND BARTHES
 He studied the concept of semiology or the study of signs.
 According to him, it is through objects that people assert their identities. This idea
suggests that objects, aside from contributing to how an individual identifies
himself/herself, also signify relationships of people with others based on what they
possess.
 The possession of material things also indicates one’s status in society. These
personal choices build one’s material and economic self which is an extension of
his/her social identity
HERBERT MEAD
 He posited that the self is divided into 2 parts: the “I” which is known as the
unsocialized self, and the “Me” which is known as the socialized self.
 The I is manifested when one acts naturally for his/her own motivations and not
because of others. On the other hand, the Me is the awareness of how others expect
one to behave. This is also known as the social self.
 These different models present ideas on the process of the self’s social development.
Studying these models helps in understanding oneself and other people. It is not ideal,
however, to generalize a certain culture based on these models.

URIE BRONFENBENNER’S (1935)

 Biological Systems of Development explains an individual’s social development, using
biological, environmental, and ecological lenses.
 Explains the bidirectional influence of individual systems to each other & posits five
specific systems that shape an individual’s sense of self.

BRONFENBENNER’S ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY

1. MICROSYSTEM – (Immediate Environment) institutions & social groups that

has a direct contact.

2. MESOSYSTEM – (Connections) interconnections among aspects of the

microsystems affecting the individual.

3. EXOSYSTEM – (Indirect Environment) social setting that an individual has no

direct interaction w/ but nevertheless affects their development.

4. MACROSYSTEM – (Social and Cultural Values) encompasses the larger

cultural context in which the individual resides in.

5. CHRONOSYSTEM – (Changes Over Time) focus on patterns of environmental

events, including sociohistorical events from a specific to a general context.

HAZEL MARKUS & SHINOBU KITAYAMA (1991)

 They proposed the Individualism-Collectivism model which highlights the impact of
culture on the self.
 Individualism as an orientation focuses on one’s individual attributes & personal
distinctiveness.
 Individualistic are observed to be competitive and self-reliant.
  Collectivist orientation values relationships and harmony. People who are
collectivistic prioritize interests to maintain healthy relationships.

SOCIAL SELF
 refers to how we perceive ourselves in relation to others. It involves relationship
building, empathizing, and communicating. A healthy, or not-so-healthy, social self will
also impact your overall mental well-being and ability to meet life goals.

SOCAIL IDENTITY
 this allows people to be part of groups and gain a sense of belonging in their social
world. These identities play an important role in shaping self-image. The more people
identify with a particular group, the more that group plays a role in shaping how
people feel about themselves.

CULTURE
 According to Edward Tylor (1871), “culture is the complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, law, art moral, custom, and other capabilities and habits acquired
by man as a member of society.”
 To further understand the nature of culture and its influences on oneself, the following
models illustrate how culture functions in relation to one’s social self.

TYPES OF CULTURE

MATERIAL CULTURE - refers to the physical aspects of a society, the objects made or
modified by a human. These objects surround people and their activities and are defined by
their properties, be they chemical, physical, or biological.

NON-MATERIAL CULTURE - refers to the nonphysical ideas that people have about their
culture, including beliefs, values, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and
institutions. For instance, the nonmaterial cultural concept of‐ religion consists of a set of
ideas and beliefs about God, worship, morals, and ethics. These beliefs, then, determine how
the culture responds to its religious topics, issues, and events.

I vs. Me

“I” – unsocialized self (who I am): who an individual really is, one’s opinion of themselves;
manifested when one acts naturally for his/her own motivations and not because of others.

“Me” - awareness of how others expect one to behave. This is also known as the social self.

