An Analysis of the Effects of Trauma Types on Respective Responses

Zoe Steelman

Department of English, Florida State University

ENC2135- Research, Genre, and Context

Sriya Chakraborty

December 22, 2022

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Abstract

Survivors. This term can apply to someone in many circumstances: war, rape, sexual

assault, bullying, religious trauma, domestic abuse, and more. Victims of these who continue to

live their lives are survivors: survivors with trauma. Traumatic events tend to lead to a specific

set of responses, both immediately after the event and long term. Some of these responses are

completely normal and healthy; however, many turn into maladaptive coping mechanisms,

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder5, and other psychological disorders. While the connection between

these traumas and responses such as hypervigilance, avoidance, flashbacks, nightmares,

insomnia, and panic attacks is clear, little research has been done to connect these responses to

the trauma types most likely to cause them. This paper will outline both categories and individual

trauma types and denote their most strongly affiliated responses in hopes of allowing for more

targeted trauma-response therapy in the future.

Introduction

Purpose and Preliminary Statements

Despite the extensive research available on traumatic events and responses, trauma

responses and their relationships with trauma types is a largely unstudied issue. Understanding

the correlation between trauma types and the responses that they cause is crucial to the

development of individualized trauma treatment. Although some research has occurred, these

studies often focus purely on one response category. More in-depth research relates trauma type

with emotional aftereffects or the development of stress disorders, such as Posttraumatic Stress

Disorder (PTSD) and Complex Posttraumatic Stress Disorder1 (C-PTSD); however, finding

information that relates trauma type to various categories of responses is extremely difficult. A

need was identified to summarize and categorize what little information exists about trauma
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types and responses, as well as to fill the gaps in what was formerly unresearched. This paper

will recapitulate various research findings related to trauma types and specific categories of

responses, as well as inform on the correlation between trauma type and reactions to trauma in

general. There will be an emphasis on the development of other psychological disorders and the

relationship between interpersonal traumas2 and the severity of the effects of posttraumatic

symptoms. Expected results included increased emotional effects on victims of Childhood

Trauma and Sexual Assault, as well as an increase in most or all symptoms for those who have

encountered multiple trauma types or the same type of trauma on several occasions. This

particular compilation of information is intended to conclude the relationship between each

trauma type and its common responses to create clearer guidelines for treating trauma patients in

the future. A more accurate and thorough understanding of what is expected to be experienced in

trauma aftermath can be used to help patients deal with their emotions and trauma symptoms; the

research of trauma types and responses is an essential step in the improvement of psychological

trauma treatments and should be taken seriously.

Methods

Upon discovering the lack of research correlating trauma types to their respective

responses, a survey was formed to understand these connections, in addition to the compilation

of past research. Previous research fell into one of two categories: studies that considered

responses to one type of trauma or studies that looked at different traumas and one response. No

studies were found that compared multiple types of trauma and multiple reactions, and many

gaps were found in the reactions studied. Selected studies focused on the specific effects of

Intimate Partner Violence3 (IPV), violence exposures, and Vicarious Trauma6. These particular
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studies were chosen in order to get a more in-depth understanding of three different categories of

trauma- repeated personal trauma, violent trauma, and secondhand trauma. Exploring examples

of each one of these categories allowed for greater knowledge of multiple responses that would

come from them. In addition to the studies reviewed covering one specific trauma was a group of

studies that researched multiple types of trauma and compared the prevalence of one respective

response. This group of studies included research on psychotic episodes, emotional reactions,

and the development of PTSD/C-PTSD. The review of studies focusing on a specific type of

response allowed for further understanding of what categories of trauma could be associated with

each reaction type. After gathering research previously done on trauma, a survey was conducted

that attempted to address lapses between both types of studies researched; these issues included a

lack of connection to other disorders formed, a lack of individual PTSD-symptom tracking, and a

lack of review of self-harming behavior. This survey, entitled “Trauma Types and Responses”

was sent through several different social media accounts and to several different groups asking

people to respond to a confidential survey about trauma. 40 people participated in the survey, 38

of which reported trauma and 2 of which reported none. Traumas were primarily categorized into

trauma types: War, Sexual Assault, Rape, Child Abuse, Sudden/Unexpected Death, Mass

Shooting, Domestic Abuse, Bullying, Religious Trauma. Another category, “Other”, was

recognized with some answers in this section categorized into the original types listed. War was

omitted due to a lack of respondent data. Respondents were then asked about various reactions to

trauma, specifically those associated with PTSD. These reactions included flashbacks, insomnia,

avoidance, nightmares, and panic attacks. Respondents reported how often they undergo a

symptom based on the following scale: Never, Rarely (once or twice since the event),

Occasionally (3-10 unrelated times since the event), Sometimes (More than 10 times since the
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event), Often (at least once a month), Consistently (At least once a week), and Always (at least

once a day). For the purposes of summary, high amounts of a trauma response were considered

to be anything reported under the Often, Consistently, or Always categories. Low amounts of a

trauma response were considered to be Never, Rarely, or Occasionally. Sometimes was

considered to be a middle response. After responses were collected, the data was organized in

several ways for analysis- by respondent number, trauma type(s), and trauma responses. This

allowed for the comparison of data among several measures including individual trauma type,

trauma type category, and the number of trauma types experienced. Furthermore, the continued

categorization of the data provided means to compare the data collected in this survey to the

preceding research. Upon finishing categorization, work began on the analysis of data,

summarization of ideas, and comparison of research in order to accurately describe the effects of

trauma type on response. Previous research and the information gathered in the survey were

analyzed for the purpose of finding more specific ways to treat trauma patients. It is the hope that

these findings will lead to more individualized care, as well as the prevention of substance abuse,

self-harm, and suicide.

