DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEMS

CHAPTER ONE
Linear discrete dynamic system analysis

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OUTLINE
Linear discrete dynamic system analysis
Review of analog control and analog signals
 Introduction to digital control (Digitization)
Sample and hold, discrete equivalents to
continuous transfer function
Effect of quantization in digital data
Review of Z-transform and discrete data
system
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Review of analog control and analog signals
What is a control system

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Objective:
To make the system OUTPUT and the desired
REFERENCE as close as possible, i.e., to make
the ERROR as small as possible.
Key points:
1) How to describe the system to be controlled?
(Modeling)
2) How to design the controller? (Control)

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In your introduction to Control Systems, you
know how to make an analog controller D(s)
to control a linear-time-invariant (LTI) plant
G(s).
We used feedback control system to:
Reduce error due to disturbance
Reduce error due to model mismatch
Stabilize an unstable plant
Improve transient response.

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Modeling of dynamic systems
Model: A representation of a system
Types of model
1) Physical model (prototype)
2) Mathematical model
Example :- input output relationship

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Signal categories for identifying control system
1. Continuous time signal and quantized signal
Continuous time signal is defined continuously
in the time domain. Figure below shows a
continuous time signal represented by x(t). The
real world consists of analog signals.
Quantized signal is a signal whose amplitudes
are discrete and limited. Figure below shows a
quantized signal.

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Figure 1.1 Continuous and quantized signal

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2. Discrete time signal and sampled data signal
Discrete time signal is defined only at a certain
time instants. The amplitude between two
consecutive time instants is just not defined.
Figure below shows discrete time signal.
Sampled data signal is a discrete time signal
resulting by sampling a continuous time signal
by a sampling process.

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Figure 1.2 discrete time signal and sampled
data signal

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3 . Digital signal
Digital signal is a sequence of binary numbers. In
or out from a microprocessor, a semiconductor
memory or a shift register.
In practice a digital signal is derived as shown in
the figure below is derived by two process.
Sampling and then quantized.

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Figure 1.3 digital signal

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 Exercise on Analog Controler
Consider the feedback control system shown
below

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The controller transfer function is given by

Implement the analog controller

N.B: Do all the necessary derivations
(realization)
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 Digital control system
Digital controls are used for achieving optimal
performance for example in the form of
maximum productivity, maximum profit,
minimum cost or minimum energy use.

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Fig 1.4 digital control system for the given
digital input

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 Fig 1.5 digital control system for the given
continuous input

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Figure 1.6 below shows the topology of the
typical continuous system

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Digital implementation of the continuous
system shown in figure 1.6 is given by

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The fundamental difference between the two
implementations are:
The digital system operates on samples of the
sensed plant output rather than on the continuous
signal.
The controller D(s) in the digital implementation is
represented by algebraic recursive equations called
difference equations

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 Simplified version of a digital control systems
when we have discrete input signal to the
controller is as shown below.

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A/D converter converts analog signal most
commonly an electrical voltage into a binary
number that usually consists of 10 or 12 bits.
The conversion from the analog signal occurs
repetitively at instant of time that are T
seconds apart.
T is called sample period and 1/T is sample
rate in cycle per second or Hz.

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The digital signal is converted to a continuous
signal by the D/A and hold.
The D/A converts the binary number to an
analog voltage and a zero order hold (ZOH)
maintains that the same voltage throughout
the sample period.
The discrete signal is converted to a
quantized signal by ZOH only.
 The continuous signal is converted into a
discrete signal by using sampler.

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Why digital control?
Control systems in continuous-time setting in
the past are usually implemented using
analogue devices such resistors, capacitors,
inductors and operational amplifiers together
with some necessary mechanical components.
These devices are neither economical nor
durable.

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 The advances in computer technologies make the
implementation of control systems in discrete-
time setting (i.e., digital controllers) much more
efficiently and economically possible.
 Most of control systems nowadays are
implemented using either computers such as PCs
or Digital Signal Processes (DSP), which are
specially designed to carry out computations
related to control algorithm realizations.