THE SOCIO-DIGITAL SELF

DIGITAL SELF
 is the persona you use when you're online. The simple reason is that once you go
online as your real self, using your own name or appearance, you have an online
presence that can be traced back to you in the real world.
SOCIAL MEDIA
 defined as websites and applications that make it easier to create and share
information, ideas, and interests. It also allows people to create other forms of self-
expression via virtual communities and networks.
ONLINE DISEMBODIMENT
 Through the use of social media, people may act differently in social media than in real
life; since interaction in social media do not happen face-to-face and there is no
physical presence required.
 With this, people are less likely to display their real “selves” to others, especially to
strangers.
DIGITAL IDENTITY
 People generally have role identities. These are the characters and roles an individual
creates as a member of a particular social group. Following this definition, “self” is
composed of identities ranked by importance. The greater the commitment of an
individual to a particular identity, the greater the importance of this identity.
 In an online environment, one’s role identity is vitally important in order for him/her to
project himself/herself in the said environment. Amidst the technological tools and
channels surrounding individuals and online activities that people engage in, one’s
online identity enables him/her to participate in a virtual society.
 However, participation in virtual environments may entail changes that may affect a
person’s sense of self. In some cases, people present themselves differently in online
interactions as compared to the face-to-face interactions they engage in.

ONLINE DISINHIBITION EFFECT

 When people adopt fake identities, they are likely to engage in behaviors that they
would not do in real-life interactions.

There are 2 main categories of behaviors that fall under online disinhibition:

1. Benign disinhibition – it occurs when people tend to self-disclose more on the

internet than they would in real life or go out of their way to help someone or show
kindness.

2. Toxic disinhibition – people take part in this when they use rude language, bully,
or threaten others on online platforms, and go to websites with content of violence,
crime, and pornography.

People engage in Online Disinhibition due to:

a. Advantage of anonymity
b. Virtual invisibility
c. Asynchronous communication (no need to deal w/ another person's
reaction/feedback immediately)
d. Personal introjection (Assign an identity the other person that is also a reflection
of their self).

Four Digital Do's

Be careful of what you share. comments, social media posts, photos, and anything
else you share online are not guaranteed to be protected from online predators or hackers,
even if you’re sharing only with specific people on password-protected sites. Post only things
you’d be ok with everyone you know seeing.

1. Treat others the way you want to be treated. This sounds pretty basic, but it’s
probably the one piece of digital etiquette advice that is broken the most. Keep your
comments positive; be truthful, and polite. If you want to go the extra mile,
acknowledge when someone has been helpful; thank them, and pay it forward!

2. Be safe. Being safe online is a whole topic in itself, much different from being a good
digital citizen— and with many different ramifications. It’s crucial not to divulge any
personal information, passwords, addresses, etc. with someone you don’t know.

3. Know the rules. Whether you’re using classroom forums, Twitter, Facebook, or other
sites, know the site’s rules and guidelines—and follow them. Each community creates
its own rules that they expect users to follow, which can usually be found in the “Site
Rules” or “About Us” section.

4. Be vigilant. If you saw something happen in real life where someone could be harmed,
you’d call for help, right? If you see something online that may be harmful to someone
else, report it to the site’s authorities or an adult you trust. With cyberbullying and online
predators, we cannot be too careful these days, and we all need to look out for each
other.

Five Digital Don’ts

1. Don’t say anything online you wouldn’t say to someone’s face. Online comments
can be even more hurtful than a face-to-face insult because once something is written
the person can read it over and over again. Sometimes we find it easier to reply with
negative comments when the person is not right in front of us, and we can hide behind
our computer or smartphone. Don’t be tempted; think twice about what you are saying
before you post or send, and ask yourself, “Would I say this to someone if they were
standing in front of me?”

2. Don’t share anything you don’t own, without permission. All content was created
by someone, and that person owns their content. This includes articles (and ANY
portion of articles), photos, memes, reports, blogs, and anything else online that wasn’t
created by you. Be aware of copyright laws, ask permission before you share, and be
sure to give credit if you reuse or repost an article or picture you didn’t create.

3. Don’t believe everything you read. Not everything online is true. In fact, there’s a lot
online that’s not true. Before believing (or sharing!), dig deeper. Search for facts. Just
because it’s written online doesn’t mean it’s true.

