SSC 105 MODULE

Teacher In Absentia

Prepared By Adetutu Olufemi

Department of Demography and Social Statistics

OAU, Ile-Ife, Nigeria

 SET THEORY

A set is any collection of ‘well-defined’ objects. Well-defined in the sense that it is always clear
what the objects that make up a particular set are. The objects that make up a set could be
letters, ideas, colours, numbers, signs, symbols, .... and are usually called the elements or the
members of a set. We use upper case letters [capital letters] to denote the sets. Examples A, B,
X, Z, N, C, R, Q, M, K .... One way of identifying a set is to list its members into a pair of braces,
separated by commas.

Set Forms

A set can be in tabular form or Builder form.

Tabular Form: When the elements or members are listed or stated, e.g.
A = {1, 2, 3}, P = {4, 7} B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

X = {b, a, n, k}; Y = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...} R = {5, 3, m, e, 9, 8, -7, -3, 14}

Builder Form: When the elements are not listed but with the properties to which they can be
determined. Examples are shown below:
This is another way of identifying a set stating the property which all its elements possess in
‘common’.

Examples A = {whole numbers between 1 and 8 inclusive} OR

A = { 𝑥: 1≤ 𝑥 ≤ 8} which we read as A is a set of all 𝑥 such that 𝑥 lies between 1 and
8

Y = {non-zero positive even numbers }

B = set of even numbers

Thus B = {2, 4, 6, ....} i.e numbers divisible by 2
C = set of prime numbers
Thus C = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, ...} i.e numbers divisible by 1 and themselves.

P = sets of powers of 2
Thus P = { 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , … ..}

Q = { −3 < 𝑥 < 4} – meaning numbers between -3 and 4 only i.e not including -3 and
4
Thus Q = {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
R = { −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4}
meaning numbers from -3 and 4 inclusive
R = {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
 N = { −3 ≤ 𝑥 < 4}
meaning numbers from -3 to 4 but 4 is not inclusive
N = {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
Y = { 𝑥: 𝑥 is an odd number}
Y is a set of elements 𝑥such that 𝑥 is odd number
Thus Y = {1, 3, 5, 7, ....}
M = { | 𝑥 is integer}
meaning set of elements 𝑥 such that 𝑥 is a whole number.
Thus M = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ....}

Note: if 𝑥 is an element of set A, we write 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴;

If y is not an element of set A, we write y ∉ A

Cardinality of a set

The number of elements in a set a is denoted by n(A) and called the cardinality of set A. Any
element that is repeated is usually counted once.

Examples: if A ={4, a, b, c, 9}; n(A) = 5;

X = {-2, 6, 8, -8, 4, -4/2, 3/2, 5/2, 8/2}; n(X) = 7

A finite set contains a definite number of elements while an infinite set has an
indefinite/limitless number of elements.

If A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...}
F = { ..., -3, -1, 1, 3, 5, ...}
X = {whole numbers between 10 and 100}
Y = { fraction between 1 and 2}

Then A and X are finite set n(A) = 5; n(X) = 91; while B, F and y are infinite sets.

A set that contains no element is called a NUL SET or an EMPTY SET and is denoted by ∅ or { }.
A set that contains only one element is called a SINGLETON SET.

Examples: A = {33}; Q = {k}; M = {-1/2}; K = {1}; T = {0}; F = {∅} are singeleton sets

EQUIVALENT and EQUAL SETS

Two sets A and B are equivalent sets if n(A) = n(B). That is A and B contain the same number of
elements. Two sets are said to be equal if every element of A is also an element of B and every
element of B is also an element of A. That is, A and B are equal if they contain exactly the same
elements. Then we write: A = B

Examples: Let A = {3, 4, 6, 8}; B = {6, 7, 8, 9}; C = {3, 6, 4, 8};

D = {m, 3, 7, 8};
X = {4, 5, 7, 9, 12, 17}; Y = 4, 12, 5, 17, 7}
Then A, B, C, D are equivalent sets ; A and C are equal sets; A = C; X and Y are equal sets; X = Y

The order of listing the elements of set is not important.

Note: sets can be equal if they have the same basic elements irrespective of the order/position
or number of such element.

a) In A =n {1, 2, 3}; B = 2, 3, 1}
A = B (regardless of the position)
b) If A = {1, 2, 3}; B = {1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 3}
A = B as the same basic elements are present

Subsets: A set that contains elements that are part of a bigger set, e.g. a class is a subset of the
students in a school. Simply put, a set X is a subset of a set Y if every elements of X is also an
element of set Y and we write X ⊂ Y, where X could be equal to Y, we write: X ⊆ Y.

A subset can be proper or improper. It is a proper subset if it is not empty and it is part of
another set i.e. it is not equal to it.

Thus, B is a proper subset of A if B ≠ { }; b ⊂ A and B ≠ A. It is an improper subset if it empty or it

contains all the elements in another set.

Thus, B is improper subset of A, B = { }, B ⊂ A and B = A. Thus B ⊆ A.

Examples are as shown below:

1. A = ∅, B = {1, 3, 2, 3} – A is an improper subset of B as A = B

2. A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {1, 3, 2, 3} – A is an improper subset of B as A = B
3. A = { 0 }, B = {1, 2, 3} – A is a proper subset of B as zero is a number.

Superset:- A set that contains another set. E.g. if B is a subset of A, then A is a superset of B, i.e.
if B ⊂ A, then A ⊃ B

Note: We say that X ⊂ Y, X ≠ ∅ and X ≠ Y

If set A = {3, 4, 6, 9, 10} and

B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} then A ⊂ B
Consider the set F are:
{ }, {0}, {4}, {5}, {0,4}, {0,5}, {4,5}, {0,4,5}. For every non-empty set A, the two subsets ∅ and Aare
special subsets called trivia subsets: ∅ ⊂ A and A ⊆ A. Any other subset is a proper subset.

Power sets: The power set of a set A denoted by P(A) and given by: P(A) = {p: p ⊂ A}
That is, P(A) is a collection of all the subsets of set A.

Example 1: Given the set A = {4, 7, 9}, find P(A)

Solution:
P(A) = { }, {4}, {7}, {9}, {4,7}, {4,9}, {7,9}, {4,7,9}.

The power set of a given set A is the set of all possible subsets of A. It is denoted by p(A).
E.g. if B = {2,3} the power set of B is:
P(A) = { {2,3}, {2}, {3}, ∅ }

Similarly if A = {a, b,c} the power set A is: P(A) = { {a, b, c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c} {a}, {b}, {c}, ∅ }

Exercise: Find the power set of the following sets:

i. {a} ii. {b, c} iii. {3, 4, 5}

Remarks:

1. The number of subsets in a power set is 2𝑛 where n is the number of members in the given
set. E.g for set B with two elements, number of subsets is 22 = 4. For A which has three
elements, number 5, 9, 10}of subsets is 23 = 8
2. ∅ and the set itself are automatic members of a power set.

* Examples of power subsets

1. If A = {a, e, w, u}
B = {a, e, u, r, s, w} the A ⊂ B
2. If however every element in X is an element in Y and Y does not have any other element(s)
that are not in X, then X is said to be equal to Y,
X ⊂ Y, Y ⊂ X ⇒ X = Y. E.g If
T = {f, o, e, w}
R = {f, o, w, e}
Here T ⊂ R and R ⊂ T : T = R

Universal set: if all the sets iin a given discussion are to be subsets of a fixed over all set U, then
U is called the universal set. Alternatively, universal set can be defined as overall set that
contains all possible members. Examples: if A = {3, 5, 6, 7, 8}, B = {a, b, c, d} the universal set
U = {a, b, c, d, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8}
 COMPLEMENT OF A SET

If A is a subset of the universal set U, then the set of element in U that is not A and is denoted
by AI or Ac similarly, a set can be regarded as complement if it contains elements that are not
common to the universal and given sets. This is denoted as the prime of C. Let the universal set
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .....};
A = {3, 5, 9} and B = {2, 4, 5, 9, 10}
Then AI = {1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10}
and BI = {1, 3, 6, 7, 8}
also, if U = {1, 2, 3, 4}
A = {1, 3}
Then A or AC = {2, 4} called A prime or complement.
I

Alternatively, AI or AC can be written as U – A

Example: Let
U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}
A = {a, b, e, f, g}
B = { b, c, d, f, g, h}
Find (a) AI (b) BI (c) AI – BI (d) (A U B)I

Solution:

1. AI = {c, d, h}
2. BI = {a, e}
3. AI – BI = {c, d, h}
4. (A U B)I = {a, b, c, d, e, f,, g, h}I = ∅

Exercise: Given that U = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

A = {5, 6, 8}, B = {3, 4, 5, 7} Find (i) (A U B)I (ii) (A ∩B)I (iii) AI ∩ BI

Intersection, Union and Difference of sets

The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B is the set containing all the elements
common to A and B. Thus A ∩ B = {[𝑥: 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}. Two sets that have no element in
common are said to be disjoint sets. For example, the intersection of sets such as P and Q is
denoted as P ∩ Q.
Thus if A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
B = {2, 3, 5, 7}
A ∩ B = {3, 5, 7}
Set can also be united. The union is possible when the elements between two or more sets can
be arranged in a definite order without repetition. Union of A and B is denoted by A U B.
For A = {1, 4} and B = {2, 3}, A U B = {1, 2, 3, 4}
For P = {1, 2, 3} and Q = {2, 3, 5}; P U Q = { 1, 2, 3, 5}
Note that 2 and 3 occurs in the two cases are not repeated in the union set. The union set of A
and b denoted by A U B, is the set containing all the elements in A and B without repetition.
Thus A U B = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵}

Consider the sets:

X = {1, 2, 3, 7, 9}; Y = {2, 3, 8, 9}; P = {4, 5, 7}
Then X ∩ Y = {2, 3, 9}
X ∩ P = {7}
Y∩P={}
X U Y = {1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9}
X U P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9}
Y U P = {2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9}
* Y and P are disjoint sets
Note: n(X U Y) = n(X) + n(Y) – n(X ∩ Y)
n(X U P) = n(X) + n(P) – n(X ∩ P)
n(Y U P) = n(Y) + n(P) – n(P) .... n(Y ∩ P) = 0

Example

Let the universal set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, ..., 10}

A = {4, 6, 7, 9, 10} and B = {33, 6, 9}
Find
(a) i. (A ∩ B)I; ii. (A U B)I (b)i. AI ∩ BI ii. AI U BI

Solution

(a) i. A ∩ B = {6, 9} and (A ∩B)I = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10}

ii. A U B = {3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10} and (A U B)I = {1, 2, 5, 8}

(b) AI = {1, 2, 3, 5, 8}
BI = {1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10}
i. AI ∩ BI = {1, 2, 5, 8}
ii. AI U BI = {11, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10}

Interpretation of Sets
 Set of A = A
Set of elements not in A = AI
Set of the elements in A and B = A ∩ B
Set of the elements in A or B = (A U B)I
Set of the elements that are not in A or not in B = AI U BI = (A ∩B)I
Set of elements that are not in A and not in B = AI ∩ BI = (A U B)I
neither A nor B = not A not(or) not B = AI ∩ BI

Representation of sets in Venn diagram

This is a method of illustrating set information in circles drawn within a rectangle, called Venn
diagram. It is also a pictorial representation of sets, is often useful in indication and verifying
relationship between two sets. One of such pictorial representation is the Venn diagrams are
drawing which illustrate how sets are related. It consists of a rectangle as universal set and
circles as subsets. By shading appropriate areas, all combination of sets can be represented
pictorially.

Examples: use Venn diagram to represent the following sets:

(i) A U B (ii) A ∩ B when A ∩ B ≠ 0 (iii) A ∩ B when A ∩ B ≠ 0
(iv) A U B when A ⊂B (v) A ∩ B when A ⊂ B

(1) (2)
U U

A B A B

A ∩ B when A ∩ B ≠ ∅
AUB
(3) U (4)
U

A B B

A ∩ B when A ∩ B = ∅ A U B when A ⊂ B

U
(5)

A ∩ B when A ⊂ B

Representation of set:

1. Elements in a set: - This is represented by shading innermost part of the circle

A Set of elements in A = shaded

region

2. Complement of a set:
This is represented by shading the outermost part of a circle denoting a given set. This is
because elements in A is the same as the elements common to A and universal

A
A = innermost part of the circle
AI = outermost part or shaded region
3. Intersection of sets: Sets with common elements

A B
U

When some elements are common e.g. A = {1,2,,3}; B = {2, 4, 6}; A ∩ B = { 2 }

When all elements in one are common. E.g A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

B = {1,3}
A ∩ B = {1, 3} = B
B⊂A

4. Union of sets: i.e elements within the given sets without repetition.

A B

Union with subset

A e.g. A = {1, 2, 3}
B = {2, 3}
A U B = (1, 2, 3)
A U B = A (the largest set)
(A U B) = n(A)
 Unions with no intersection, thus n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) i.e all elements are involved

A B

Union with intersection e.g A = {1,2, 3}

B = {2, 4, 6}
n(A U B) = 5 = n(A) + n(B) – 1, i.e
n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)

Other set Notations

Apart from the properties represented by Venn diagram, there are other combinations that can
be illustrated in the same manner.

Examples include:
AI U B, A U BI, AI ∩ B, (A ∩ B)I, etc.

This can be done by representing each set by different shading lines such as vertical and
horizontal or incline and vertical, where the illustration tends to be complicated, extract of a
rule called De-Morgan’s rule which shall be dealt with.

The rule states that (AI)I = A

(A U B)I = AI ∩ BI
These are illustrated as shown below:
A U B – elements outside A + elements inside B

(i)
A B A B
 AI = vertical shading
B = horizontal shading
AI U B = all shaded regions as shown

(ii)

A B A B

U OR U

(2) AI U BI – elements outside A + elements outside B

A B

AI = vertical shading
BI = horizontal shading
AI U BI = all shaded with the exception of A ∩ B. Alternatively, AI U BI = (A ∩ B)I by De Morgan’s
law. Also, (A ∩ B)I = U – (A ∩ B). i.e universal with the exception of A ∩ B.

3) AI ∩ B – common regions to AI and B

A B A B
U U

AI = vertical shading
BI = horizontal shading
AI ∩ B = B only
 A B A B
U U

4) AI ∩ BI = intersection of the two shadings

AI ∩ BI = elements outside A and B
Alternatively, AI ∩ BI = (A U B)I by De Morgan’s. Also, (A U B)I = U – (A U B)

COMPONENTS OF INTERSECTING SETS

Two Sets

A B
q
p r U

A = {p,q}, B = {q,r}

(a) Common elements to A and B = q i.e. A ∩ B = {q}

(b) Elements in A only = elements in A but not in B = {p}. i.e. A ∩ BI = {p}
(c) Elements in B only = elements in B but not in A = {r}. i.e. AI ∩ B = {r}
(d) Elements in A or B = A U B = {p, q, r}. i.e. A U B = {p, q, r}
(e) Elements not in A or B = {s}. i.e. (A U B)I = {s}
(f) Universal set = total elements in the rectangle, i.e. universal set = elements in the circles
and the ones outside. U = {p, q ,r, s}

Also, (1) p + q = A, p = A – q, i.e A ∩ BI = n(A) – n(A ∩ B) i.e elements in A only = Total A

– possible intersection of A
(2) As q + r = B, r = B – q
i.e AI ∩ B = B – (A ∩ B)
:- n(AI ∩ B) = n(B) – n(A ∩ B)
i.e elements in B only = Total B – intersection of B with another set

(3) As (A U B) = {p, q, r}
(A U B) = A ∩ BI + A ∩ B + AI ∩ B
 (A U B) = (A – A ∩ B) + A ∩ B + (B – A ∩ B)
(A U B) = A + B – n(A ∩ B)
n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)
n(U) = n(A U B) + n(A U B) + n(A U B)I = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B) + n(A U B)I

Three sets
A B
p q
t U
r
u s w

v
c

A = {p, q, r, u}
B = {q, t, r, s}
C = {u, r, s, v}
(A ∩ B ∩ ) = {r}
(A ∩ B) = {q, r}
(A ∩ C) = {u, r}
(B ∩ C) = {r, s}

 A and B only = A and b but not C

: - A and B only = A ∩ B ∩ CI = {q}
 A and C only = A and c but not B = A ∩ BI ∩ C = {u}
 B and C only = B and C but not A = AI ∩ B ∩ C = {s}
 A only = A but not B and C = A ∩ BI ∩ CI = {p}
 B only = B but not A and C = AI ∩ B ∩ C = {t}
 C only = C but not A and B = AI ∩ BI ∩ C = {v}
 AU B U C = {p, q, r, s, t, u, v}

U = elements in circles and the ones outside

U = (A U B U C) + (A U B U C)I = {p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w}

Also,
1. q + r = A ∩ B, q = A ∩ B – r, i.e A ∩ B ∩ CI = A ∩ B – (A ∩ B ∩ C)
:- n(A ∩ B ∩ CI) = n(A ∩ B) – n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
i.e elements in A and B only is A and B (total) – intersection of A, B with other set
2. u + r = A ∩ C, U = A U C – r, i.e A ∩ BI ∩ C = A ∩ C – (A ∩ B ∩ C)
: - n(A ∩ BI ∩ C) = n(A ∩ C) – n(A ∩ B ∩ C) elements in A and C (total) – intersection of A, c
with other set.
Similarly, elements in B and C only is B and C (total) – intersection of B,C with other set, i.e
n(AI ∩ B ∩ C) = n(B ∩ C) – n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
3. p + q + r + u = A
p = A – (q +r + u) = A – (A ∩ B + u) = A – (A ∩ B) – u
i.e A ∩ BI ∩ CI = A – A ∩ B – [(A ∩ C) –n(A ∩ B ∩ C)]
A ∩ BI ∩ CI = A – (A ∩ B) – (A ∩ C) + (A ∩ B ∩ C)
: - n(A ∩ BI ∩ CI) is n(A) – n(A ∩ B) – n(A ∩ C) + (A ∩ B ∩ C)
elements in A only = A (total) – intersection of A with one other set + intersection of the
three.
Similarly, B only = n(AI ∩ B ∩ CI)
n(AI ∩ B ∩ CI) is n(B) – n(B ∩ C) – n(B ∩ A) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
C only: n(AI ∩ BI ∩ C)
n(AI ∩ BI ∩ C) is n(C) – n(C ∩ A) – n(C ∩ B) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