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Advantages
The advantages of digital controllers using PC
or DSP are obvious — it is fast, reliable,
reusable and can be modified through simple
recoding whenever needed.

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Disadvantages
Sampling and quantization process will
degrade system performance
Software errors
Need power supply

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To make a digital computer approximation the
continuous transfer function D(s) must be
converted into difference equation using
Euler’s method.
Forward Difference
The Taylor series is given by

Where

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Figure of forward difference

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If we truncate the Taylor series after the 1st
derivative:

Hence the forward difference is given by

Where h = T = Sample period

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Backward difference
 It is possible to write the Taylor series as
follows

Where

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Figure of backward difference

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If we truncate the Taylor series after the 1st
derivative:

Hence the backward difference is given by

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Central difference
by subtracting backward difference from
forward difference that is given by

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Subtracted result will be

Hence by neglecting higher derivative the

central difference is given by

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Example
Find the difference equation using forward
difference

Solution

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Exercise
let

Use “forward rectangular rule” to digitize the

above transfer function and Choose to try a
sample rate of 20 Hz and also try 40 Hz.

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Exercise
Proof that the 2nd Order Forward Difference is
given by

Proof that the 2nd Order backward Difference

is given by

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Proof that the 2nd Order central Difference is
given by

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 Effect of quantization in digital data

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 Z-TRANSFORM
we saw that the Laplace transform is a very
powerful tool for analysis and design of
analog control systems.
But Z-transform is a very powerful tool for
analysis and design discrete-time (digital)
control systems.

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DEFINITION: if X(z) is the z-transformer of x(k)
and is given by

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Example
Define the digital impulse (unit pulse) function
to be

Hence the Z-transform is given by

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Let x[k] be the discrete unit-step function.

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Consider now the identity

Hence

Let find X(Z)

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Hence

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 Properties of the z-transform
Linearity
If x[k] ↔ X (z) and v[k] ↔ V (z),

Real translation
Suppose x[k] ↔ X (z), and q is a positive integer

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Complex translation
Given that the z-transform of e(k) is E(z) then

Initial value: given the z-transform of e(k) is E(z).

Then
Final value: given the z-transform of e(k) is E(z).
Then

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Generally z-transform properties are listed
below:

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 Solution of difference equation
 There are different techniques for solving
linear time invariant difference equations.
Some of them are:
sequential method
Inverse z-transform method

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Example using sequential method
1. Find m(k) for the equation

Where and both e(-1) and

m(-1) are zero.
solution

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Using inverse z-transform method
 Assume the difference equation is given by

The z-transform using the real translation

property is given by

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Solving the expression above for M(z) yields

Hence m(k) can be find by taking the inverse

z-transform of M(z).

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Example
Find m(k) using inverse z-transform for the
equation

Where
solution
The z-transform of this equation via real
translation property is given by

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and E(z) is given by

Hence

If we expand M(z) by into a power series by

dividing the numerator of M(z) by its
denominator so as to obtain

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 The Inverse z-transform
We have different methods to find the inverse z-
transform.
1. Power series method:
This method is for finding the inverse z-
transform of a function by dividing the
numerator into the denominator.
Example
It is desired to find e(k)for E(z) given by the
expression

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Solution

From the above division

e(0)= 0, e(1) = 1, e(2)=3, e(3)=7, e(4)=15, ...
Hence

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2. Partial fraction expansion method
The function can be expanded in partial
functions and then tables of known z-transform
pairs can be used to determine the inverse z-
transform.
The order of num(s) < order of den(s).
Example: using partial fraction expansion
determine the inverse z-transform of the
function

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Solution

Exercise: find the inverse z-transform

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Z-transforms

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3. Using the theorem of residue

If the function 𝐸(𝑧)𝑧 𝑘−1 has a simple pole at

z = a, the residue is evaluated as

For a pole of order m at z = a, the residue is

calculated as using the expression

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Example
Determine the inverse z-transform of the
function E(z) using residue theorem

Solution

Exercise: find the inverse z-transform using

residue theorem
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