4. Don’t post anything that you don’t want to last forever. Before you say or post
anything online, ask yourself, “Am I ok if this is never deleted?”. Once something is out
there online, it is likely it’s out there for good. There is no delete button or eraser for
the Internet.

5. Don’t spend all of your free time online. The Internet is an amazing place with lots
to offer. As with all things that provide an “outlet”, moderation is important. Don’t forget
 that the real world, real people, and real human interaction provide a lot of lessons and
experiences, too!

Managing Responsible Online Behavior

How can one behave responsibly online? The following are some suggestions:

1. Do not post or send anything that will embarrass you.

2. Avoid posting statements when experiencing strong emotions.
3. Do not hang out with the “wrong crowd” online.
4. Do not hang out with the “wrong crowd” offline.
5. Be careful with oversharing, especially confidential information that may be used
irresponsibly.
6. Respect other people in the online community.

THE MATERIAL/ECONOMIC SELF

1. The Self and our Possession

 The things we possess define who we are. They manifest our being, our personality
our “self.” In fact, they are a great measure of our level of either happiness or
loneliness. Comments such as, “buti ka pa” (good for you) “sana all” (hope everybody),
“buti na lang nakabili ako” (good enough I was able to buy one), “cannot wait to use
this,” are expressions of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. In a recent study of lower-class
students, the findings reveal that lower-class students showed high materialism
tendencies to compensate for selfesteem (Lia, Lua, & Xiaa, 2018). Moreover, the study
on the influential mechanism of materialism on personal well-being showed that
materialism has a negative impact on a person’s subjective well-being and depression.
Further, materialism influences personal well-being via psychological needs
satisfaction (Wang, Liu, Jiang, & Song, 2017).

 Dependence on our possession as a definition of ourselves is reflected on how we

purchase, care, and worry, for the things that we have including the effort exerted in
acquiring them. The brand, color, or quality of bags, perfumes, wristwatches, gadgets,
books, shoes, and other possessions we have are reflections of who we are. At times,
it is not the capacity to buy, but the interest to possess and the priority set in having
those possessions. The cliché, “tell me who your friends are, and I will tell you who you
are” can be translated to “tell me what you possess, and I will tell you where you are
obsessed. This is so because there are people who are very particular with the color
of products, the genre, the brand, or the cartoon character they symbolize.

 The significance of the things we possess does not lie in the thing itself but in the
memory ascribed to it. For instance, you bought the bag during your first anniversary,
it was a gift to yourself; a ring you purchased which reminds you of a faithful friend; a
brand of watch that reminds you of the time spent with your first boyfriend; purchasing
the same brand of perfume reminds you of a long-lost friend. The so-called,
sentimental value is greatly valued by many hence the difficulty in giving them up or
foregoing them. So, they end up being possessed by what they possess. The
detrimental effect of materialism occurs when hoarding disorder happen. Hoarding
disorder is characterized by the acquisition and retention of possessions up to the
 extent of impairing a person’s life, regardless of the value of the items (Christopher,
Moulding, & Knight, 2017).

2. Consumer Culture
 refers to a marketing strategy planning theory that focuses on the relationship
consumers have with certain goods and services. It helps target groups of individuals
who share the same interest, desires, and needs for a certain product or service. It
essentially considers consumer behavior toward certain products. Entrepreneurs would
look for ways in order to provide the items desired by consumers. Significant predictors
of materialism were celebrity endorsement, peer groups, and TV advertisement.
Moreover, materialism is the significant predictor of compulsive buying behavior
(Islama, Weia, Sheikhb, Hameeda, & Azamc, 2017).

o People are likely to purchase products that can relate to their personality. Material
possessions signify some aspects of one’s sense of self and identity.

o Possessions, tell a lot about their owners. Thus, one’s sense of self and identity is
influential on how an individual chooses to purchase his/her wants and how he/she
makes economic decisions that will address his/her personal and social needs.

o The decisions that go into the purchase of items and certain services is dependent on
a number of factors, including financial constraints, availability of items and services,
and the influence of family and friends.