4. As (A U B U C) = {p,, q, r, s, t, u, v}
(A U B U C) = { A, s, t, v} as A = {p, q, r, u}
(A U B U C) = A + (AI ∩ B ∩ C) + ( AI ∩ B ∩ C) + (AI ∩ B ∩ CI) + (AI ∩ BI ∩ C)
(A U B U C) = A + (B ∩ C – A ∩ B ∩ C) + (B – A ∩ B – B ∩ C + A ∩ B ∩ C) + ( C – C ∩ A – C ∩ B +
A∩B∩C
(A ∩ B ∩ C) is A + B + C – (A ∩ B) – (B ∩ C) – (A ∩ C) + (A ∩ B ∩ C)
n(A ∩ B ∩ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A ∩ B) – n(B ∩ C) – n(A ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
n(U) = n(A U B U C) + n(A U B U C)I
n(U) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A U B) – n(B ∩ C) – n(A ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C) + n(A U B U C)I

Relationships between Sets and Set Laws

1. Disjoint sets – sets with no elements in common:
If A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {2, 4, 6}; A ∩ B = ∅ or { }
2. Comparability of sets: sets with one being a subset of the other. i.e A ⊂ B or B ⊂ A

Set Laws

Note:
1. Union and complements are each commutative. The production of the same result
between the given sets when interchanged or with the order of arrangement reversed,
e.g.
(a) A U B = B U A (b) A ∩ B = B ∩ A
2. Associative: union and intersection are each associative: production of the same result
between the given sets and the results produced when different pairs are combined.
(a) A U B U C = (A U B) U C = A U (B U C)
(b) A ∩ B ∩ C = (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
3. Distributive law: union and intersection each distribute over the other. The production of
the same result between the given sets and the results obtained when a set is shared
over other sets.
(a) A U (B ∩ C) = (A U B) ∩ (A U C)
(b) A ∩ (B U C) = (A ∩ B) U (A ∩ C

Special Relationships
4. For idempotent law: relationship between two identical sets to produce one of them, e.g
(a) A U A = A (b) A ∩ A = A
5. Identity Law: relationship between where one is produced as the output, e.g.
(a) A U ∅ = A (b) A U ⋃ = ⋃
(c) A ∩ ⋃ = A (d) A ∩ ∅ = ∅
6. Complement law: relating to complement set or combination of a set with its
complement.
(a) (AI)I = A (b) A U AI = A (c) A ∩ AI = ∅
7. Absorption law: relationship between sets where one is a subset of the other to produce
one of them.
E.g A U (A ∩ B) = A and A ∩ (A U B) = A
8. De-Morgan’s law: expansion of compliments of joint sets
(a) (A U B)I = AI ∩ BI
(b) (A ∩ B)I = AI U BI

Application of set laws

(a) [A ∩ (A ∩ BI)]I = AI U (A ∩ B)
= (AI U A) ∩ (AI U B) ⇒ distributive
= ⋃ ∩ (AI U B) = (AI U B) as (⋃ ∩ N = N)
(b) [A ∩ (AI ∩ BI)]I = AI U (A U B) = (AI U A) U B (non-distributive) = ⋃ U B = ⋃
(c) AI ∩ (A ∪ B)I = AI ∩ (AI ∩ BI) = AI ∩ AI ∩ BI = AI ∩ BI = (A U B)I
Alternatively: AI ∩ (A U B)I = [A U (A U B)]I = (A U B)I
(d) (AI U BI) ∩ (A ∩ B) = (A ∩ B)I ∩ (A ∩ B) = PI ∩ P = ∅
(e) [PI ∩ (Q U QI)]I = (PI)I ∩ (Q ∩ QI)I = P U (QI ∩ Q) = P U ∅ = P
(f) Given that for sets A and B, in a universal set E, A ⊆ B then A ∩ (A ∩ B)I A ⊆ B means A is a
subset of B, i.e all A are in B, Thus A ∩ B = A
:- A ∩ (A ∩ B)I, A ∩ (A)I = A ∩ AI = ∅
(g) (P U Q) ∩ (P U QI) = [(P U Q) ∩ P] U [(P U Q) ∩ QI]
= [(P ∩ P) U (P ∩ Q)] U [(QI ∩ P0) U (QI ∩ Q)]
= [P U (P ∩ Q)] U [(P ∩ QI)] U ∅ = P U (P ∩ QI)
= P as P ∩ Q isles than P

Prove that A ∩ (B – C) = (A ∩ B) – (A ∩ C)

Solution:

𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 − 𝐶) ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ (𝐵 − 𝐶)
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐶
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐶
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)

(𝑖𝑖) 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶) ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐶
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ (𝐵 − 𝐶)
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 − 𝐶)

Show that (P U Q)I = PI ∩ QI

Solution:
(𝑖)𝑥 ∈ (𝑃 ∪ 𝑄)I ⇒ 𝑥 ∉ 𝑃 ∪ 𝑄
⇒ 𝑥 ∉ 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝑄
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑃I and 𝑥 ∈ QI
⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑃I ∩ 𝑄 I
(ii)𝑥 ∈ 𝑃I ∩ 𝑄 𝐼 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ PI and 𝑥

Solution

a) n(A U B)I + n(A U BI) = n(AI ∩ BI) + n(AI U BI)

= n(AI ∩ BI) + n(AI) + n(BI) – n(AI ∩ BI)
= n(AI) + n(BI)
= n(U) – n(A) + n(U) – n(B)
 = 2n(U) – n(A) – n(B)

b) n(A ∩ B)I + n(AI ∩ BI) = n(AI U BI) + n(AI ∩ BI)

= n(AI) + n(BI) – n(AI ∩ BI) = n(AI U BI) + n(AI ∩ BI)
= n(AI) + n(BI)

Miscellaneous Examples and Classroom Activities

The difference, A – B is given by: A – B = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ A and 𝑥 ∉ B}. that is A – B, consists of all the
elements in set A that are not elements of set B.
Examples

Let A = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12}; B = {2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12}; C = {2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9}

Find (a) B – A (b) C – A (c) C – A (d) B – C (e) C – B (f) A – C

Solution

(a) B – A = { 2, 10} (b) C – A = {2, 4, 8} (c) A – B = {1, 6, 11}

(d) B – C = {7, 10, 12} (e) C – B = {4, 8} (f) A – C = {1, 6, 7, 11, 12}

Consider the universal set U = {1, 2, 3, …, 10} and the subsets P = {2, 3, 7, 8, 10} and Q = {3,
4, 6, 7}. The Venn diagram to illustrate this information is

P Q

2 3 4
U
8 10 7 6

9
5

Example:

Out of the 400 students in the final year in a secondary school, 300 are offering Biology and
190 are offering both Biology and Chemistry

a) If each student offers at least one of the two subjects?

b) If only 70 students are offering neither biology nor chemistry?

Solution
 U(400)
B (300) C(190)

300 − 𝑥 𝑥 190 − 𝑥

300 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 190 − 𝑥 = 400

490 − 𝑥 = 400
−𝑥 = −90
𝑥 = 90

(b) U(400)
B (300) C (190)

300 − 𝑥 𝑥 190 − 𝑥

70

300 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 190 − 𝑥 + 70 = 400

560 − 𝑥 = 400
𝑥 = 160
Example:

A school has 37 vacancies for teachers, out of which 22 are for English language, 20 for
history and 17 for fine Art. Of these vacancies, 11 are for both English language and
history and fine art and 7 for English language and fine art.

Using a Venn diagram, find the number of teachers who must be able to teach

a) All the three subjects

b) Fine art only
c) English language and history but not fine art
 E(22) H(20) Let 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠
𝑒 = 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦
𝑓 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦

11 − 𝑥
e h ℎ = 𝐻𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦
𝑥 𝑒 + 11 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 7 − 𝑥 = 22
7−𝑥 8−𝑥 𝑒 + 18 − 𝑥 = 22
𝑒 =4+𝑥
f 𝑓 + 7 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 8 − 𝑥 = 17
F (17) 𝑓 + 15 − 𝑥 = 17
𝑓 =2+𝑥
ℎ + 11 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 8 − 𝑥 = 20
ℎ + 19 − 𝑥 = 20
ℎ =1+𝑥
a) 𝑒 + 11 − 𝑥 + ℎ + 7 − 𝑥 + +8 − 𝑥 + 𝑓 = 37
4 + 𝑥 + 11 − 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 + 7 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 8 − 𝑥 + 2 + 𝑥 = 37
4 + 11 + 1 + 7 + 8 + 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 = 37
33 + 4𝑥 − 3𝑥 = 37
4𝑥 − 3𝑥 = 4
𝑥=4
b) 𝑓 = 2 + 𝑥 (c) No required = 11 − 𝑥
=2+4 = 11 − 4
=6 =7

Example: 3/4 of the girls in a school play Handball, 4/7 play Volleyball. Every girl plays at least one
of these games. If 27 girls play both games, how many girls are in the school?
Let 𝑥 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑖𝑟𝑙𝑠
4 3
𝑥 − 27 + 27 + 𝑥 − 27 = 𝑥
7 4
4 3
𝑥 + 𝑥 − 27 = 𝑥
7 4
16𝑥 + 21𝑥 − 28 × 27 = 28𝑥
16𝑥 + 21𝑥 − 28𝑥 = 37𝑥 − 28𝑥 = 28 × 27
𝑥 = 28 × 3 = 84

Example:
During one year in a school, 5/8 of the students had measles, ½ had chicken pox and 1/8 had
neither. What fraction of the students had both measles and chicken pox?
Solution
5 1 1
5 1 −𝑥+𝑥+2−𝑥+8 = 1
M (8) C (2) 8
5 − 8𝑥 + 8𝑥 + 4 − 8𝑥 + 1 =
8 5 1
−𝑥 𝑥 −𝑥
8 2 −8𝑥 + 10 = 8
1
𝑥=4

Example: A group of students were asked whether they liked History, Science or geography.
Their responses are shown in the table below.

Subject(s) liked No of students Subjects liked No of students

All three subjects 7 History only 20
History and 11 Geography only 18
geography
Geography and 9 Science 16
science
History and science 10 None of the 3 3
subjects

a) Represent the information in a Venn diagram;

b) How many students are in the group?
c) How many students liked science?
d) How many students liked exactly two subjects?
e) How many students liked at least two subjects?

Solution
U(T)
H(h) S(s)

3
20 ## 16
7
4 2

18

G (g)
b) T = 20 +3 + 16 + 4 + 7 + 2 + 18 + 3 = 73
c) S = 3 + 7 + 2 + 16 = 18
d) n(exactly two subjects) = 3 + 4 + 2 = 9
e) n(at least two subjects) = 3 + 4 + 7 + 2 = 16

Classroom assignment

1. if U = {1, 2, 3, a, b, c}, X = {1, 2, a, c} and Y = {2, 3, b, c}

What is (a) YI – XI; (b) (Y – X)I (c) YI ∩ XI (d) YI U X
2. If P = {all odd numbers from 1 to 10} and Q = {all perfect squares less than 30},
find (a) (P U Q)− (P ∩ Q) (b) P – Q (c) (P – Q) U (Q –P); (d) Q – P
3. Let the universal set U be the set of integers such that U = {𝑥: 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 20} Find the
complement of the set
a) P = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈, 𝑥 is not divisible by 4}
b) Q = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈, 𝑥 is an odd number}
c) R = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈, 𝑥 is not a prime number}
d) S = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈, 𝑥 is an even number}
4. The number set, U is the set of all integers, P, Q and R are subsets of U defined as
follows
P = {𝑥: 𝑥 ≤ 2}, Q = {𝑥: − 7 < 𝑥 < 15}; R = {𝑥: − 2 ≤ 𝑥 < 19}
Find (a) P ∩ Q; (b) Q ∩ R (c) P ∩ (Q ∩ RI) (d) (P ∩ Q) U R
5. If A = {m, n}, B = {1, 2, 3} and C = (𝑥, 𝑦}, find A X B X C
(b) show that for any two sets A and B, (A ∩ B)I = AI U BI
6. If n(U) = 41, n(P ∩ Q) = 9, n(P U Q) = 29 and n(P) = 25,
find (a) n(PI) (b) n(Qc) (c) n(PI ∩ QI); (d) n(P – Q) + n(Q)
7. In a class of 80 students, every student had to study Economics or Geography or both
Economics and Geography, how many students studied both subjects?
(b) If n(A U B) = 94, n(A) = 52 and n(B) = 63, find n(A ∩ B)
8. Write down all the subsets of
a) A = {1, 2, 3, 4};
b) B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
c) C = {𝑥, 𝑦, 3, 9, 𝑚}
d) D = {5, 6, 9, 12}
9. Let A = {1, 4}, B = {4, 5} and C = {5, 7}
(a) A X B (b) B X C (c) (A X B) U (A X C) (d) (A X B) ∩ (A X C)
 10. Let A = {2, 4, 8} and B = {2, 3, 5, 7}
Find (a) P(A) (b) P(B) (c) P(A – B) (d) P(B – A)

II. 70 freshmen at Tai Solarin college of education were interviewed and the following
results were obtained. 36 take mathematics, 32 take physics, 32 take chemistry; 16 take
chemistry and physics; 16 take physics and mathematics; 14 take chemistry and
mathematics; 6 take all 3 subjects. How many students take:
(a) Mathematics and neither chemistry nor physics?
(b) Physics only
(c) Chemistry only
(d) None of the subjects

III. Of 165 candidates in an examination, 125 take mathematics, 70 take physics and 85 take
chemistry; 42 take physics and mathematics; 40 take physics and chemistry; 56 take
mathematics and chemistry. How many students take
(a) All three subjects?
(b) Exactly two subjects?

Worked examples

1. If P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} Q = {1, 4, 7}; R = {2, 4, 8}

Find (P ∩ Q) U R

2. If the universal set U = { x: x is a natural number and {1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 9}

P = {𝑥 ∶ 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4}, 𝑄 = {2, 4, 6, 8}
Find (P U Q)I

3. P and Q are subsets of the universal set U defined as U ={𝑥: 𝑥 is an integer and 1 < 𝑥 <
15}
P = {𝑥: 𝑥 is odd} and Q = { 𝑥: 𝑥 is prime} find n(PI ∩ QI)

4. If U = {e, f, g, h, p, q, r, s}
M = {e, h, q, s}, N = {h, p, r}
I
Find M U N I

5. How many subsets will a set containing 5 elements have?

6. The shaded region of the Venn diagram can be written as
 X Y

In a science class of 42 students, each student offers at least one of mathematics and physics. If
22 students offer physics and 28 students offer mathematics, find how many students offer
physics only

Solution
U = 42, n(P U M)I = 0
as students must offer at least one of the subjects, n(P) = 32, n(M) = 28
if P ∩ M = x, the P ∩ MI = 22 – x
M ∩ PI = 28 – x

P (22) M (28)

x U = 42

(P U M)I = 0
but U = (P U M) with (P U M)I = 0
: n(U) = n(P) + n(M ∩ PI)
or n(U) = n(M) + n(P ∩ MI)
i.e 42 = 28 + n(P ∩ MI)
n(P ∩ MI) = 42 – 28 = 14
Alternatively,
n(U) = 42, n(P U M)I = 0, n(P) = 22, n(M) = 28
n(U) = n(P) + n(M) – n(P ∩ M) with (P U M)I
i.e 42 = 50 − n(P ∩ M)
42 = 50 – n(P ∩ M)
n(P ∩ M) = 50 – 42 = 8
physics only = n(P ∩ MI) = n(P) – n(P ∩ M) = 22 – 18 = 14
In a class of 40 students, 24 play football, 18 play volleyball, and 6 do not play any game. How
many students play both football and volleyball?
Solution

n(U) = 40, n(F) = 24, n(V) = (18)

n(F U V)I = 6
but n(U) = n(F) + n(V) – n(F ∩ V) + n(F U V)I
:- 40 = 24 + 28 – n(F ∩ V) + 6
n(F ∩ V) = 48 – 40 = 8

Four members of a school first eleven cricket team are also members of the first fourteen rugby
team. How many boys play for at least one of the two teams?

n(C) = 11, n(R) = 14, n(C U R) 4

Those that play for at least one of the team = n( C U R) but n(C) + n(B) – n(C ∩ R) = 11 + 14 – 4 =
21
Alternatively
C (11) R (14)

a 4 b

𝑎 = 11 − 4 = 7
𝑏 = 14 − 4 = 10
the boys that played for at least one of the teams is equal to
C U R = a + 4 + b = 7 + 4 + 10 = 21

Example
In a youth club with 94 members, 60 like modern music and 50 like traditional music. The
number of members who like traditional and modern music is there times those that do not
like any type of music. How many members like only one type of music?
Solution

Total number of members = U = 94

Those that like modern music = n(M) = 60
those that like traditional music = n(T) = 50
those that like both = n(M ∩ T)
those that do not like any music = n(M U T)I or n(MI ∩ TI)
thus, n(M ∩ T) = 3 ∩ (M U T)I

M (60) T (50)

60 − 3𝑥 3𝑥 50 − 3𝑥 U = 94

(M U T)I = 𝑥

(a) using Venn diagram

: 60 + (50 − 3𝑥) + 𝑥 = 94
60 + 50 − 3𝑥 + 𝑥 = 94
110 − 2𝑥 = 94
𝑥=8
those that like only one music are the remaining apart from those that like both and neither
thus, those that like only one = 94 – (3𝑥) − 𝑥
= 94− 4𝑥 = 94 − 4(8), 94 − 32 = 62
(b) Alternatively,
U = (A U B) + (A U B)I
U = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B) + n(A U B)I
or U = n(A ∩ BI) + n(AI ∩ B) + n(A ∩ B) + n(A U B)I
n(AI ∩ B) + n(A ∩ BI) = U – n(A ∩ B) – n(A U B)I
Using (a): 94 = 60 + 50 − 3𝑥 + 𝑥
94 = 110 − 2𝑥 = 110 − 94 = 16;
𝑥=8
Using (ii) n(A ∩ B) + n(A ∩ BI) = 94 − 3𝑥 − 𝑥 = 94 − 4𝑥 = 94 − 4(8) = 94 − 32 = 62
I

Example: The Venn diagram, below shows the number of students who study Economics,
Geography and P.E at teachers college. How many students studied at least two of the three
subjects?
Out of 25 teachers, 16 are married and 15 are women. If 6 of the men are married, how
many of the women are not married?

Solution

In this, marriage, men and women are involved as a man cannot be a woman, the three
can’t be intersected. Thus it is a set problem that involves 3 elements but with no
intersection of the three.

Solution

Men (10) Married (16) Women (15)

10 − 6 = 4 6 𝑥 𝑈(25)

Let 𝑥 = women that are not married, from 25 teachers given 15 are women
: men = (25 – 15) = 10
Thus 4 + 16 + 𝑥 = 25
(men only + married + women only = Union)
𝑥 = 25 − 20 = 5

Exercises

1. The venn diagram below represents a universal set U of the integers and its subsets
P and Q. List the elements
(a) P U Q (b) P ∩ Q (c) U ∩ Q (d) P U 𝑈

P Q

2 3 4
U
8 10 7 6

9
5
2. A company employs 79 people, 52 of whom are men, 38 people including all the
women are clerical staff. Draw a Venn diagram suitable to show the information.
Otherwise find the number of men that are clerical staff.

M (52) CS (38)
W

𝑥 U = 79

D=0

Let 𝑥 rep the men that are clerical staff

M ∩ CSI = 52 − 𝑥
U = (M U CS) as D = 0
79 = 52 − 𝑥 + 38
𝑥 = 52 + 38 − 79
𝑥 = 11

3. Of the pupils surveyed at the end of a term, 128 had applied for university of ibadan
95 for Lagos and 94 for Nsukka. 42 had applied for Ibadan and Lagos, 24 for Nsukka
and Ibadan, while 8 had applied for all three. How many pupils took part in the
survey?

4. In a school certificate exam where there are 48 students, 20 offer physics, 23 offer
chemistry, 30 offer biology, 11 offer both physics and chemistry, 9 offer both
chemistry and biology and 10 offer both physics and biology.
(a) Find the number of students that offer all the three subjects
(b) Find the number that offer only physics
(c) find the number that offer only one subject
(d) find the number that offer two subject combination

Solution
n(U) = 48, n(P) = 20, n(C) = 23, n(B) = 30, n(P ∩ C) = 11, n(C ∩ B) = 9, n(P ∩ B) = 10
a) n(U) = n(P U C U B) where nobody offers none
:-n(U) = n(P U C U B) = n(P) + n(C) + n(B) – n(P ∩ C) – n(P ∩ B) – n(C ∩ B) + n(P
∩ C ∩ B)
 48 = 20 + 23 + 30 – 11 – 10 – 9 + n(P ∩ C ∩ B)
n(P ∩ C ∩ B) = 5; all three subjects = 5 students
b) only physics = n(P ∩ CI ∩ BI) = n(P) – n(P ∩ C) – n(P ∩ B) + n(P ∩ C ∩ B)
= 20 – 11 – 10 + 5 =
c) only one subject = physics only + chemistry only + biology only
Chemistry only = n(PI ∩ C ∩ BI) = n(C) – n(P ∩ C) – n(C ∩ B) + n(P ∩ C ∩ B)
= 23 – 11 – 9 + 5 = 23 – 15 = 8
I I
Biology only = n(P ∩ C ∩ B) = n(B) – n(C ∩ B) – n(P ∩ B) + n(P ∩ C ∩ B)
= 30 – 9 – 10 + 5 = 16
numbers that offer only a subject = 4 + 8 +16 = 28
d) number that offer two subjects combination: means physics and chemistry
only, physics and biology only, or biology and chemistry only
Physics and chemistry only = n(P ∩ C ∩ B) = n(P ∩ C) – n(P ∩ C ∩ B) = 11 – 5 =
6
Physics and biology only = n(P ∩ B ∩ CI) = n(P ∩ B) – n(P ∩ B ∩ C) = 10 – 5 = 5
Biology and chemistry only = n(PI ∩ C ∩ B) = n(C ∩ B) – n(P ∩ C ∩ B) = 9 – 5 =
4
number that offer two subjects in combination is equal to 6 + 5 + 4 = 15

5. In a survey of 290 newspaper readers, 181 read the Daily times, 142 read the
Guardian, 117 read The Punch and each of the three reads at least one of the three
newspapers. If 75 read The Daily Times and The Guardian, 60 read The Daily Times
and Punch and 54 read The Guardian and Punch,
(a) Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate this information
(b) How many readers read
i. all the three papers
ii. Exactly 2 of the papers
iii. Exactly one of the papers
iv. The Guardian alone

6. There are 70 women in a club. Each plays at least one of the following games:
volleyball, basketball and table tennis. 20 play volleyball only, 10 play basketball only
and 6 play table tennis only. 4 play all the three games and equal number play two
games only.
(a) Illustrate this information in a Venn diagram
(b) Find the number of women who play volleyball
 V B

20 𝑥
4
𝑥 𝑥

6
Solution
T
(a) n(U) = 70
n(V ∩ B ∩ TI) = 𝑥
n(B ∩ T ∩ VI) = 𝑥
n(V U B U T)I = 0
n(V ∩ T ∩ BI) = 𝑥
(a) n(U) = n(V U B U T) as nobody plays none
n(U) = n(V) + 10 + 𝑥 + 6
70 = (20 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 4) + 10 + 𝑥 + 6 = 40 + 3𝑥
3𝑥 = 70 − 40 = 30
𝑥 = 10
(b) number of women who plays volleyball is equal to
20 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 4 = 24 + 2𝑥 + 4 = 24 + 2(10) = 24 + 20
no of women who plays volleyball = 44

7. There are 150 people in an international medical conference, 40 are Africans, 70 are
women and 110 are doctors. 12 of the women are Africans, 46 of the doctors are women
and 31 of the Africans are doctors.
if 5 of the African men are not
(a) How many of the doctors, African women are doctors?
(b) How many of the men are neither African nor doctors?

A (40) W (70)
12 − 𝑥

5 a
𝑥 U (150)
31 − 𝑥 46 − 𝑥
Analytical method
n(U) = 150 b

D (110)
 n(A) = 50
n(W) = 70
n(D) = 110
n(W ∩ A) = 12
n(A ∩ D) = 31
n(A ∩ M ∩ DI) = 5
as man is not in the data given, a suitable is needed.
Also men = those that are not women
: M = WI
: n(A ∩ M ∩ DI) =
:- n(A ∩ WI ∩ DI) = 5
(a) African women that are doctors = n(A ∩ W ∩ D)
but n(A ∩ WI ∩ DI) = n(A) – n(A ∩ W) –n(A ∩ D) + n(A ∩ W ∩ D)
5 = 40 − 12 − 31 + n(A ∩ W ∩ D)
n(A ∩ W ∩ D) = 5 − 40 + 12 + 31 = 8
(b) men that are neither Africans nor doctors, i.e union complement
But, n(U) = n(A U W U D) + n(A U W U D)I
n(U) = n(A) + n(W) + n(D) – n(A ∩ W) – n(W ∩ D) + n(A ∩ W ∩ D) + n(WI ∩ AI ∩ DI)
150 = 40 + 70 + 110 − 12 − 31 − 46 + 8 +n(WI ∩ AI ∩ DI)
150 = 139 + n(WI ∩ AI ∩ DI)
n(WI ∩ AI ∩ DI) = 150 – 139 = 11
Alternative method
Venn diagram
let 𝑥 = n(A ∩ W ∩ D)
n(D ∩ W) = 46
n(A ∩ D) = 31, n(W ∩ A) = 12, n(A ∩ M ∩ DI) = 5
(a) men that are neither African nor Doctor is n(M ∩ AI ∩ DI) as M = WI
men that are neither Africans nor doctors is n(WI ∩ AI ∩ DI)
i.e elements not in the three sets in union complement
𝑎 = 70 − (46 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 12 − 𝑥)
𝑎 = 70 − (58 − 𝑥)
𝑎 = 70 − 58 + 𝑥 = 12 + 𝑥
Thus n(U) = n(D) + 5 + 12 − 𝑥 + 𝑎 +n(WI ∩ AI ∩ DI)
n(WI ∩ AI ∩ DI) = 150 – 139 = 11

In a certain class, 22 pupils take one or more of chemistry, Economics and Gov’t 12 take
Economics (E), 8 take gov’t (G) and 7 take chemistry (C) nobody takes Economics and Chemistry
and 4 pupils take Economics and Gov’t
(a) using set notation and the letters indicated above, write down the two statements in the
last sentence
(b) Draw a venn diagram to illustrate the information
(c) How many pupils take
i. both chem and gov’t
ii. Govt only
Solution
(a) i. Nobody takes economics and chemistry means n(E ∩ C) = 0 or E ∩ C = ∅
4 pupils takes economics and gov’t means n(E ∩ G) = 4
ii. Let 𝑥 represent n(C ∩ G)

(b) I. n(U) = n(C ∩ GI) + n(G) + n(E ∩ GI)

22 = 7 − 𝑥 + 8 + 8
22 = 23 − 𝑥
𝑥 =1
number that takes both chemistry and Gov’t = 1

ii. Gov’t only = n(G ∩ CI ∩ EI) = 8 − 𝑥 − 4 = 4 − 𝑥

Gov’t only = 4 – 1 = 3

U = 56
Each of the 56 pupils in the fourth year of a small school studies at least one of the subjects:
H
History, English and Agriculture. Of the 14 pupils who studyEAgric, 4 also study History and
English, 3 study neither nor history and 5 study English but not history. Of the 42 pupils who do
not study Agric, 6 study both history and English, 𝑥 study only history and 2𝑥 study only English
(a) Draw a Venn diagram and show the number of pupils in each school. Hence, find
i. the value of 𝑥
ii. The total number of pupils studying English

𝑥 6 2𝑥
4
𝑦 1
n(A) = 14
of the 14 pupils that study Agric, 4 also study History and English means n(A ∩ H ∩ E) = 4
of the 14 pupils that study Agric, 3 study neither History nor English means
n(A ∩ (H U E)I) = 3 or n(AI ∩ HI ∩ EI) = 3
of the 14 pupils that study Agric, 5 study English but not History means
n(A ∩ E ∩ HI) = 5
n(AI) = 42
of the 42 pupils that do not study Agric, 6 study both history and English means
n(AI ∩ H ∩ E)
of the 42 pupils that do not study Agric, 𝑥 study only history,
n(AI ∩ H ∩ EI) = 𝑥,
n(AI ∩ H ∩ EI) = 2𝑥
let H ∩ A ∩ EI = 𝑦
then 𝑦 + 4 + 1 + 3 = 14
𝑦 + 8 = 14
𝑦=6
Also, 𝑥 + 6 + 4 + 2𝑥 + 1 + 6 + 3 = 56
3𝑥 = 56 − 20 = 36
𝑥 = 12
Total number of students studying English is equal to
2𝑥 + 6 + 4 + 1 = 2(12) + 11 = 24 + 11 = 35
Miscellaneous Examples

1. Given that
R = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
S = {3, 4, 5} and
R = {4, 6, 8, 10}, then U is ?
2. In a class of 40 students, each student offers at least one of physics or chemistry. If the
number of students that off physics is three times the number that offer both subjects
and the number that offer chemistry is twice the number that offer physics, the number
of students that offer physics only is?
 Solution
n(U) = 40 = n(P U C) + n(P U C)I
n(P U C)I = 0, n(U) = 𝑥
n(P) = 3𝑥
n(C) = 2(3𝑥) = 6𝑥
n(P ∩ CI) = ?
n(P U C) = n(P) + n(C) – (P ∩ C)
40 = 3𝑥 − 6𝑥 − 𝑥
40 = 8𝑥
𝑥=5
Physics only = n(P ∩ CI) = n(P) – n(P ∩ C)
3𝑥 − 𝑥 = 3(5) − 5 = 15 − 5 = 10

3. In a certain exam, 72 offered maths, 64 English and 63 French. 18 offered both maths and
English, 24 maths and French and 20 English and French. 8 candidates offered all three
subjects. How many candidates were there for the examination?

4. Simplify (A U B)I ∩ (A ∩ B)I

5. Simplify (A U B)I ∩ (A ∩ BI)
6. In a village all the people speak Hausa or English or both. If 97% speak Hausa and 64%
speak English, what percentage speak both languages?
7. If X = {all prime factors of 44} and Y = {all the prime factors of 60}. The elements of X U Y
and X ∩ Y respectively are?
8. If U = {0, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} is the universal set, E = {0, 4, 6, 8, 10} and F = { x: x2 = 26, x is
odd}. Find (E ∩ F)I where I means complement of a set.
9. The ministry of education has 25 vacancies fir tutors in its institution. There are 15 for
English tutors, 14 for geography and 12 for French. It is required that of those, 8 have to
be able to teach both English and geography, 6 both geography and French and 5 English
a d French. Calculate
(a) how many must be able to teach all three subjects
(b) how many tutors of French only could be employed?
(c) how many tutors of English and geography but not French are required?

10. Use the Venn diagrams to represent the following sets:

i. A U B
ii. A ∩ B when A ∩ B ≠ ∅
iii. A ∩ B when A ∩ B = ∅
iv. A U B when A ⊂ B
v. A ∩ B when A ⊂ B

Solution
i. U ii.
U

A B B

AUB
A ∩ B when A ∩ B ≠ ∅

iii. U Iv. U

A B B

A U B when A ⊂ B

v. U

A ∩ B when A ⊂ B
(ii) Let P = {𝑥: 𝑥 is an odd number divisible by 3}, find the cardinality

11. Given that P = {𝑥: 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 16} 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑. Find the cardinality of P.
If Fig 1 is: Fig 2:
n(A) n(B)
n(A)
 i. If A and B are two different set as shown in fig (1) such that
A ∩ B ≠ ∅, then n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)

ii. If A ∩ B = ∅ as shown in fig (ii) n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B)

iii. N(U) = n(A U B) + n(A U B)I

Thus, given that n(A ∩ B) = 4, n(A ∩ BI) = 18, n(AI ∩ B) = 10 and U = A U B. draw a
Venn diagram to illustrate the information above and use it to find
(i) n(A) (ii) n(B) (iii) n(A U B)
Solution

A B
The venn diagram representing
18 4 10 the given information is shown
as above

From the diagram

i. n(A) = 18 + 4 = 22
ii. n(B) = 4 + 10 = 14
since A ∩ B ≠ ∅
iii. n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B) = 22 + 14 − 4 = 32
12. In a class of 500 students, 200 took math, 180 took physics and 70 took maths and
physics. Find
(I) the number of students that did not take either of the two subjects
(II) the number of students that took mathematics only
(III) the number of students that took physics only

n(M ∩ P) = 70

Since M ∩ P ≠ Q, then, n(M U P) = n(M) + n(P) – n(M ∩ P) = 200 + 180 − 70 = 310

This gives the no of students that took at least one of the two subjects
n(U) = n(M U P) + n(M U P)I where n(M UP)I is the number of students that did not take either
of the two subjects
:- n(M U P)I = n(U) – n(M U P) = 500 − 300 = 190
the number of students that took mathematics only = n(M) – n(M ∩ P) = 200 − 70 = 130
The number of students that took physics only: n(P) – n(M ∩ P) = n(MI ∩ P) = 180 − 70 = 110

13. In a survey of 100 housewives, it was discovered that each woman used at least one
brand of three detergents (Omo, Surf and elephant) 42 of them used Ono detergent, 50
used Surf detergent, 48 used Elephant detergent, 12 if them used Omo and Surf, 18 used
Elephant and Surf and 13 used elephant and Omo detergent.
i. How many of them used the three brands of detergents?
ii. How many of them used Elephant detergent only?
14. List all the elements of the following sets
i. R = {𝑥| 2𝑥 2 − 50 = 0}
ii. T = {𝑥| 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 25 < 𝑥 ≤ 40}
Ans: i. R = {-5,5}
ii. T = {27, 29, 31, 33, 37, 38}
15. Describe the following in words
i. A = {Jan, March, May, July, August, October, December}
ii. B = {8, 12, 16, 20, 24}
Ans: i. A = {𝑥| 𝑥 is the month of the year with 31 days}
ii. B = {𝑥| 𝑥 is a multiple of 4 and 8≤ 𝑥 ≤ 24}
 State whether Set A is proper or improper subset of B
i. A = {𝑥| 3𝑥 2 − 48 = 0}
B = {-4, 4}
ii. A = {3, 5, 7, 9}
B = {𝑥| 𝑥 is an odd number and 1≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10}

Ans: i. A is a an improper subset of B

ii. A is a proper subset of B

16. Find the power set of the following

i. {a, b}
ii. {3, 4, 5}
Ans: i. {{a, b}, {a}, {b}, ∅}
ii. {{3, 4, 5}, {3, 4}, {3, 5}, {4, 5}, {3}, {4}, {5}, ∅}
17. Given that
A = {𝑥| 2 < 𝑥 ≤ 16 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟}
B = {𝑥| 1 < 𝑥 < 5 and 𝑥 is an odd number}
C = {𝑥| 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4 and 𝑥 is a prime number}
Find i. A ∩ C ii. B ∩ C iii. A U B U C
Ans: i. ∅ ii. {3} iii. {2, 3, 4, 6}

If F = {2, 3, 6, 8, 10}
G = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
H = {3, 6, 7, 8}
Find i. F – G ii. (G – F) ∩ H
Ans: i. {2, 8, 10}
ii. {7}

Given that
U = {p, q, r, s, t, u, v}
R = {q, s, u, v}
T = {q, r, s, t, v}
W = {r, s, t, u, v}
Find i. (R ∩ TI) U W ii. (RI U T) ∩ W iii. T – RI
Ans: i. {r, s, t, u, v}
ii. {p, q}
iii. {q, r, s}
18. Given two sets R and S such that
n(R) = 15, n(R ∩ S) = 5 and n(R U S) =
30, find n(S)
Ans: 20
In a small company of 50 employees,
32 of them read Daily Sketch, 24 of
them read Punch, how many of them
read both if each employee reads at
least one of these papers?
Ans: 6
If X and Y are two sets such that
n(X) = 200, n(Y) = 120, n(X ∩ Y) = 20,
n(U) = 500
Find i. n(X ∩ Y) ii. N(X U Y)I
Ans: i. 300 ii. 200
In a mathematics class, there are fifty
students, in a physics class there are
seventy students. Twenty students
enrolled for both subjects. Find the
number of students either in
mathematics or physics class, If
i. a student cannot take both subjects
ii. A student can take both subjects
Ans: i. 120 ii. 100
In a class of 50 students who offered
science subjects in school, 40 offered
chemistry, 25 offered biology and
every student iffred at least one of
the twi subjects. If a student is
selected at random, what is the
probability that the student offers
i. both subject
ii. Only chemistry
iii. Only biology
Ans: i. 3/10 ii. 1/2 iii. 1/5
In a school, 100 teachers teach one or
more of mathematics, economics and
biology. 50 of them teach
mathematics, 45 teach economics,
and 35 teach biology, 20 teach
mathematics and economics but none
teaches both mathematics and
biology.
i. How many of them teach Economics
and Biology?
ii. How many of them teach
Economics only?
Ans: i. 10 ii. 15
In a class of 350 students, it was
found that in SSCE exam, 170
students passed biology, 180 passed
Economics, and 200 passed chemistry.
70 of them passed biology and
economics, 80 passed economics and
chemistry. If 30 of them did not pass
any of the three subjects, find
i. the number of students that passed
biology, economics and chemistry
ii. The number if students that passed
biology only
iii. The number of students that
passed biology and economics only
Ans: i. 10 ii. 20 iii. 60
 INDICES

OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lecture, students should be able to:

> Use the laws of indices in calculations and simplifications;

> Use the relationship between indices and logarithms to solve problems

Notation Laws of indices

A short form of writing a x a x a is 1. amxan = am+ne.g. 53x54 = 53+4 = 57

a3. The letter a is called the base while the 2.(am)P = amp e.g. (92)3 = 92x3 = 96

number 3 is the power, index or exponent. 