However, the most important factor is determining whether these items and services
fall under:

WANTS – synonymous with luxuries. People buy them for reasons that do not warrant
necessity.

NEEDS – these are important for survival. Food, clothing, and shelter are basic needs, so
people purchase them out of necessity.

In the process of acquiring material goods, people generally consider 2 things:

UTILITY – concerned with how things serve a practical purpose.

SIGNIFICANCE – concerned with the meaning assigned to the object. It is also concerned
with how objects become powerful symbols or icons of habit and ritual which can be quite
separate from their primary function.
MODULE 4!

Cognition
 People are born with innate capabilities that empower them to manage themselves in
various settings and situations.
 Cognition is a crucial part of an individual’s development process which influences
behavior, just as how behavior also impacts it, assuming a bi-directional connection.
The way information is taken in and how it is analyzed and processed is a function of
human cognition.
 Cognition is defined as 'the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and
understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. It is in essence, the ability
to perceive and react, process, and understand, store and retrieve information, make
decisions, and produce appropriate responses.

There are 6 main types of cognitive processes:

• Language. A language is a form of communication we use each day.

• Attention. Being able to concentrate on one thing/item/task at a time.
• Memory. Memory is a hub of stored knowledge.
• Perception.
• Learning.
• Higher Reasoning.

If cognition covers all higher-order thinking processes within an individual, a major focus of its
study is the function of memory.

Memory
• It is the faculty of the mind through which information is acquired and retained for later
use.

Memory functions in 3 levels:

• Sensory memory
• the level that allows information from the external environment to be perceived by an
individual through senses, usually in the form of chemical and physical stimuli, often
with focus and intent.

• Short-term or working memory

• where information is temporarily stored, where information is simultaneously
remembered and is in a readily available state, typically from 10 to 15 seconds, up to
one minute. It can store up to 5-9 items, after which information is discarded if there is
no conscious and deliberate effort to retain it.

• Long-term memory
 When there is a deliberate effort to store information and it is done consistently and
with practice, then this information is transferred to long-term memory.
 Information stored in long-term memory is often permanent and allows for repeated
retrievals across situations.
Intelligence
 referred to an individual’s capacity for understanding, learning, planning, and problem-
solving with logic, creativity, and self-awareness.
 It is characterized as the application of knowledge to be able to adjust to the
environment.
 It is the process of applying knowledge in the proper context whenever the need arises.

Characteristics of Intelligence:

 It is an ability to abstract thinking.

 It is a capacity to adjust in new situation.
 It is a general mental adaptability.
 It is an ability to relate diverse situations.
 It is the capacity to acquire capacities and origins.

A number of theories have already been presented regarding intelligence.

Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

The Multiple intelligence model of Howard Gardner has proposed eight (8) types of human
intelligence, as follows:

o Verbal-linguistic – ability to analyze information and produce output that involves oral
and written language.

o Logical-mathematical – ability to understand and answer mathematical equations.

o Visual-spatial – ability to analyze graphical information.

o Musical – ability to produce and make meaning of different types of sound.

o Naturalistic – ability to identify and distinguish aspects of the natural world.

o Bodily-kinesthetic – ability to use one’s body to create products or solve problems.

o Interpersonal – ability to be sensitive to other people’s thoughts and emotions.

o Intrapersonal – the ability for self-introspection.

Aside from the Multiple Intelligence Theory, another framework proposed is that of Sternberg’s
Triarchic Theory of intelligence.

Robert Stenberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

According to Sternberg (1895), intelligence is defined as “a mental activity

directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world
environments relevant to one’s life.” Sternberg proposed three aspects of intelligence:
componential, experiential, and contextual intelligence. According to the theory, intelligence is
a function of how these three aspects are interchangeably used by the individual and up to
what levels they are used.
3 aspects of Intelligence:

o Componential (Analytical) – includes abstract thinking and logical reasoning, verbal,

and mathematical skills.

o Experiential (Creative) – Divergent thinking and ability to deal with novel situations.

o Contextual (Practical) – being “street smart”; ability to apply knowledge to the real
world and shape or choose an environment.