3i. a m xb n  k
= amk x bnk e.g. 23 x52  
4
= 212
The index notation is used to indicate
x 58
repeated multiplication and is as given
Ii a m x b m  axb e.g. 63 x 43  (6 x4) 3
m

below:
3
 
iii a m x b m  a x b e.g. (53 x 43 ) 2  (5x4) 6
n mn

a) 5 x 5 x 5 =5
(axb) n  a n x b n e.g. (5 x2) 3  53 x 23
b) 7 x 7 x 7 x 7 x 7 x 7 x 7 x 7 =78 iv.

c) m x m x m x m x m = m5 4. a m  a n  a mn e.g. 67  62  672  65

0
 3
d) 3
am x am x am = (am) = a m 3 3
5. a  1  a  a e.g. 2  1 and    1
0 m m 0

5
In 53, the number 5 is the base and 3 is the 1 1
6. a n  n  a 0  a n e.g 4 3  3 and
a 4
index or power or Exponent. In m3, the base
8
is m and index is 3. 8 x 2 
x2
Also, 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 5 x 5 x 5= 24 x i 1
7. a k
 k a e.g 6 2
 6 and
3
5.
1
64 3
 3 64
The analysis and simplification depend on

the basic interpretation and rules of indices 8. am/ n   a

n
m
e.g

as enumerated below. 3
81 4  4 813   81
4
3
9. If a x  a y , then x=y e.g 2x =25 x = 4. (32 )5 (5) 8 2 2 / 3
(6)

 5  27
3 / 2

5 81m  8 3/ 4
(7) 5
2/3
(8) 8
2/3  81 
(9)  
 16 
10. If mk =nk, then m = n e.g x3 =83 x
(10)
152n 1 x 25n x92n
=8 0.0642 / 3 (11) (12) 282m2  49m4
75n x 3n 1 x 452n
(ii) 16
3 5
Examples: Evaluate (i) 81 4 4 (iii) 13.

5 x x25 x1 6 2 n1 x9 n x4 2 n

32 15 (iv) 27
2
3
(v) 24 x 23 (vi) 2 o
 4 1/ 2 2
(14) 1
(15)
18n x2 n x12 2 n
(16)
125 x
96x 7 y 16x 2 y 3
17
Solution x 
3 / 4 8
(18) 6
x y 
9 8 3 27
(19) 3 a 9 (20)
2  3 
2x 3 2x 2

8 66 x
813  33  27 or 34 4   33  27
3
4
i.
Equations involving indices: indicial
5 / 4 1 1 1 1 Equations
ii. (16)  5 / 4  4( 5 / 4)  5 
16 2 2 32
The basic principle is that
iii.  32 1/ 5
 2 5( v5)
 2  2 1
Equal bases  Equal Indices, and

1 1 1 1 Equal Indices  Equal Bases

iv. 27 2 / 3  2/3
  2 
27 3
27) 2 3 9 i.e. if a n  a x  n  x and

if x m  y m  x  y
43
v. 2 x2 2
4 3
2 7

An indicial equation is one in which the

vi. unknown variable is an index. Examples:
Find x if 8 x  27 x2
2
(i)
96 72 1( 3)
96 x 7 y  16 x 2 y 3   6x5 y 4 2 3( x )  2 7 x  2
2
x xy
16
CLASSROOM ACTIVITY 1 3x 2  7 x  2
Simplify: 3x 2  7 x  2  0
1. 53n x 5x54 3x 2  6 x  x  2  0
2. 3mx5m3 x8m2 3xx  2  1x  2  0
3. 4a3m5 x7ma2b3 ( x  2) 3x  1  0
x  2  0 or 3x  1  0
x  2 or x  1
3
 4.2 n1  2 n2
2 n1  2 n
2 2.2 n1  2 n2
Example 2: Simplify 2 n1  2 2
2 2.2 n.21  2 n.2 2
2 n.21  2 n
 
2 2.2 n 21  1 2 2 1
 4

2 n 21  2  1

Example 3: solve the equations

 
2 2 z 1 15 2 x  8
2z
2 x2 1
152   8
x

Let 2 n  m
m 2 x 2  15m  8
2m 2  15m  8
2m 2  15m  8  0
2m 2  16m  8  0
2m m  8  1m  8  0
m  8 2m  1   0
m  8  0 2m  1  0
m  8 or m   1
2
Then, 2  m
x

2x  8
2 x  33
x3
when m   1 2 x  1
2, 2
2 x  2 1
x  1
Example 4: Solve the equations
(a)
a  4n  8 b 3n  1 c 3x42 y2  1 d  3x1  91  1 e3n  27  f  3n  1
81 12 81
Solutions
(a) 4 n  8
(b) 3n 
1
c  3x42 y 2   1
2 2 2n 3 81 12
2n  3 3n  4
1 122 y 4  121
3 2 y  4  1
n 1 1
2 3  3 4
n
2 y  1  4
n  4
2y  3
y  3  1 1 or 1.5
2 2

 f  8 2 2 8 x 4 4
x 3 3

d  3x1  91  1 e 3 n

 27 3x  2 3 3 4 
2  2 8 x2
3 x 1 2
3  3 0
3  27
n
3x 3 3

3 x 12   30  
3 12
2 2
2 8
x2 2

3 3n
3x 3 3
x 1 2  0 2 2
2 8 2

x3 0 n  3 1 1 3x 3 12
2 2 
x  03 2 8
x  3 3x 15

2 8
24 x 30

24 24
10
x  5  11
8 4 4
 Example 5:
(a) (25) x1  64 5  2 , find x
6
(b)3x 27 c If 3x  9 , find x
d  5x1  5x 150,
find x
(e) 8  64 x 4 , express x u=in terms of y
2x 3y

1
(f) Solve for x, if 5 x  40 x 2

1
(g) Solve for x if x  9 9 x 2

(h) Solve for y, 10 y x 5 2 y2 x 4 y1  1

1
(i) 8 x  2
25

92 x1 1
(j) If  , find x
27 x1 9

31n  1
(k) If 2n  , find n
9 9

1
(l) Solve  x 2   27 1 x 
81

(m) Given that 81 x 22 n2   k , find k

(n) Solve the equation 2 x  32 2 x 12  0  

Solution
d  5 x1  5n  150
(a) 5
 5 
2 
 26 
2 ( x 1)

6
6
(b) 3  27
x
c  3x   9 2

5 . 5  5n  150
x 1

3 3
 3    9
x 3
 
 
2 2
5n 51  1  150
x

5 2 x 2
5 6 x3
3x  9 5 x 6
2x  2  6  150
3x  32 6
2x  6  2 5n  25
x2
2x 8 5n  52
x8 n2
2
x4
 (e) 82 X  64 X 43 y ( g ) x  9 9 x1/ 2
2 3( 2 x )  2 6 x 2 2 ( 3 y ) ( f ) 5 x  40 x 1 / 2
Square both sides
26 x  26  6 y x 40 x 2  9 2. 9 x1/ 2

6x  6  6 y x 1 / 2 5 x2
I  1 / 2  9 21
6x  6  6 y X 8 x 1/ 2

6 x 3 / 2 ( 2 / 3)  8 ( 2 / 3) x 21/ 2  93
x 1 y x  82 / 3 x 3 / 2  93
23( 2 / 3)  2 2  4` x 3 / 2 x 2 / 3  9 3( 2 / 3)
x  9 2  81
8 x 1 
2 92 x 1 1
(h) 10 y  52 y 2   4 y 1  1 (i) (j) 
25 27 x 1 9
(2 x 5) y  52 y 2 x 22 y 2  1 2
x 2   8
(2  5) y  ( 2  5) 2 y _ 2  1 25 322 x 1 1

10 y 102 y _ 2 1 x 2  
2 1 33 x 1 32
25 8
10 y 102 y _ 2 100
1
10 y  2 y 2 100 x 2  34 x _ 2 32
100 
103 y _ 2  100 33 x 3 1
x 102
2
4 x  2 3 x 3   2 
3 3
3y  2  0 x 10
3y  0  2 34 x 2  33 x 32
3y 2 4 x  2  3x  1
 4 x  3x 1  2
3 3
y2 x 3
3
 31n  1 27(1n ) (m) 81 x 22 n2  k
(k)

1
 find n
(l) 
9  2n 9  2n 81( x 2) 1 Find k
( x 2) 4( x 2)
92 n  32( 2 n ) 34 n 81 3 81 x 22 n2  k
4 n 8
31n 1 3  81 x 22 n  22
  (1 x ) 3(1 x )
3 4n 32 27 3
3(1 x )
k  81 x 22 n  22
31n  ( 4 n ) 3
K  9 x 22n  2
1  n  4n   2 1 333 x
 K 9 x (22 n2 )1/ 2
1  3n   2 34 x 8 1
( 4 x 8) 2 n  2)
3n   2  1 3  333 x (
2
9x2
3n   3  4 x  8  3  3x
9 x 2n1
n  1  4 x  3x  3  8
 x  5
2 x  32(2 x )  12  o x5
(n)
2 x  32(2 x )  12  0
Let 2 x  y
Y  32(2 x ) 1  12  0
Y  32(Y ) 1  12  0
Y 32 12
  0
1 Y 1
Y   32  12 y  0
2

Y 2  12Y  32  0
Y ( y  4)  8( y  4)  0
( y  8) ( y 4)  0
y  8 or 4
2x  y
2x  8
2 x  23
x3
2 x  22
x  2 or 3

Classroom activity 10

1. If x 2  y 2  73 and xy  24, find (a) x  y (b) x  y

2. Solve the equations
(i) 3n2  3n  90
(i) (ii ) 2 x  3  2 x  56
(iii ) 2 x  3 y  23    (1)
2 x3  3 y 1  7    (2)
(iv) 252 x  y  625    (1)
2 y 3 x  128      (2)
2 2 x  36(2 n )  128  0
3. Solve (a) (ii ) 32 x  3  12(3 x1 )  9  0
(iii ) m3  125 (iv) 793 / 2  56 (v) 9( x1/ 2)  3 x
2

3(2 2 n1 )  4(2 2 n1 )

4.i (ii) 2 x  1  2 x  48 (iii ) 2 2 n  12(2 n )  32  0
2 2 n1  2 n
(iv) 22n( n4)  8(1n) (v) 3x  1  3x  324
5(i) 2x  8 x (ii ) 27 2 / 3 x 641/ 4
(iii ) 2 x  5 y  3      (1)
2 x 3  5 y 2  21    (2)
(iv) 8 x 3  2 x  y        (1)
5 x  2 y  25          (2)

6. (i) 3x  81x 1 (ii ) 5n  0.008 (iii ) 8 x 3  3 32 (iv) 3

(64m 6 )1/ 2

(vi) (641/ 3  251/ 2 ) x 27 1/ 3 160M 2  71M 4  100M 8

1
(v) (27)1 2 x 91/ 4 (vii)
3n  3n1
(viii) a 2 / 3  81 (ix) ( x) 52 x  1  26 (5 x 1)
33 x 3n  27 x 3n1

( xi) 32( x1)  8(3x2 )  1

Logarithm

Objective: By the end of the lecture, students should be able to:

Use the relationship between indices and logarithms to solve problems, change bases in
logarithms.

Introduction
 The logarithm of a positive number N to the base a is defined as the power of a which is
equation N. Thus if ax = N, then x is the logarithm of N to the base a, written as
x  loga N
In the same vein, the logarithm to base a, of a number P, is the index x to which a must be raised
to be equal to P. Thus if P = ax then x is the logarithm to the base a of P. We write thus as x =
logaP. The relations logaP = x and ax = p are equivalent to each other. The form p = ax is called
index form, while the form logaP = x is the logarithmic form. You should be able to change from
the index form to the logarithmic form and vice versa.
1. Write each of the following index forms in the logarithmic forms:
(a) 125 = 53 (b) 1 = 49o (c) 81 = 92
Solution
(a) If 125 = 53 then log5 125 = 3 (b) if 1 = 49o then log491 = 0
(c) If 81 = 92 then log981 = 2
2. Write each of the following logarithmic form in their index forms:
(a) log232 = 5 (b) log10 (0.001) = -3 (c) log1/2(0.125) = 3
Solution
(a) If log232 = 5 then 32 = 25
(b) If log10(0.001) = 3 then 0.001 = 10-3
(c) If log1/2(0.125) = 3 then 0.125 = (½3
Two special logarithms since ao = 1 for all a 0, since a1 = a for all a. This log81 = 0
Log55=1
Loga1=0
Loga9=1

Laws of Logarithms
Because logarithms are indices, the laws of logarithms are similar to the laws of Indices
M
(i) log(MN) = logaM + logaN (ii) log a  log a N  log a N
N
log a M
(iii) loga(M)P = PlogaM (iv) log N M  (v) aloga n  n
log a N
 1
(vi) log a n 
log n a
Example:
(iii) log3 24  log3 15  log3 10 (iv) log 1 27 (v) 5 log32 8 (vi)
32
(1) (i) log 2 (ii) log2 0.25
9

log 9  2 log 1
3 (vii) 82 log8  2 2 log 2
3 5
(viii) 53 log 5  22 log 2
2 3

log 36  log 4
log 8
(2) (i) (ii) log7 98  log7 18  log7 9 (iii) log4 2  log4 34  log4 0.25 (iv)
log 12  log 3

 48  4   170  1 1
log10    2 log10    log10   (v) log10 a 3
 log10 a  1 log10 a 7 (vi)
 17  7   147  4 12

log8 N  r , log2 N   S and S  r  4, find N

2
Given log10 Y  2, log 3 1
(3) (i) (ii) 16 (iii) log 8 x
log10 2 x  1, evaluate 7 2
log
4
log10 y
3x

(iv) log x 8  3
Solution  25 
log 2 0.25  log 2  
(i) log 2 32  x (iii)  100 
2 x  32 2x 
1
2 x  25 4
x 5 2  2 2
x

x  2
or
(ii) log3 24  log3 15  log3 10
 25 
 24 15  log 2 0.25  log 2  
log3    100 
 10  11
log3 36  log 2
4
log3 62  2 log3 6 log 2  log 2 4
1

0  log 2 4  0  log 2 22
0  2 log 2 2  0  2(1)
(iv) log11` 27  y 0  2  2
9
y
1
   27
9
32 y  33
 2y  3
(v) 5 log32 8 (vi) log 9  2 log 1 (vii) 82 log8 3  2 2 log 2 5
3
5 log32 23 log 36  log 4 Let X  8 log8
3

15 log32 2 log 32  2 log 31 Y  2 2 log 2 5

15log32 2  x 
log9  4  log 22 XY 

15 32 x  2 
log 32  32 log8 X  log8 log8
2 3

15 2   2
5x 1
2 log 3  2 log 2  2 log 2 log8 X  2 log8 log8
3 8

15 5 x  1 log 34 4 log 3
  2 log8 X  2 log8
3(1)
1 log 33 2 log 3
15   3 log8 X  2 log8 3
5
log8 X  log8 32
X 9
Find : 53 log 5  2 2 log 2 3 then,
2
(viii)(2i)
log 8 Y  2 2 log 2 5
log 12  log 3 log 2 Y  log 2 2 2 log 2 5
log 23 log 2 Y  2 log 2 5 log 2 2
log 3  4   log 3 log 2 Y  2 log 2 5(1)
3 log 2 log 2 Y  2 log 2 5
log 3  log 4  log 3 log 2 Y  log 2 52
3 log 2 3 Y  25
 11
2 log 2 2 2
XY  9  25
 225

(2ii) log 7 98  log 7 18  log 7 19 (2iii) log 4 2  log 4 32  log 4 0.25

 98 19   2  32 
log 7  
 18  log 4  

25
log 7 (49)  log 7 7 2  100 
2 log 7 7  2  64 
log 4  

25
 100 
 64 100 
log 4   
 1 25 
log 4 64  4
log 4 256  x
4 x  256
4 x  44
x4
(2iv)  48  4  170  (2v) 1
 1 log10 a  1 log10 a 7
log10    2 log10    log10 
3
 log10 a
4 12
 17  7  147  1 1 7
2 log10 a 3
 log10 a 4
 log10 a 12
 48  4  170 
log10    log10    log   1 1
 17  7  147  10 a 3 a 4
log 7
 48  16  170  a 12
log10    log10  log 
 17  47  147  a
7
12
log10  log1  0
 48 16 170  7
log10     a 12

 17 49 147 
48 49 170
log10  
17 16 147
log10 10  1

(2vi) log N  r , log 2 N   Sa andS  r 2  4

8 2 2

r
8 2
N
r
log 2 2(8 2 )  S

log 2  2(8 2 )   4  r
r

 
r
log 2 2  log 2 8 2  4  r
log 2 2  r log 2 8  4  r
2
1 r  4r
2 log 2 23
1  3r log 2 2  4  r
2
1 3r  4r
2
3r r
  4 1
2 1
3r  2r
3
2
r 3

2 1
r 6
6
8 2
N
N  83  512
(2vii) Given that (2viii) log 2
8 x
log10 Y  2  2 x
8
evaluate log10 2 x  1
 2 x
 23
log10 Y x6
3x
Y  102
(ix) log 83
Y  100 x

101  2 x  x  8 3

2 x  10
1 ( 3)
x 2
3
x5 3
x 2
 23

log10 100 3 2    
3 23
x 2 3
2
3(5)
3 2    
3 23
log10 10 1 x 2 3
2

15 15 x  22  4
49
1
16 log
log 3 16

log 7 log 7
4 4
2
7 7
log 2 log
4  4
log 7 7
4 log
4
2

Equations in solving logarithms: logarithmic equations:

Solve the equations:

(1) log10 2 x 2  5 x  2  1  
(2) log 2 3x 2  8 x  1  1 
log10 2x 2
 5 x  2  1log 10
10
log 3x2
2
 8 x  1  1log 2
2

log10 2x 2
 5 x  2  log 10
10
log 3x2
2
 8 x  1  log 2
2

2 x 2  5 x  2  10 3x  8 x  1  2
2

2 x  5 x  2  10  0
2
3x 3  8 x  1  2  0
2 x 2  5  12  0 3x 2  8 x  3  0
2 x 2  8 x  3x  12  0 3x 2  9 x  x  3  0
2 xx  4  3x  4  0 3x 2 x  3  1x  3  0
x  42 x  3  0 x  33x  1  0
x  4  0 or 2 x  3  0 x3 0 0r 3x  1  0
x  4 0r 3 x  3 0r x 1
2 3
 Algebraic Equations
Linear Equations

A linear equation is one in which the highest power of the variable/unknown is 1. To solve a linear
equation we perform one or more of the following ‘’operations’’.

1. Add the same value to each side;

2. Subtract the same value from each side;
3. Multiply each side by the same value;
4. Divide each side by the same value;
5. Remove brackets;
6. Collect like terms and / or like signs, as in the following examples

Example 1

(a) 𝑥 − 3 = 8 (b) 𝑥 + 4 = 12 (c) 5𝑥 + 6 = 3𝑥 − 14 (d) 5(𝑥 − 4) − 2(𝑥 − 3) = 22

Solutions

(a) 𝑥 − 3 = 8 (c) 5𝑥 + 6 = 3𝑥 − 14
Add 3 to both sides Collect like terms
𝑥−3+3 = 8+3 5𝑥 − 3𝑥 = −14 − 6
𝑥 = 11 2𝑥 = −20
Divide each side by 2
𝑥 = −10

(b) 𝑥 + 4 = 12 (d) 5(𝑥 − 4) − 2(𝑥 − 3) = 22

Subtract 4 from each side Remove the brackets
𝑥 + 4 − 4 = 12 − 4 5𝑥 − 20 − 2𝑥 + 6 = 22
𝑥=8 5𝑥 − 2𝑥 = 22 + 20 − 6
3𝑥 = 36
𝑥 = 12

Solve the equations

1 1 𝑥
(a) (5𝑥 + 2) − (2𝑥 + 3) = 8
6 4
3𝑥 𝑥−1
(b) 2
− 5 = 𝑥−4
(c) Solve the equation: 0.2(𝑥 − 0.1) = 0.3(𝑥 − 0.2)
(d) In 1984, Ike was 24 years old and his father was 45 years old. In what year was Ike exactly half
his father’s age ?
 (e) Ata’s sister, Aina is seven years younger than he is. Twenty years ago, Aina’s age was only three-
quarters of Ata’s age . How old is Aina now?
(f) A father is now three times as old as his son. Twelve years ago, he was six times as old as his
son. How old is the son now?
𝑥−2 3𝑥−4
(g) Solve the equation 3
− 4 =1
2 3 5
(h) 𝑦−1
+ 𝑦+1 = 𝑦
2(𝑧−1) 3(2𝑧+1) 𝑧−2
(i) Solve: 3 − 4 = 5
(j) A man drove from B to C, a distance of 48𝑘𝑚, in 45 minutes. Where the surface is good, he
drives at 72𝑘𝑚/ℎ; where it is bad at 48𝑘𝑚/ℎ. Find the number of the km at the good surface.
(k) A certain sum of money consists of 30 coins some of which are 10 𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜 pieces and the rest of
which are 5 𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜 pieces. If the total value of the coins is ℵ2, find the number of 10 𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜
pieces.

SIMULTANEOUS EQUATION:
Sometimes it is more convenient if we introduce a second letter to represent another unknown.
One equation in the unknown is satisfied by as many pair of values as we wish, but if we have
two equations in two unknowns, they usually have only one pair of solutions.

Solve: 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 12
4𝑥 − 3𝑦 = −1
One can solve by substitution or elimination method.
Multiply (i) by 4 and (ii) by 3. This produce equations in which the coefficients of 𝑥 are equal.
Sometimes it is easier to choose multipliers so that the coefficient of 𝑦 become equal
12𝑥 + 8𝑦 = 48 ----------------(iii)
12𝑥 − 9𝑦 = −3 ---------------(iv)
And subtract (iv) from (iii), so that the term of 𝑥 disappear.
17𝑦 = 51
:.𝑦 = 3
Substitute in (i): 3𝑥 + 6 = 12
. : 3𝑥 = 6 and 𝑥 = 2.

Example: The expression (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦) is equal to 8 when 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = 2, it is equal to 13 when
𝑥 = 2and 𝑦 = 3. Find its value when 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑦 = 2.
3 2
Solve : 𝑟 − 𝑠 = 1 ---------(i)
8 2
𝑟
− 𝑠 = 10 ----------(ii)
 Solve: Solve the pairs of the equation:
ℎ+𝑘+1 ℎ 3 4 4 1
1. =2=𝑘 7. + =2; − =3
4 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
ℎ+2𝑘 ℎ+𝑘+1 2ℎ+𝑘
2. = 7 = 10 8. If there solutions of the pair of 2𝑥 +
4
𝑥 𝑦 3𝑦 = 𝑎, 3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑏 are 𝑥 = −1;
3. 2
+ 3 = 2, 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 13
𝑦 = 2, find 𝑎 and 𝑏.
4. If 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, find the values of 𝑎
9. The value of the expression
and 𝑏, given that 𝑦 = 5 when 𝑥 = 1
(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥) is 8 when 𝑥 = 2 and 27
and that 𝑦 = 7 when 𝑥 = 2.
𝑎+1 2𝑎+1 1
when 𝑥 = 3. Find its value when
5. 𝑏+1
= 2, 2𝑏+1 = 3 𝑥 = −1.
𝑐+𝑑+2 𝑐 𝑑
6. 7
=3=2

Simultaneous Linear And Quadratic Equation

Solve the equations: 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5 − − − − − − − − − (𝑖)

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 13 − − − − − − − −(𝑖𝑖)
One is linear and the other quadratic. To solve, make one of the variables the subject of the linear
equation; then substitute this value in the non – linear equation. We obtain a quadratic equation in the
other variable.
∴ 𝑥 = 5 − 𝑦 − − − − − − − (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Then (5 − 𝑦)2 + 𝑦 2 = 13
25 − 10𝑦 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 2 = 13
𝑦 2 − 5𝑦 + 6 = 0
Hence, (𝑦 − 3)(𝑦 − 2) = 0, giving 𝑦 = 3 or 𝑦 = 2
Obtain 𝑥 from (𝑖𝑖𝑖): 𝑥 = 2 or 3
The two sets of solutions are thus: 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 3 or 𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = 2
Thus the coordinates of the points where the line (𝑖) cut the circle (𝑖𝑖) are (2,3) and (3,2).
Solve : Find the points of intersection of the line 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 10 − − − − − (𝑖) with the curve 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 +
𝑦 2 = 21 − − − − − − − − − (𝑖𝑖).
10−3𝑥
From (𝑖) we obtain 𝑦 = 2
− − − − − − − (𝑖𝑖𝑖) which we substitute in (𝑖𝑖)
𝑥(10−3𝑥) 10−3𝑥 2
𝑥2 − 2
+ ( 2
) = 21
𝑥(10−3𝑥) 100−60𝑥+9𝑥 2
𝑥2 − 2
+ 4
= 21
Clearing fractions,
4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥(10 − 3𝑥) + 100 − 60𝑥 + 9𝑥 2
∴ 19𝑥 2 − 80𝑥 + 16 = 0
We obtain (19𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 4) = 0
 4
Hence 𝑥 = 19 𝑜𝑟 4
4 89
∴𝑥= ,𝑦 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 4, 𝑦 = −1 .
19 19
4 89
Hence the points of intersection are (19 , 19) and (4, −1).
 Solve: 𝑦 − 2𝑥 = −2, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 19
 Solve the equations: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 13, 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑦 2 = −6
 The expression (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥) is 8 when 𝑥 = 2 and 27 when 𝑥 = 3. Find its values when 𝑥 = −1.
 A number of two digits is increased by 54 when the digits are reversed . The sum of the digits is
12. Find the number
 A tobacconist bought a certain number of pipes at 𝑁1.50 each and others at 𝑁1.70 each. Had
he bought half at 𝑁1.50 and twice as many at 𝑁1.70, his bill would have been 𝑁196 instead of
the 𝑁188 which he actually paid. How many pipes did he buy altogether ?

Suppose he bought 𝑥 pipes at 𝑁1.50 and 𝑦 pipes at 𝑁1.70

The cost of 𝑥 pipes at 𝑁1.50 each is 𝑁1.5𝑥
The cost of 𝑦 pipes at 𝑁1.70 each is 𝑁1.7𝑦
1.5𝑥 + 1.7𝑦 = 188
15𝑥 + 17𝑦 = 1880
Or
1 1
The cost of 2 𝑥 pipes at 𝑁1.50 is 2 𝑥(1.5) = 0.75𝑥.
The cost of 2𝑦 pipes at 𝑁1.70 is 2𝑦(1.7) = 𝑁3.4𝑦
∴ 0.75𝑥 + 3.4𝑦 = 196
or 3.75𝑥 + 17𝑦 = 980
subtract (ii) from (i)
11.25𝑥 = 900
Multiply by 4 , 45𝑥 = 3600
𝑥 = 80
Substitute in (i) 1200 + 17𝑦 = 1880
17𝑦 = 680
𝑦 = 40.
Or He bought 80 pipes at 𝑁1.50 and 40 at 𝑁1.70, i.e. 120 in all.
Check; 80 pipes at 𝑁1.50 each cost 𝑁120.
40 pipes at 𝑁1.70 each cost 𝑁68
Total cost is 𝑁188
40 pipes at 𝑁1.70 each cost 𝑁60
80 pipes at 𝑁1.50 each cost 𝑁136.
Total cost is 𝑁196

2. A motorist travels 15𝑘𝑚 to the litre of petrol and 600𝑘𝑚 to the litre of oil. He estimates that an
animal distance of 600𝑘𝑚 will cost him 𝑁102 on petrol and oil. In fact, he used twice as much oil as he
estimated and the cost was 𝑁108. Find the cost of a litre of petrol.
Suppose the cost of a litre of petrol is 𝑥 kobo and the cost of a litre of oil is 𝑦 kobo.
In travelling 600km, he estimates to use 400 litres of petrol and 10 litres of oil.
The cost of these is (400𝑥 + 10𝑦)𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜.
∴ 400𝑥 + 10𝑦 = 10200
He actually used 20 litres of oil.
∴ 400𝑥 + 10𝑦 = 10800
Subtract (i) from (ii) , 10𝑦 = 600
𝑦 = 60
Substitute in (i) , 400𝑥 + 600 = 10200, 400𝑥 = 9600
𝑥 = 24
The cost of a litre of petrol is 24 𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜
Check; 400 litres of petrol at 24 𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜 cost 𝑁96
10 litres of oil at 60 𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜 cost 𝑁6
20 litres of oil at 24 𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜 cost 𝑁12 .
The estimated cost is 𝑁102
The actual cost is 𝑁108
Classwork
1. The sum of the ages of a father and the son is 52 years. Eight years ago, the father was eight
times as old as his son. How old is the father now?
1
2. The charge for electricity is 3 𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜 per unit for lighting and 𝑘𝑜𝑏𝑜 per unit for heating. A man’s
2
bill for a quarter
 QUADRATIC EQUATION

A quadratic equation in one variable is an (c) 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 12 = 0 becomes

equation in which the highest power of the (2𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 4) = 0 and so either
variable is 2, e.g. 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 = 7 2𝑥 − 3 = 0 or 𝑥 + 4 = 0 which gives
The highest power of the unknown /variable is 3
𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −4
2 for a quadratic equation and has always has 2
two roots. The roots may be equal or distinct/ Example: If 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 − 6𝑦 2 = 0, find the value
𝑥
different. The general / standard form of the of 𝑦
quadratic equation is usually given by: The equation is a quadratic in two variables 𝑥
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 where 𝑎 ≠ 0 and 𝑦.
The roots can be obtained Factorise the left hand side
(i) By the factorisation method; (𝑥 − 3𝑦)(𝑥 + 2𝑦) = 0
(ii) By the completing the square 𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 0
method 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0
(iii) Formula method 𝑥 = 3𝑦
(iv) Graphical method 𝑥
=3
The equation will always have two solutions or 𝑦
roots but these may be equal or complex. 𝑥 = −2𝑦
𝑥
= −2
𝑦
I FACTORISATION 𝑥
The values of are 3 or −2
This method uses the 𝐴𝐵 = 0 principle. If 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑦

0 then 𝐴 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = 0. Alternatively, divide by 𝑦 2 first

Example; Solve the equation 𝑥 2 𝑥𝑦 6𝑦 2
− − 2 =0
(a) 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 = 0 𝑦2 𝑦2 𝑦
𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑥
(b) 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 = 6 (𝑦) − 𝑦 − 6 = 0, now in 𝑦 form
(c) 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 12 = 0 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
Solution Factorising, (𝑦 − 3) (𝑦 + 2) = 0 gives 𝑦 = 3 or
(a) Factorise the left hand side −2 as before
𝑥(2𝑥 − 5) = 0 and by tye 𝐴𝐵 = 0 principle, Solve:
either 𝑥 = 0 or 2𝑥 − 5 = 0, i.e. 𝑥 = 0 or 𝑥 = (a) 𝑥 2 = 3𝑥
5/2. (b) 𝑝2 = 2(𝑝 + 4)
12
A common mistake here is to divide through by (c) 𝑥 − =1
𝑥
𝑥 first. If this is done, however , the root 𝑥 = 0 (d) 1 − 3𝑥 2 = 2𝑥
will be lost. Remember that a quadratic 𝑥
(e) Find the possible values of 𝑦 if
equation must have two roots
(i) 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 − 6𝑦 2 = 0
(b) Solution, rewrite in standard from:
2 (ii) 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 2 = 0
𝑥 − 5𝑥 − 6 = 0, then factorise the left hand 𝑥 20𝑦
(𝑥 − 6)(𝑥 + 1) = 0 and so (iii) + =9
𝑦 𝑥
𝑥 − 6 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 + 1 = 0 which gives (iv) 𝑥(𝑥 − 𝑦) = 𝑦(𝑥 + 3𝑦)
𝑥 = 6 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1 (check by substitution in the (f) Find the values of the ratio 𝑎: 𝑏 if 2𝑎2 +
original equation) 𝑎𝑏 = 3𝑏 2
 3𝑦
4. 𝑦 2 − 2
II Completing The Square
5. 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥
(𝑥 − 3)2 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 3) 6. 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 9 7. 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9
Hence, 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 = (𝑥 − 3)2 − 9 Example: By completing the square,
(𝑥 − 3)2 − (−3)2 solve the equation 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 1 =
So, given 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 we can complete the 0
1
square . The key is 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥). First check that the factorization method
Example: Complete the squares for cannot be used. Now make the coefficient of 𝑥
(a) 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 unity.
3 1 3 1
(b) 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − = 0 i.e. 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 =
2 2 2 2
Now complete the square on the left hand side:
3 2 3 2
2
(a) 𝑥 + 3𝑥 = (𝑥 + 2
) − (+ 2) 3 2 9 1
(𝑥 − ) − =
3 9 2 4 16 2
(𝑥 + ) − 3 2 1 9 17
2 4 Hence (𝑥 − 4) = 2 + 16 = 16
Coefficient of 𝑥 is
3 17
1
+3, (𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥) is +
3 We now take the sequence root: 𝑥 − = ±√
4 16
2 2
(b) We can only complete the square if √17
𝑥=±
the coefficient of 𝑥 2 is 1. So we 4
Both square roots must be taken, so we write
rewrite the expression as 2 (𝑥 2 −
± (+𝑜𝑟−)
𝑥 1
).The coefficient of 𝑥 is now − 2. 3 √17 3±4.123
2 Hence 𝑥 = 4 ± 4
= 4
1 7.123
2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 = 2(𝑥 2 − 𝑥) The two roots are therefore = 1.78 or
2 4
1 2 1 2 −1.123
− 4 = −0.28, correct to 2d.p
2 [(𝑥 − ) − ( ) ]
4 4
Note that as √17 is irrational, the roots can only
1 2 1 be found approximately.
2 [(𝑥 − ) − ]
4 16 Example: Solve 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 = 0
1 2 1 2 1
2 (𝑥 − ) − Rewrite 𝑥 2 − 3 𝑥 = − 3
4 8
1 2 2 1 2
Check this by expanding the bracket i.e. (𝑥 − 3) = − 3 + 9 = − 9
Taking the square roots:
Exercise:
1 −2
𝑥− = ±√
Complete the squares of the 3 9
following 2
However, no real number equals 𝑥 − √− 9. The

1. 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 equation therefore does not have real roots.