Both the theory of multiple intelligences and the triarchic theory of intelligence explain the
nature of intelligence and the personal and environmental factors that shape it.

If cognition, memory, and intelligence are underlying mechanisms that allow people to
perceive, process, and apply information for daily adaptation, then learning is a natural
consequence of these mechanisms.

Learning
 defined as a relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior as a
result of experience.

This definition connotes 3 things:

1. The change is long-term.

2. The source of change comes from within the external structures of memory or
knowledge of the individual.

3. The change is attributed to the personal experiences of the learner in his/her

environment.

People learn in many ways, and several theories and models have been forwarded to
understand and explain how learning occurs. One such theory is the social cognitive theory
which emphasizes the value of the social environment in one’s learning process that is built
on observational learning.

Based on this theory, there are 4 stages in observational learning:

1. ATTENTION
 When an individual focuses on information that he/she perceives to be interesting and
useful.

2. RETENTION
 Stores and gives a mental representation of the information.

3. MOTOR REPRODUCTION
 Recalls and rehearses the information given.

4. MOTIVATION
  Repeats the entire process constantly and consistently, then learning happens.

Learning happens even beyond the classroom; it happens in daily situations.

According to the social cognitive theory, there is an interaction of personal (cognition,

personality, motivational, orientation), environmental (family, schools and other settings, peers
and social relationships), and behavioral factors (feedback and consequence) that accounts
for behavioral change.

The notion of learning is underlined by notions of self-efficacy and human agency.

Self-efficacy
 defined as the extent to which people believe that they can confidently learn and
master a particular skill.

According to Albert Bandura, self-efficacy can be developed through the following:

1. Mastery experience
 Accomplishing simple tasks that lead to more complex tasks.

2. Social modelling.
 Observing an identifiable model who accomplishes the task.

3. Improving physical and emotional states.

Being relaxed and calm before pursuing a challenging task.

4. Verbal persuasion.
 Providing encouragement and feedback during the accomplishment of a challenging
task.

Human Agency
 another valuable principle in the learning process.
 People are not products of inner forces or environments; they are self-regulating and
proactive.

Thus, in the learning process, students are equally accountable for their performance as
much as their teachers. While teachers are considered agents of motivating the learning
process, students have the responsibility to be equally involved as well. It is in this perspective
that students are considered agents of their own learning, and they are expected to invest in
their own learning, and they are expected to invest in their own learning process.

This leads to the question of how much of an investment should students make in the learning
process. There are 2 strategies in learning that students can use:

1. Surface learning.
 Students simply accept information presented to them and memorize them in
an isolated and unlinked manner.

2. Learning.
 The deeper understanding of information by creating significant meaningful
links across different concepts and how it can be applied in practical ways.
To adopt deep learning strategies, students can engage in the following habits:

1. Taking down notes. By taking down notes, students reinforce the absorption of ideas
and can relate them to past information they have already stored.

2. Asking questions during class sessions. Asking questions during class resolves
two things; fostering discussions and individual and group discovery allows the
opportunity for immediate feedback on the learning process.

3. Creating cognitive maps. The essence of deep learning is making meaningful

connections among information relayed to the learner. By creating cognitive maps,
students can link concepts together, resulting to the personal construction of meaning
shared by this information and enabling transfer to long-term memory.

4. Engaging in collaborative learning activities with mentors and peers. There is a

saying that “two heads are better than one.” In joining study groups, learners can
converse, exchange ideas, engage in debate, and immerse in peer evaluation that can
be used for personal feedback. Thus, teachers present collaborative learning
opportunities for this purpose.

5. Going beyond the mandatory course requirements. Reading additional reference

materials, watching films that exhibit concepts discussed in class, going on trips for
authentic learning experiences, and other learning opportunities not signified in the
course syllabus can greatly enhance the learning process.

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