2. 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 These can only be given as complex numbers.
𝑎
3. 𝑎2 +
2
Solve the following equations giving the toots 3 ± 4.123
= = 1.78 𝑜𝑟 − 0.28
correct to 2 decimal place: 4
1. 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 = 0 Correct to 2 decimal places
2. 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 = 1 (b)Rewrite the equation in standard form
1 making the coefficient of 𝑥 2 positive . 3𝑥 2 +
3. 𝑥 − 𝑥 = 3
5𝑥 − 1 = 0. Then 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 5, 𝑐 = −1
4. (𝑥 + 3)2 = 𝑥 + 7
Using this technique of completing the square
−5±√(−5)2 −4(3)(−1) −5±√37 −5±6.088
we can derive a formula for solving any So 𝑥 = 2×3
= 6
= 6
quadratic equation. −11.083
The two roots are therefore 6
= −1.85
1.083
and 6
= 0.18 each correct to 2 decimal

III FORMULA places.

If 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 then
𝑥+4
𝑏𝑥 𝑐 Example: Find the roots of the equation =
𝑥2 + =− 𝑥+2
𝑎 𝑎 𝑥+5
correct to 2 decimal places.
Now complete the square: 2

𝑏 2 𝑏 2 𝑐
(𝑥 + ) −( ) =− We must first put the equation into standard
2𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 2 𝑐 𝑏2 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 form. Remove the fractions by multiplying both
Or (𝑥 + 2𝑎) = − 𝑎 + 4𝑎2 = 4𝑎 2 sides by the L.C.M 2(𝑥 + 2)
Taking the square roots: Then 2(𝑥 + 4) = (𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 + 2)
𝑏 √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 2𝑥 + 8 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 10
𝑥+ =±
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑥 + 8 = 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 10
𝑏 √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 10 − 2𝑥 − 8 = 0
𝑥=− ±
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 2 = 0
𝟐
−𝒃 ± √𝒃 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 Then: 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 5, 𝑐 = 2.
𝒙=
𝟐𝒂 Hence 𝑥 =
−5±√25−4(1)(2) −5±√17
= 2 =
−5±4.123
Roots of the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 2 2
−5+4.123 −0.8777
𝑐=0 The roots are 2
= 2 = −0.444
If you use this formula to solve a quadratic −5−4.123 −9.123
And 2
= 2 = −4.56
equation, make sure you know the formula
correctly and use the appropriate values of a, b
Each correct to2 decimal places.
and c. Always write down these values first.
Example:
Note : Most likely you would prefer to solve
Solve the equation
quadratic equation by the formula, if the
(a) 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 1 = 0
method of factorisation does not work. On the
(b) 1 − 3𝑥 2 = 5𝑥
whole, it is the most direct method . However it
is essential for later use to know how to
(a) 𝑎 = 2 , 𝑏 = −3, 𝑐 = −1
complete the square on expressions like 𝑎𝑥 2 +
−(−3)±√(−3)2 −4(2)(−1)
Hence 𝑥 = 2×2 𝑏𝑥; such as find the maximum or miminum
3 ± √9 + 8 3 ± √17 values of the quadratic functions or dealing
𝑥= =
4 4
with the equation of a circle in coordinate −𝑏 + √𝐷 − 𝑏 − √𝐷 2𝑏
=−
geometry. 2𝑎 2𝑎
Using the formula, solve the following 𝒃
𝜶+𝜷 = −
equations giving the roots correct to 2 decimal 𝒂
places. Products of the roots (𝛼, 𝛽) is given by
(a) 𝑥(𝑥 + 1) = (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑏 √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 𝑏 √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝛼𝛽 = [− + ] [− − ]
3 𝑥−2 2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎
(b) 𝑥+1
= 2 2
𝑏 2 √𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
(c)
1 1
+ 𝑥−4 = 4 = (− 2𝑎) − ( 2𝑎
)
𝑥
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 2 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 𝑏 − 𝑏 + 4𝑎𝑐
2 2
(d) If | | means 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐, solve the = − =
𝑐 𝑑 4𝑎2 4𝑎2 4𝑎2
𝑥 4 4𝑎𝑐 𝑐
equation | | = 0 giving the = 2=
2 𝑥−1 4𝑎 𝑎
roots correct to 2 decimal places. 𝒄
𝜶𝜷 =
𝒂
(−𝑏+√𝐷)(−𝑏−√𝐷 ) 𝑏2 −𝐷 𝑏2 −(𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐)
or 𝛼𝛽 = 2𝑎×2𝑎
= 4𝑎 2
= 4𝑎 2
2 2
𝑏 − 𝑏 + 4𝑎𝑐 𝑐
= =
4𝑎2 𝑎
SUM AND PRODUCTS OF ROOTS OF A 𝒄
𝜶𝜷 =
QUADRATIC EQUATION 𝒂
From the completing the square method, we Or recall that equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 has
obtained the roots of the quadratic equation roots of 𝛼 and 𝛽, then it is equivalent to the
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 as equation
𝑏 √𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 (𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽) = 0, as this gives 𝑥 = 𝛼 , 𝑥 = 𝛽
𝑥 = − 2𝑎 + and
2𝑎 Expanding (𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽) = 0
𝑏 √𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥 = − 2𝑎 − 𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽
2𝑎
If the roots are 𝛼 and 𝛽, or suppose we Now compare the two equations:
𝑏 𝑐
represent these distinct roots by 𝛼 and 𝛽, thus 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + = 0 (dividing through by a)
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 and 𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0
𝛼=− + 𝑏
2𝑎 2𝑎 Hence 𝛼 + 𝛽 = − 𝑎
𝑏 √𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 𝑐
and 𝛽 = − 2𝑎 − 2𝑎 And 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑎
The sum of the roots (𝛼 + 𝛽) is thus given by so for any quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 =
𝑏 √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 𝑏 √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 0 with roots 𝛼, 𝛽.
𝛼+𝛽 =− + +− −
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 2𝑏
𝛼+𝛽 = − − =− 𝒃 𝒄
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎 𝜶 + 𝜷 = −𝒂 𝜶𝜷 = 𝒂,
𝒃
𝜶+𝜷 = −
𝒂
or 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 𝐷 where 𝐷 is the discriminant.
𝑏 √𝐷 𝑏 √𝐷 The sum and product of the roots can also be
Hence 𝛼 + 𝛽 = − 2𝑎 + 2𝑎 + − 2𝑎 − 2𝑎
derived directly (but not so neatly)from the
−𝑏 + √𝐷 −𝑏 − √𝐷
= + formula for the roots as worked earlier.
2𝑎 2𝑎
−𝑏+√𝐷 −𝑏−√𝐷
Let 𝛼 = 2𝑎
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 = 2𝑎
 3. Construct and simplify the equations whose
Examples: roots will be;
If the roots of 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 1 = 0 are (a)
1
,
1
1+√2 1−√2
𝛼and 𝛽, find 𝛼 + 𝛽 find 𝛼𝛽. Comparing the
(b) sin 𝜃 , cos2 𝜃
2
given equation with the standard form with
4. Form the quadratic equation with roots
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = −4, 𝑐 = −1. 1−√5 1+√5
−(−4) 4 2
, 2
Hence 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 3
=3
𝑐 1
5. A student is asked to solve the equation
and 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑎 = −3 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 = 0. He knows that the roots are
1 1
𝛼 and 𝛽, then 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 3 and 𝛼𝛽 = 3. He then
2
The equation 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 is equivalent to
𝑏 𝑐
attempts to solve these two simultaneous
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + = 0, i.e. 𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 equations. What does he find?
𝑎 𝑎
where 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots, we see that any 1
6. It is known that 𝑝 + 𝑞 = and 𝑝𝑞 = − . By
1
6 3
quadratic equation can be written in the form:
forming a quadratic equation whose roots are 𝑝
and 𝑞.

𝑥 2 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝛼𝛽) = 0

Symmetric Functions Of The Roots

Knowing the values of 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼𝛽 for
and this form is very useful.
a given equation, we can calculate the values of
other functions of 𝛼 and 𝛽, provided they are
Examples: Construct an equation with roots
symmetric. A symmetric function of 𝛼 and 𝛽 is
√2 + 1 , √2 − 1. one which 𝛼 and 𝛽 are interchanged, the
The sum of the roots = 2√2 function is the same or is multiplied by −1.
The product of the roots = (√2 + 1)(√2 − 1) For example, 𝑎2 + 𝛽 2 is a symmetric
= 2 − √2 + √2 − 1 = 1 function as it becomes 𝛽 2 + 𝛼 2 .
Hence the equation is 𝑥 2 − 2√2𝑥 + 1 = 0 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 becomes −(𝛽 2 − 𝛼 2 ), so 𝛼 2 −
𝛽 2 is also symmetric, but 3𝛼 + 𝛽 is not a
Classwork: symmetric function.
1.Form the equation whose roots are: The values of a symmetric function 𝛼
3 5 and 𝛽can be found can be found without
(a) 3 and 7 (b) − 2 and − 6 (c) −4 and 9
knowing the values of 𝛼 and 𝛽.
2. If 𝛼, 𝛽 are the roots of the following
equations, state the values for each of 𝛼 + 𝛽
and 𝛼𝛽.
(a) 3𝑥 2 = 𝑥 + 1
(b) 𝑝𝑡 2 − 𝑞𝑡 − 𝑟 = 0
(c)𝑝𝑥 2 = 𝑞
(d)𝑥 2 + √3𝑥 + 1 = 0
(e) 2𝑦 2 − (𝑎 + 3)𝑦 + 𝑎2 = 0
(f) 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3 = 0
Examples: Examples:
If 𝛼 , 𝛽 are the roots of 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0, find
the values of (a) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 (b) 𝛼 − 𝛽 (c) 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 If 𝛼, 𝛽 are the roots of 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 1 = 0,
1 1 construct equations whose roots are:
(d) + (e) 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 (f) 𝛼 3 − 𝛽 3 (g) 𝛼 4 − 𝛽 4
𝛼 𝛽 1 1 1 1
From the given equation we know that 𝛼 + 𝛽 = (a) 5𝛼, 5𝛽 (b) 𝛼 2 , 𝛽 2 (c) 𝛼 + 𝛽 , 𝛽 + 𝛼 (d) 𝛼 , 𝛽
1 Use the form
and 𝛼𝛽 = −1. Each of the function (a) – (g)
2
𝑥 2 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠)𝑥 + (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 ) = 0
must be expressed in terms of 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼𝛽
to derive the equation. In case each the sum and
only. Note the methods used.
product of the new roots is expressed in terms of
5
2 2 2
𝛼 + 𝛽 , 𝛼𝛽. From the given equation 𝛼 + 𝛽 = −
3
(a) 𝛼 + 𝛽 = (𝛼 + 𝛽) − 2𝛼𝛽 1
1 9 ,𝛼𝛽 = − .
3
= +2 = (a) Sum of new roots = 5𝛼 + 5𝛽 = 5(𝛼 + 𝛽)
4 4
(b) 𝛼 − 𝛽 cannot be found directly we use 5 25
= 5 (− ) = −
(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛽 3 3
Product of new roots (5𝛼)(5𝛽) = 25𝛼𝛽
1 1 4 17
− 4(−1) = + = 1 25
4 4 1 4 25 (− ) = −
3 3
√17 25 25
Hence 𝛼 − 𝛽 = ± 2
depending on whether Hence the required equation is 𝑥 2 + − = 0
𝑥 3
𝛼 > 𝛽 or 𝛼 < 𝛽. 3𝑥 2 + 25 − 25 = 0
(c) 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝛼 − 𝛽) (b) Sum of new roots 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽
1 √17 √17 25 2 31
= (2) ( ) = (taking 𝛼 > 𝛽) + =
2 4 9 3 9
1 1
1 1 𝛽+𝛼 2 1 Product = 𝛼 2(𝛽 2 ) = (𝛼𝛽)2 =
(d) 𝛼
+𝛽 = 𝛼𝛽
= −1
= −2 9
2 31 1
3 3 So the new equation is 𝑥 − 𝑥+ =0
(e) 𝛼 ± 𝛽 .These can be factorized. Note 9 9
9𝑥 2 − 31𝑥 + 1 = 0
the results for future use. 1 1
(c) Sum of new roots = (𝛼 + ) + (𝛽 + )
𝛼 ± 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 ± 𝛽)(𝛼 2 ∓ 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽 2 )
3 𝛽 𝛼

Hence 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝛼 2 − 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽 2 ) 1 1 𝛽+𝛼

𝛼+𝛽+ + =𝛼+𝛽+
𝛼 𝛽 𝛼𝛽
(𝛼 + 𝛽)[(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 3𝛼𝛽]
5 10
1 1 2 13 =− +5=
3 3
( ) [( ) + 3 ] =
2 2 8 1 1
Product of roots = (𝛼 + ) (𝛽 + )
𝛽 𝛼
(f) 𝛼 − 𝛽 = (𝛼 − 𝛽)(𝛼 + 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽 2 )
3 3 2
1 1
= (𝛼 − 𝛽)[(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽] 𝛼𝛽 + 1 + 1 + = 𝛼𝛽 + 2 +
𝛼𝛽 𝛼𝛽
= (𝛼 − 𝛽)[(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 𝛼𝛽] 1 4
− +2−3=−
√17 1 2 3 3
[ ] +1 2 10 4
So the new equation is 𝑥 − 𝑥 − = 0
2 2 3 3
√17 1 3𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 − 4 = 0
[ + 1] In each of the above, the new roots were symmetric
2 4
√17 5 functions of 𝛼 and 𝛽. In other cases, it would be
[ ] necessary to know the values of 𝛼 and 𝛽. If there is a
2 4
given relationship between the roots, tis can be used
5√17
=
8
to determine an unknown coefficient in the 10. Find the values of 𝑝 which the equation
equation. (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) = 𝑝 has roots which differ by 2.
Example: 11. If the roots of the 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 differ by 1,
One root of the equation 27𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 8 = 0 is show that they are
𝑎−𝑏
and −
𝑎+𝑏
, and prove
2𝑎 2𝑎
known to be the squares of the other. Find 𝑏. 2
that 𝑏 = 𝑎(𝑎 + 4𝑐).
Let, the roots be 𝛼 and 𝛼 2. 12. One root of the equation 2𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 is
𝑏 8
Then 𝛼 + 𝛼 2 = − and 𝛼 × 𝛼 2 = three times the other root. Prove that 3𝑏 2 =
27 27
8
𝛼3 = 32𝑐.
27
2
𝛼= More Examples
3
Then 𝛼 + 𝛼 = −2 𝑏 Types of roots of the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 +
27
2 4 𝑏 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 given by
+ =−
3 9 27 −𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑏 = −30. 𝑥= are either equal or distinct
2𝑎
according to the value of 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐. Three
Examples: restrictions can be placed on the value of the
discriminant (𝐷).
1. If 𝛼 , 𝛽 are the roots of 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 = 5, calculate 1. If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐, the roots real and coincident ,
the values of the following:
(i.e. we have equal roots);
(a) 𝛼 + 𝛽 (b) 𝛼𝛽 (c) 𝛼 − 𝛽 (d) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 (e)
1 1 2. If 𝑏 2 > 4𝑎𝑐, the roots are real and distinct (i.e.
𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 (f)𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4 (g) +
𝛼 𝛽 we have different roots);
2. If 𝛼 , 𝛽 are the roots of the given equations, 3. If 𝑏 2 < 4𝑎𝑐, the roots are complex and distinct,
construct new equations whose roots are (i) (i.e. we have different have roots ).
1 1
2𝛼 , 2𝛽 (ii) 𝛼 2 , 𝛽 2 (iii) , (iv) 𝛼 3 , 𝛽 3 (v) 𝛼 +
𝛼 𝛽
1,𝛽 + 1
3. If 𝛼 , 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − Examples:
5 = 0, form the equation whose roots are 2𝛼 − Check or determines the nature of roots of the
1
, 2𝛽 − .
1 following quadratic equations:
𝛽 𝛼
(i) 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 = 0
4. If 𝛼 , 𝛽 are the roots of 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 = 0, form (ii) 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 = 0
𝛼 𝛽
the equation whose roots are , (iii) 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5 = 0
𝛽 𝛼
2
5. One root of the equation 2𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 is
double the other root. Find 𝑐 . The 𝐷 enables us to determine the position of the
6. If 𝛼, 𝛽 are the roots of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, show graph of 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 relative to the x – axis, it
that 𝛼(𝛼 + 1)(𝛽 + 1) = 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐 is called a discriminant solution:
7. If the roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 − 10 = 0 1. 𝑎 = 1 , 𝑏 = −3 , 𝑐 = −2
are 𝛼 and 𝛽, and 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = 2𝑎; find the 𝐷 = 9 − 4(1) × −2 = 9 + 8 = 17 > 0
possible values of k. The roots of the equations are real and distinct.
8. Find the quadratic equation with roots 𝛼 and 𝛽, 2. 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 = 0
given that 𝛼 − 𝛽 = 2 and 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 = 3. 𝑎 = 1 , 𝑏 = −6 , 𝑐 = 9
𝐷 = 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (−6)2 × 4 × 1 × 9 = 36 − 36 = 0
2
9. If one root of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 is
Hence the roots are real and equal.
double the other roots, show that
𝑏 𝑏 3. 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 ∓ 5 = 0
(a) The roots are − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − and (b) 2𝑏 2 =
2𝑎 3𝑎 𝑎 = 2 , 𝑏 = −2 , 𝑐 = 5
9𝑎𝑐 𝐷 = 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = (−2)2 × 4 × 2 × 5 = 4 − 40
= −36
Hence the roots are imaginary.
 One of the roots of the quadratic equation
𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑝 = 0 is twice the other , find
the relationship between d, c and p.
From 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑝 = 0
𝑐𝑥 𝑝
𝑥2 + + = 0
𝑑 𝑑
Let 𝛼 , 𝛽 be the roots of the given equation such
that 𝛼 = 2𝛽
𝑐 (h)
∴ 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 2𝛽 + 𝛽 = −
𝑑
𝑐 𝑐
3𝛽 = − ==> 𝛽 = −
𝑑 3𝑑
𝑝
𝛼𝛽 = (2𝛽). 𝛽 =
𝑑
2
𝑝 More Examples:
𝛽 =
2𝑑
−𝑐 2 𝑐2
From (i) 𝛽 2 = ( ) =
𝑑 𝑎𝑑 2
From
Express each of the following terms of (𝛼 + 𝛽)
and 𝛼𝛽
(a) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 (b) 𝛼 − 𝛽 (c) 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 (d) 𝛼 3 − 𝛽 3
(e) 𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4 (f) 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2
Solution
(a) (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝛼 + 𝛽)
(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 = 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 + 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽
(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 = 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 + 2𝛼𝛽
𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽
(b) 𝛼 − 𝛽 = √(𝛼 − 𝛽)2
(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = (𝛼 − 𝛽)(𝛼 − 𝛽)
(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = 𝛼 2 − 𝛼𝛽 − 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽 2
(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = 𝛼 2 − 2𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽 2
(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽 − 2𝛼𝛽
(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛽
𝛼 − 𝛽 = √(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛽
(c) 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝛼 2 − 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽 2 )
𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 − 𝛼𝛽)
𝛼 + 𝛽 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)[(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽 − 𝛼𝛽]
3 3
𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)[(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 3𝛼𝛽]
(d) 𝛼 3 − 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 − 𝛽)(𝛼 2 + 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽 2 )
𝛼 3 − 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 − 𝛽)(𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 + 𝛼𝛽)
𝛼 − 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 − 𝛽)(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽)
3
𝛼 3 − 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 − 𝛽)(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 𝛼𝛽)
𝛼 3 − 𝛽 3 = (√(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛽) (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 𝛼𝛽)
(e) 𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4 = (𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 )2
[(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽]2
[(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽]2 − 2(𝛼𝛽)2
(f) 𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4 = [(𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 )]2
𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4 = [(𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝛼 − 𝛽)]2
𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4 = [(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 . (𝛼 − 𝛽)2 ]
2
𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 . (√(𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛽)
1 1 𝛼+𝛽
(g) + =
𝛼 𝛽 𝛼𝛽
1 1 (𝛼+𝛽)2 −2𝛼𝛽
+ =
𝛼2 𝛽2 (𝛼𝛽)2
1. If 𝛼 , 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 2𝑥 2 −
8𝑥 − 5 = 0, find the values of:
(a) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 (b) (𝛼 − 𝛽)2 (c) 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 (d) (𝛼 2 +
3)(𝛽 2 + 3)
2. If the roots of the equation 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 +
10 = 0 are 𝛼 and 𝛽, form equations whose
roots are:
(a) 2𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝛽 (b) 𝛼 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 2 (c) 𝛼 +
2𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 + 2𝛼 (d) 𝛼 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 3
3. If the roots of 4𝑥 2 − 2𝑚𝑥 + 39 = 0 differ by
5, find the possible values of m.
4. If one root of 4𝑥 2 + 𝑚𝑥 + 27 = 0 is three
times the other, find the values of m.
5. If 𝑥 2 − (𝑚 − 2)𝑥 + 2𝑚 + 1 = 0 has equal
roots, find the values of m.
6. If the sum of the squares of roots of 𝑎𝑥 2 +
𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 is equal to 1, prove that 𝑏 2 =
2𝑎𝑐 + 𝑎2
7. If one root is the square of the other in the
equation 8 + 𝑚𝑥 + 27𝑥 2 = 0, find the value of
m
8. If the roots of 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 𝑘 = 0 are m and
𝑚 − 1, find the value of k.
9. One of the of the quadratic equation 𝑑𝑥 2 +
𝑐𝑥 + 𝑝 = 0 is twice the other, find the
relationship between c, d and p.
10. If 𝛼 , 𝛽 are the roots of the quadratic
equation 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 5 = 0, find the equation
whose roots are and .
1 1
𝛼 𝛽
11. If 𝛼 , 𝛽 are the roots of the radical equation
22𝑥 + 16 = 10(2𝑥 ), find (i) 𝛼 + 𝛽 (ii) 2𝛼𝛽
 12. If one of the root of the equation 𝑝𝑥 2 + Use of Sum Of Two Cubes
𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 = 0 is 3 times the other root, show that Consider the expansion (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 ), we obtain
3𝑞 2 = 16𝑝𝑟 its identical expressions as follows:
(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
Solution: 𝑎(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) + 𝑏(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
𝑞 𝑟
Let 𝛼 = 𝑥 , 𝛽 = 3𝑥 𝛼 + 𝛽 = − , 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑎3 − 𝑎2 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑎2 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3
𝑝 𝑝
𝑎3 + 𝑏 3
Sum of the roots 𝑥 + 3𝑥 = 4𝑥
The expression (𝑎 + 𝑏 3 ) is called the sum of two
3
Product of the roots 𝑥. 3𝑥 = 3𝑥 2
cubes and it is identically equivalent to (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 −
𝑞 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ).
4𝑥 = − − − − − − (𝑖)
𝑝
𝑟 Difference Of Two Cubes
3𝑥 2 = − − − − − (𝑖𝑖)
𝑝 Again consider the expansion of the expression
𝑞 (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑎𝑏)
𝑥=−
4𝑝 We obtain its identical expression as follows:
𝑞 2 𝑟
3 (− ) = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑎𝑏)
4𝑝 𝑝 𝑎(𝑎 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑎𝑏) − 𝑏(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑎𝑏)
2
2
𝑞 𝑟 𝑎3 + 𝑎2 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 2 − 𝑎2 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 2 − 𝑏 3
3( )
16𝑝2 𝑝
= 𝑎3 − 𝑏 3
3 3
𝑞2 𝑟 The expression 𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 is called difference of two
= cubes and it is identically equivalent to (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 +
16𝑝2 3𝑝
3𝑞 2 𝑝 16𝑟𝑝2 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 2).
= Show that
𝑝 𝑝
3𝑞 2 = 16𝑟𝑝 − 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏) = (𝑎 + 𝑏)3 − 3𝑎𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏)
One of the root of the equation 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 is (𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏)2
the square of other. Show that 𝑝3 − 𝑞(3𝑝 + 1) − (𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
= 𝑎(𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) + 𝑏(𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
𝑞 2 = 0 provided 𝑞 ≠ 1.
= 𝑎3 + 2𝑎2 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑎2 𝑏 + 2𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3
Solution:
(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3
Let one of the roots 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 𝑝 , 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑞
(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)3 − 3𝑎𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏)
The other= 𝛼 2 , ***
Hence, 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)3 − 3𝑎𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏)
Sum of the roots 𝛼 + 𝛼 2 = 𝑝 − − − −(𝑖)
Product of the root 𝛼(𝛼 2) = 𝛼 3 = 𝑞
1 Show that 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 − 2𝑎𝑏
𝛼= 𝑞3 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏)
𝛼 + 𝛼2 = 𝑝 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
1
Sub 𝛼 = 𝑞 3 into equation (i) 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 − 2𝑎𝑏
1 1 2 Hence, 𝑎 + 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 − 2𝑎𝑏
2
𝑞 3 + (𝑞 3 ) = 𝑝
1 2
𝑞3 + 𝑞3 = 𝑝
1 1 1
𝑞3 + 𝑞3. 𝑞3 = 𝑝
1 1
𝑞 3 (1 + 𝑞 3 ) 𝑝
1 = 1
(1 + 𝑞3) 1 + 𝑞3
1
𝑞3 =
 ANGLES
In trigonometry, a positive angle measures a rotation
in an anticlockwise direction. One complete rotation
of the arm OV, starting from its initial position, Ox is
equivalent to 3600 , see the figure below
QUADRANTS
One complete rotation of the arm OV, is divided into
4 quadrants. The quadrants are used to locate angles
The three main trigonometric ratios previously, the
ratios sin, cos, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 were defined in terms of the sides
of a right – angled triangle. These definitions are
now extended so that we can deal with an angle
greater than 900 , the general angle , which v=cannot
in a right – angled triangle.
Let us take a rotating arm OV of length 1 unit. For
𝑦 𝑥
any angle 𝜃, we define sin 𝜃 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = and
1 1
𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = where 𝑥 and 𝑦 have their signed values.
𝑥
The ratios will then be positive or negative,
depending on which quadrant the arm OV lies in,
and the values of the ratios can be related to those
of the corresponding acute angle.
In the first quadrant, all the ratios are positive and
their values found from the tables for angles 00 −
900
1st Quadrant
The definitions give the same values as for a right –
angled triangle
2nd Quadrant 4th Quadrant

+𝑦
sin(1800 − 𝜃)0 = = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0
1
−𝑥
cos(180 − 𝜃)0 = = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 0
1
+𝑦
tan(180 − 𝜃)0 = = − tan 𝜃 0
𝑥
Examples: −𝑦
sin(360 − 𝜃)0 = = − sin 𝜃 0
sin 1300 = sin(180 − 50)0 = sin 500 1
+𝑥
cos 1400 = cos(180 − 40)0 = − cos 400 cos(360 − 𝜃)0 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 0
tan 950 = tan(180 − 85)0 = − tan 850 1
−𝑦
tan(360 − 𝜃)0 = = − tan 𝜃
+𝑥
3rd Quadrant Examples:
sin 3000 = sin(360 − 60)0 = − sin 600
cos 2900 = cos(360 − 70)0 = cos 700
tan 345 = tan(360 − 15)0 = − tan 150

To find a ratio for an angle > 900 , see which

quadrant the angle lies in and convert the angle to
one of the forms (1800 − 𝜃) , (1800 + 𝜃) or
(3600 − 𝜃) , where 𝜃 is acute. Now find the ratio for
𝜃, in appropriate table and attach the correct + or –
sign.
In the 2nd quadrant, the sign is +,cos and 𝑡𝑎𝑛 both –
In the 3rd quadrant, the 𝑡𝑎𝑛 is + , 𝑠𝑖𝑛 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 both –
In the 4th quadrant, the 𝑐𝑜𝑠 is +,𝑠𝑖𝑛 and 𝑡𝑎𝑛 both –
The signs and the forms for the angle can be
𝑦 remembered from this diagram:
Thus, sin(180 + 𝜃)0 = − = − sin 𝜃 0
1
0
−𝑥
cos(180 + 𝜃) = = − cos 𝜃 0 𝑺 𝑨
1
−𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 + 𝑎𝑙𝑙 +
tan(180 + 𝜃)0 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 0
−𝑥 1800 − 𝜃 𝜃
Examples:
sin 2100 = sin(180 + 30)0 = − sin 300 𝑻 𝑪
cos 2200 = cos(180 + 40)0 = − cos 400 tan + cos +
tan 2500 = tan(180 + 70)0 = tan 700 1800 + 𝜃 3600 − 𝜃
Examples: Find the values of (a) sin 1550 (b) 3. If 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = −0.3174 and cos 𝜃 is negative, in
cos 2300 (c) tan 3150 which quadrant does lie?
(a) 1550 is in the 2nd quadrant . Us e(1800 − 𝜃), 4. Find 𝜃, if :
and sin 1550 will be + (a) cos 𝜃 = 0.2571 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 is negative
sin 1550 = sin(1800 − 250 ) (b) 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = −1.25 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is negative
= + sin 250 = 0.4226 (c) sin 𝜃 = 0.269 and tan 𝜃 is negative
(b) 2300 is in the third quadrant. Use (180 + 𝜃)
and cos 2300 will be –
cos 2300 = cos(180 + 50)0
= cos 500 = −0.6428 TRIGONOMETRY RATIO
(c) 3120 is in the 4th quadrant. Use (3600 − 𝜃) and Trigonometry ratio can be defined as in terms of the
tan 3120 = tan(360 − 48)0 sides of a right – angled triangle
− tan 480 = −1.106
For the inverse problem, i.e. to find 𝜃 given 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ,
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 or tan 𝜃, remember that there will be two
values of 𝜃 between 00 and 3600 . The sign will tell in
which tell two quadrants the angles lie.

Examples: Find 𝜃 given that

(a) sin 𝜃 = −0.1537 (b) cos 𝜃 = 0.2764
(c) tan 𝜃 = −1.271

(a) As sin 𝜃 is negative , 𝜃 must lie in the 3rd or 4th

quadrants.
From the tables, looking up 0.1537, the 𝑃𝑅 𝑞
corresponding acute angles is 8.840 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜃 = =
𝑅𝑄 𝑟
Hence, 𝜃 = (180 + 8.84)0 = 188.840 , i.e. 𝑄𝑅 𝑝
1880 50′ or (360 − 8.840)0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜃 = =
𝑃𝑄 𝑟
351.160 (3510 10′ ) 𝑄𝑅 𝑝
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜃 = =
(b) As cos 𝜃 is positive, 𝜃 must lie in the 1st or 4th 𝑃𝑅 𝑞
quadrants. 𝑞
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
From the tables 𝜃 = 73.950 i.e. 730 57′ or 𝑟
𝑝
(360 − 73.95)0 = 286.050 i.e. 2860 3′ ∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝑟
(c) As tan 𝜃 is negative, 𝜃 must lie in the 2nd and 4th 𝑝
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
quadrants. From the acute angle is 51.80 𝑞
𝑝
Hence 𝜃 = (180 − 51.8)0 = 128.20 , i.e. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑟 𝑝
Also, = 𝑞 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
1280 12′ or (360 − 51.8)0 = 308.20 , i.e. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟
𝑞

3080 12′. Reciprocals of basic ratios

Exercises: We define the reciprocals of the three basic ratio as:
1. Using tables find the values of (a)sin 1100 (b) 1
𝑃𝑄 𝑟 1 𝑞
sin 2200 (c) cos 2900 (d) tan 1900 (e) sin 3400 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜃 = = = =
𝑃𝑅 𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑟
2. Find the value of 𝑥, between 00 and 3600 , for 𝑃𝑅 𝑞 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
which 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜃 = = = =
𝑄𝑅 𝑝 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
(a) sin 𝑥 = 0.25 (b) sin 𝑥 = −0.1555 (c)
cos 𝑥 = 0.3124 (d) tan 𝑥 = −0.75 (e)
cos 𝑥 = −0.7123
1. Given that 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
5
and 𝜃 is acute find: (a) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 sec 420 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 480
13
tan 370 = cot 530
(b) 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 (c) 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 (d) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃
cos 200 = sin 700
4 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 420 = sec 480
2. Given that A is an acute angle and that tan 𝐴 = , 𝑐𝑜𝑡370 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛530
3
find the value of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝐴. Special Angles
𝑚
3. Given that 𝑥 is an acute angle and that sin 𝑥 = , √3 1
𝑛
sin 600 = , cos 600 = , tan 600 = √3
find cot 𝑥. 2 2
2 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 600 = , sec 60 = 2 , cot 600 =
√3 √3
1 √3 1
sin 300 = , cos 300 = , tan 300 =
COMPLEMENTARY ANGLES 2 2 √3
Complementary angles are angles whose sum is 900 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐300 = 2 , 𝑠𝑒𝑐300 = , cot 300 = √3
and so in a triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶, right – angled at B, the √3
angles 𝐴 and 𝐶 are complementary. Examples:
(a) 𝑐𝑜𝑠440 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛460
(b) sin 650 = cos 250
(c) tan 500 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡400

Also, sin(1800 − 𝜃) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

cos(1800 − 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
tan(1800 − 𝜃) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

Also, third quadrant: sin(1800 + 𝜃) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

From the definition of the ratios: cos(1800 + 𝜃) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐶𝐵 𝐶𝐵 tan(1800 + 𝜃) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
sin 𝐴 = cos 𝐶 = Fourth quadrant: sin(3600 − 𝜃) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
𝐶𝐵 𝐶𝐵 cos(3600 − 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
tan 𝐴 = cot 𝐶 =
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵 tan(3600 − 𝜃) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
sec 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝐶 =
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵 sin(−𝜃) = sin(3600 − 𝜃) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
So, sin 𝐴 = cos 𝐶 cos(−θ) = cos(3600 − 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
tan 𝐴 = cot 𝐶 tan(−θ) = tan(3600 − 𝜃) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
sec 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝐶
Since 𝐶 = 900 − 𝐴, these equations may be written: Use tables to evaluate each of the following:
sin 𝐴 = cos(900 − 𝐴) (a) sin 1430 (b) 𝑐𝑜𝑠1150 (c) 𝑡𝑎𝑛1250
tan 𝐴 = cot(900 − 𝐴)
sec 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐(900 − 𝐴)
(a) 143; sin(1800 − 1430 ) = sin 370 = 0.6018
Notice that three of the values (co – sine , co –
(b) 115; cos 1150 = −(1800 − 1150 ) =
tangent and co – secant are formed by the prefix co − cos 650 = −0.4226
to the other name. This prefix is short for (c) 125; tan 1250 = − tan(1800 − 1250 ) =
complementary and means that the ratio of any − tan 550 = −1.428
angle is equal to the co – ratio of the complementary (d) sin 2200 = sin(1800 + 400 ) = − sin 400 =
angle. −0.6428
To give a few examples (e) cos 2360 = cos(1800 + 560 ) = − cos 560 =
sin 200 = cos 700 −0.592
(f) tan 2420 = tan(1800 + 560 ) = − cos 560 = ∴ cot 2 𝜃 + 1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
1.881
8
Given that sin 𝐴 = and that 𝐴 is an obtuse angle,
17
Use tables to evaluate each of the following:
find cos 𝐴 and tan 𝐴 without using tables.
(a) sin 3300 (b) 𝑐𝑜𝑠2850 (c) 𝑡𝑎𝑛3340 1 1
Simplify : +
1−cos 𝜃 1+cos 𝜃
1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2 2
(a) sin 3100 = sin(3600 − 500 ) = − sin 50 = = =
(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 1 − cos 𝜃 sin2 𝜃2
−0.7660
= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
(b) cos 2850 = cos(3600 − 750 ) = cos 750 =
0.258  (1 + tan2 𝑥)(1 − sin2 𝑥)
(c) tan 3340 = tan(3600 − 260 ) = − tan 260 = sin2 𝑥
(1 + ) (cos 2 𝑥) = cos 2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 = 1
−0.4877 cos 2 𝑥
 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃)(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃)
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 1 − cos 2 𝜃
( )( )= =1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 sin2 𝜃
1−cos2 𝜃
Use tables to evaluate each of the following:  Find : , cos 𝜃 tan 𝜃,
sin2 𝜃
(a) sin −600 (b) 𝑐𝑜𝑠−300 (c) 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1200 (1 − cos 2 𝜃)(sec 2 𝜃)
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
 −
0 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃
(a) cos(−30 ) = cos 330 = cos 30 = 0.8660 1
 Show that tan 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 =
(b) sin(−600 ) = sin 3000 = − sin 600 = −0.8660 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
(c) tan(−1200 ) = tan 2400 = tan 600 = 1.732  Simplify: (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃) cos 2 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
 Show that cot 𝜃 + = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
 Show that (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃) =
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃)
 Find the values between 𝜃 0 and 3600 which
0
0
sin 0 = cos 90 = = 0 0 satisfy the equation 4 cos 2 𝜃 − 3 = 0
1
0 4 cos 2 𝜃 = 3
sin 0 0
tan 00 = = =0 3
cos 00 1 cos 2 𝜃 =
sin 900 1 4
tan 900 = = (undefined), hence √3
cos 900 0
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ±
2
sin 00 = 0 , cos 00 , tan 00 = 0 √3
𝑖𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
sin 900 = 1 , cos 900 = 0 , tan 90 = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 2
then 𝜃 = 300 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3300
3333333 √3
𝑖𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = − , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜃 = 1500 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2100
2
1 1 √2 1 Hence the values satisfying 𝜃 between 00
cos 450 = , sin 450 = = , tan 450 = = 1 and 3600 in the equation are
√2 √2 2 1
300 , 1500 , 2100 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3300
Trigonometric Identities And Equations:  Find the values of 𝜃 between 00 and 3600
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 by Pythagoras’ theorem which satisfy 6 sin2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 1 = 0
∴ sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 1 6 sin2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 1 = 0
cos 2 𝜃 = 1 − sin2 𝜃 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑝 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
sin2 𝜃 1 sin2 𝜃 6𝑝2 + 𝑝 − 1 = 0
= − 1 1
cos 2 𝜃 cos 2 𝜃 cos 2 𝜃 𝑝 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 = −
tan2 𝜃 = sec 2 𝜃 − 1 3 2
 1
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
3 sin(𝐴 + 𝐵)
1 tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) =
𝜃 = sin−1 ( ) = 19.470 , 160.530 cos(𝐴 + 𝐵)
3 sin 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵
1 1 tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) =
𝑜𝑟 sin 𝜃 = − , 𝜃 = sin−1 (− ) = 2100 , 3500 cos 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
2 2 Dividing both numerator and denominator by
 Find the values of 𝜃 between 00 and 3600 cos 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵
which satisfy the equation 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
+
2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 2√3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − √3 = 0 tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 2√3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − √3 = 0 −
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵
= 2 cos 𝜃(2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 1) − √3(2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 1) sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
+
tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵
= (2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − √3)(2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 1) = 0
sin 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵
1−
Either 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − √3 = 0 cos 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵
tan 𝐴 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
√3 √3 ∴ tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = , 𝜃 = cos −1 ( ) = 300 , 3300 1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 tan 𝐵
2 2
Replacing 𝐵 𝑏𝑦 − 𝐵
𝑜𝑟 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 1 = 0 tan 𝐴 − tan(−𝐵)
2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = −1 tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) =
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 tan(− 𝐵)
1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = − tan 𝐴 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
2 tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) =
1 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 tan 𝐵
𝜃 = sin−1 (− ) = 2100 , 3300
2
All are called addition formulae, they are all true for
 Given that 8 sin2 𝜃 + 6𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 9 = 0
acute or compound
Since sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 1
sin2 𝜃 = 1 − cos 2 𝜃
8(1 − cos 2 𝜃) + 6𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 9 = 0 The addition formulae can be summarized as:
8 − 8 cos 2 𝜃 + 6𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 9 = 0 sin(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ± cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵
−8 cos 2 𝜃 + 6𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 1 = 0 cos(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = cos 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 ∓ sin 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵
8 cos 2 𝜃 − 6𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 1 = 0
𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝 = cos 𝑡 Solve the following:
8𝑝2 − 6𝑝 + 1 = 0 (a) sin 750 (b) sin 1050 (c) sin 2250 (d) cos 150 (e)
1 tan 150 (f) tan 1950 (g) cos 750
𝑝 = 𝑜𝑟 2
4
𝑝 = 0.25 , ∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0.25 , 𝜃 = cos −1 (0.25) (a) sin 750 = sin(300 + 450 )
𝜃 = 75.520 , 284.480 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛300 cos 450 + cos 300 + sin 450
1 1 1 √2 √3 √2 1
𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = , 𝜃 = cos −1 ( ) = 600 , 3000 × + × = (√2 + √6)
2 2 2 2 2 2 4
(b) cos 750 = cos(300 + 450 )
= cos 300 cos 450 − sin 300 sin 45
COMPOUND ANGLES √3 √2 1 √2 1
sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 = × − × = (√6 − √2)
2 2 2 2 4
Replacing 𝐵 𝑏𝑦 − 𝐵 0 0
(c) tan 15 = tan(45 − 30 0)

sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 √3

tan 450 − tan 300 1−
= = 3
cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 − sin 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 1 + tan 450 tan 300 √3
1+1×
3
3 − √3
Replacing 𝐵 𝑏𝑦 − 𝐵 3 − √3
3 =
cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos(−𝐵) − sin 𝐴 sin −𝐵 3 + √3 3 + √3
cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = cos 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 + sin 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 3
 (d) sin 2250 = sin(1800 + 750 )
= sin 1800 cos 750 + cos 1800 sin 750 Formulae for double angles
1
= 0 − sin 750 = (√6 + √2)
4 For example sin 700 = sin(350 + 350 )
(e) cos 1950 = cos(1800 + 150 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛350 𝑐𝑜𝑠350 + cos 350 sin 350
(f) tan 750 = tan(300 + 450 ) = 2 sin 350 cos 350
tan 300 + tan 450 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= = 2 + √3 = cos − cos 2 − sin2 = 2 cos 2 −1
1 − tan 300 tan 450 5 10 10 10
(g) sin 750 = sin(450 + 300 ) 𝜋
1 − 2 sin2
sin 450 cos 300 + cos 450 sin 450 10
1
2 tan 222
1 √3 1 1 √3 + 1 tan 450 = 1
= × + × = 1−tan2 22
√2 2 √2 2 2√2 2
𝐴 𝐴
(h) cos 1050 = cos(600 + 450 ) Sometimes stated as sin 𝐴 = 2 sin cos
2 2
= cos 600 cos 450 − sin 600 sin 450 2
𝐴 2
𝐴 2
𝐴
cos 𝐴 = cos − sin = 2 cos −1
1 1 √3 1 1 − √3 2 2 2
× − × = 𝐴
2 √2 2 √2 2√2 = 1 − 2 sin2
2
𝐴
2 tan 2
Example; tan 𝐴 = 𝐴
1−tan2
1 2
0 0
Solve the equation sin 50 cos 𝑥 + cos 50 sin 𝑥 =
2
for 00 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3600 . Examples:
The equation can be interpreted as 4
If cos 2𝐴 = , find tan 𝐴 where 𝐴 is acute
1 5
0
sin(50 + 𝑥) = ; 50 + 𝑥 = 30 𝑜𝑟 150 cos 2𝐴 = 2 cos 2 𝐴 − 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 2𝐴 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝐴
2
4 4
4 12 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 2 cos 2 𝐴 − 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝐴
* If sin 𝐴 = , cos 𝐵 = find the values of 5 5
5 13 9 1
sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) and cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 , cos 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin2 𝐴 =
10 10
(a) When 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 are both acute sin 𝐴 1 3 1
(b) When 𝐴 and 𝐵 are both obtuse 𝑠𝑜 tan 𝐴 = = ÷ =
cos 𝐴 √10 √10 3

Prove that;
DOUBLE ANGLES (a)
sin 3𝐴
−
cos 3𝐴
sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴
The formulae of the previous section can be used to sin 3𝐴 cos 3𝐴 cos 𝐴 sin 3𝐴−cos 3𝐴 sin 𝐴
derive important formulae for double angles such as − =
sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴
2𝐴 sin(3𝐴 − 𝐴) sin(2𝐴)
= =
Replace B by A in the previous formulae, then sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴
2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴
sin 2𝐴 = sin(𝐴 + 𝐴) = sin 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 + cos 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 = =2
sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴
Also, sin 2𝐴
(b)
cos 2𝐴 = cos(𝐴 + 𝐴) = cos 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 − sin 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 1+cos 2𝐴
= cos 2 𝐴 − sin2 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 − (1 − cos 2 𝐴) sin 2𝐴 2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴
=
= cos 2 𝐴 − 1 + cos 2 𝐴 = 2 cos 2 𝐴 − 1 1 + cos 2𝐴 1 + 2 cos 2 𝐴 − 1
2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐴
Or = = tan 𝐴
2 cos 2 𝐴 cos 𝐴
1 − sin2 𝐴 − (sin2 𝐴) = 1 − sin2 𝐴 − sin2 𝐴
= 1 − 2 sin2 𝐴
(c) Solve the equation for 00 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3600 for
(i) sin 2𝑥 = tan 𝑥 (ii) cos 2𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑥
Finally, tan(2𝐴) = tan(𝐴 + 𝐴)
tan 𝐴 + tan 𝐴 2 tan 𝐴
= 2
= (i) If 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 = tan 𝑥, then
1 − tan 𝐴 1 − tan2 𝐴
 sin 𝑥 (d) (2 cos 𝜃 + 1)(2 cos 𝜃 − 1) = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 1
2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 =
cos 𝑥 (e) cos 4 𝜃 − sin4 𝜃 = cos 2𝜃
𝑜𝑟 2 sin 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 = 0, i.e. 𝜋 𝜋
(f) 2 sin ( + 𝜃) sin ( − 𝜃) = cos 2𝜃
sin 𝑥(cos 2 𝑥 − 1) = 0 4 4

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 sin 𝑥 = 0 (5) Show that sin 4𝜃 = 2 sin 2𝜃 cos 2𝜃 =

1 4𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃(2 cos 3 𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑜𝑟2 cos 2 𝑥 = 1 i.e. cos 𝑥 ±
√2 (6) Solve, for 00 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3600 , the equations
sin 𝑥 = 0 gives 𝑥 = 00 , 180 𝑜𝑟 3600 0
(a) sin 2𝑥 = cos 𝑥
1
cos 𝑥 = ± gives 𝑥 = 450 , 1350 , 2250 , 3450 (b)cos 2𝑥 = cos 𝑥
√2
The complete solutions are: (7) Show that
00 , 450 , 1350 , 1800 , 2250 , 3450 , 3600 (a) 1 + sin 2𝐴 = (cos 𝐴 + sin 𝐴)2 and derive a
similar result for 1 − sin 2𝐴
N.B: Note that we did not divide through by sin 𝑥 in 1+2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝐴 1+tan 𝐴 5
sin 𝑥 (b) √ = if sin 2𝐴 = , find the value
1−sin 2𝐴 1−tan 𝐴 13
the equation 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = . If this done, the
cos 𝑥
of 𝐴
solutions of sin 𝑥 = 0 would be lost. Never divide by
(c) Using the results of (a) show that sin 𝐴 =
a factor which may have possible solutions. 1
[√1 + sin 2𝐴 − √1 − sin 2𝐴]
2
1
(ii) If cos 2𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑥 , then 2 cos 2 𝑥 − 1 = 2 cos 𝑥 If sin 2𝐴 = , find the four possible values of 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 in
2
i.e. 2 cos 2 𝑥 − 2 cos 𝑥 − 1 = 0 surd form
This is a quadratic in cos 𝑥 and so 1+√1−𝑝2
2+√12
(8) If tan 𝐴 = , show that sin 2𝐴 = 𝑝, where
𝑝
cos 𝑥 = = 1.3666 or −0.38660
4 𝐴 is an acute angle.
The first has no solutions and the second gives 𝑥 = (9) Given that 2 cos 2 360 = 1 + 2 cos 720 , show that
111.470 or 248.530 , which are the only solutions of 4 cos 360 − 2 cos 360 − 1 = 0 and hence deduce
the equations 1
that cos 3𝑥 = (1 + √5)
4

EXERCISE: without using the table, find the values of (10) 𝐴 and 𝐵 are acute angles and sin 𝐴 =
3 7
(a) 2 sin 150 cos 150 , cos 𝐵 = find, without using tables, the values
5 25
(b) 1 − 2 sin2 150 of (a) sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) (b) cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) (c) tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) (d)
𝜋
(c) 2 cos 2 − 1 sin 2𝐴 (e) cos 2𝐵
8
(d) cos 2 1050 − sin2 1050 (11) Find the values of sin 2𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 2𝜃 without
1
10 10 tables, if 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = .
(e) sin2 22 − cos 2 22 3
2 2 24 3
3𝜋
2 tan 8 (12) If cos 𝐴 = and sin 𝐵 = , where 𝐴 is acute
25 5
(f) 3𝜋
1−tan2 and 𝐵 obtuse, find without using tables, the values
8
3𝜋 3𝜋
(g) sin cos of (a) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝐴 (b) cos 2𝐵 (c) sin(𝐴 − 𝐵)
8 8
(13) Find the value of cos 500 cos 200 +
(2) Find the values of 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 , without cos 400 sin 700 , without using tables
12 1 (14) By writing 3𝐴 as 2𝐴 + 𝐴, show that
using tables if (a) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = (b) cos 𝜃 = where 𝜃 is
13 3 (a)sin 3𝐴 = sin 𝐴(3 − 4 sin2 𝐴)
an acute angle.
119
(b) cos 3𝐴 = cos 𝐴(4 cos 2 𝐴 − 3)
(3) If 𝜃 is an acute angle and cos 2𝜃 = , find the (15) Solve the following equations for 00 ≤ 𝑥 ≤
169
values of sin 𝜃 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 without using tables 3600
1−cos 2𝜃
(4) Prove that (a) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 (a) sin 𝑥 = cos 2𝑥
sin 2𝜃
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (b) 3 cos 𝑥 = cos 2𝑥
(b) = tan2 𝜃
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (16) Show that:
(c) (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 = 1 + sin 2𝜃
(a)sin 2𝜃 cos 𝜃 + cos 2𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − −√3 ± √7
𝑡=
𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2
1+sin 2𝜃
(b) tan2 (450 + 𝜃) = 2√3𝑡 = −1(1 − 𝑡 2 )
1−sin2 𝜃
𝜃 1−cos 𝜃
2√3𝑡 = −1 + 𝑡 2
(c) sin = √ 𝑡 2 − 2√3𝑡 − 1 = 0
2 2
2 sin 𝜃+sin 2𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
(d) = 𝑎 = 1 , 𝑏 = −2√3 , 𝑐 = −1
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2
−2√3 ± √(−2√3) − 4 × 1 × −1
𝑡=
2×1
2√3 ± 4
Summary Of Special Angles 𝑡= = √3 ± 2
2
But √3 − 2 is negative and tan 750 must be positive
𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟗𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟕𝟎𝟎
Hence 𝑡 = tan 750 = 2 + √3
𝒔𝒊𝒏 0 𝟏 𝟏 √𝟑 𝟏 0 −𝟏
𝟐 √𝟐 𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒔 0 𝟏 𝟏 0 −𝟏 0 Negative Angles
√𝟑
𝟐 If the arm OV rotates in a clockwise direction, it
𝟐 √𝟐
𝒕𝒂𝒏 0 𝟏 1 √𝟑 − 0 − would describe a negative angle, −𝜃. The positive
√𝟑 angle is then (360 − 𝜃), see the figure below.

Ratios for angles connected with these can easily be

found
Examples: Find the values of (a) sin 1200 (b)
cos 2400 (c) tan 3150
√3
(a) sin 1200 = sin(180 − 60)0 = sin 600 =
2
1
(b) cos 2400 = cos(180 + 60)0 = cos 600 =
2
(c) tan 3150 = tan(360 − 45) = − tan 45 = −1

4 tan 750 1
Given that = , find tan 750 in surd
1−tan2 750 cos 1500
form Hence sin(−𝜃) = sin( 3600 − 𝜃) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
1 1 1 cos(−𝜃) = cos( 3600 − 𝜃) = cos 𝜃
= =
cos 150 − cos 30 √3 tan(−𝜃) = tan( 3600 − 𝜃) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
2 For example, tan(−2100 ) = − tan 2100
4 tan 750 1
1 − tan2 75 = − 2 = − tan(1800 + 300 ) = − tan 30 = −
4 √3
√3 cos(−1200 ) = cos(1200 ) = cos(1800 − 600 )
4
tan 750 −1 1
= − cos 600 = −
1 − tan2 750 2√3 2
Let us assume 𝑡 = 750 , for ease of writing
𝑡 1
=−
1 − 𝑡2 2√3
𝑡 2 + 2𝑡√3 − 1 = 0
𝑎 = 1 , 𝑏 = √3 , 𝑐 = −1
2
−√3 ± √(√3) − 4 × 1 × −1
𝑡=
2×1