Results

Trauma and Responses Survey

Many connections were discovered as a result of the Trauma and Responses Survey. Two

specific findings were of note- reactions increased in amount and intensity when there were

multiple trauma types present and when these traumas were considered to be interpersonal.

Every reported symptom of PTSD was more frequent in those who underwent multiple types of

trauma compared to those who had encountered only one (Steelman, 2022). The same is also true

for reported substance use, self-harm, and suicide attempts. The most significant differences
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between victims of single and multiple trauma types were in avoidance, insomnia, and nightmare

symptoms. Sufferers of multiple trauma types were 37.54% more likely to experience high levels

of avoidance symptoms and 28.31% more likely to report high amounts of insomnia and

nightmares (Steelman, 2022). Additionally, multiple trauma victims were 24.92% more likely to

abuse drugs to deal with their trauma and 26.54% more likely to self-harm (Steelman, 2022). The

two categories that did report higher in those with single traumas were Generalized Anxiety

Disorder and Substance Abuse Disorder diagnoses. Those victims were 25.23% more likely to be

diagnosed with GAD and 26.46% more likely to be diagnosed with Substance Abuse Disorder,

as compared to those who reported multiple traumas (Steelman, 2022). Despite this, those with

multiple traumas reported higher levels of every PTSD symptom and the three maladaptive

coping mechanisms tested. It appears that overall, those with multiple traumas appear to be more

likely to experience high levels of any traumatic response and most comorbid disorders.

Percentage of Trauma Survivors Experiencing Symptoms

Flash- Night- Panic Sub. Self

backs Insomnia Avoidance mares Attacks Abuse Harm Suicide PTSD GAD MD OCD PD SAD

Multiple 48 36 76 36 32 48 65 24 16 44 52 20 20 12

Individual 30.77 7.69 38.46 7.69 15.38 23.08 38.46 15.38 7.69 69.23 38.46 7.69 15.38 38.46

Total 40 25 60 25 25 37.5 47.5 20 12.5 50 45 15 17.5 20

Another important comparison to be made is between those who had interpersonal

traumas and noninterpersonal traumas. Victims of interpersonal traumas reported higher levels of

flashbacks and insomnia; they were also more likely to report substance abuse as a form of

coping (Steelman, 2022). Additionally, survivors of interpersonal traumas were more likely to be

diagnosed with PTSD, GAD, and OCD (Steelman, 2022). Conversely, people with

noninterpersonal traumas had higher rates of panic attacks. Most of the other symptoms were not

significantly different between the interpersonal and noninterpersonal traumas. The most
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significant difference between victims of interpersonal and nonintepersonal traumas was the rate

of those who had attempted suicide. Survivors of interpersonal trauma were 2.53 times more

likely to attempt suicide than those who experienced noninterpersonal trauma (Steelman, 2022).

This is a very significant increase in rates of suicide attempts and the correlation between

interpersonal trauma and the severity of responses is significant and should be further researched.

Interpersonal traumas seem to be an indicator of severe trauma reactions, which should be taken

into consideration when treating trauma victims.

Percentage of Trauma Victims who Experience Different Symptoms

Flash- Night- Panic Sub. Self

backs Insomnia Avoidance mares Attacks Abuse Harm Suicide PTSD GAD MD OCD PD SAD
Sexual
Assault 37.5 37.5 75 25 31.25 50 62.5 37.5 25 56.25 62.5 18.75 25 18.75

Domestic
Abuse 63.64 45.45 72.73 45.45 45.45 72.73 72.73 37.5 9.09 54.55 72.73 27.27 18.18 27.27
Child
Abuse 60 30 50 40 40 70 60 30 20 50 60 30 10 30

Bullying 45.45 36.36 77.27 45.45 36.36 40.91 45.45 18.18 18.18 50 50 18.18 22.73 18.18

Rape 75 25 100 50 25 75 50 25 50 50 25 25 0 0

Religious 44.44 33.33 77.78 55.56 44.44 66.67 66.67 11.11 22.22 55.56 55.56 22.22 11.11 11.11
Sudden
Death 50 25 75 33.33 41.67 50 75 8.33 16.67 41.67 50 25 16.67 25

Total 40 25 60 25 25 37.5 47.5 20 12.5 50 45 15 17.5 20

Interpersonal Traumas Personal Traumas

Along with the prevalence of specific responses to these trauma categories, there were

also particularly high correlations between individual types of traumas and specific responses–

one of the most notable being Domestic Abuse. 72.73% of Domestic Abuse victims reported

substance abuse as a result of their trauma; additionally, Domestic Abuse survivors were equally

likely to have a high prevalence of self-harm as a coping mechanism (Steelman, 2022). Domestic

Abuse was highly associated with most of the trauma responses, especially avoidance (72.73%)
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and flashbacks (63.64%) (Steelman, 2022). Likewise, Domestic Abuse victims had a very strong

correlation with Major Depression (72.73%) and Generalized Anxiety Disorder (54.55%)

(Steelman, 2022). These people had above-average reports of every trauma response, all three

coping mechanisms, and every comorbid disorder except for PTSD. The prevalence of such an

increase in severity with one very specific type of trauma is also very important for completing

treatment methods.

Prevalence of Averse Coping Mechanisms in Domestic Abuse Victims

(by percentage)

Discussions

Throughout the various research and studies, three findings have remained consistent and

clear- prevalence and intensity of traumatic responses are directly correlated with the number of

exposures, amount of trauma types, and the interpersonality of trauma. All three of these were

documented throughout the studies and have significant evidence backing them up. Hyland

remarks, “[e]xposure to traumatic stressors of an interpersonal nature which are prolonged and

repeated, or comprised of multiple forms under conditions from which escape is difficult or

impossible, is likely to increase risk of C-PTSD as opposed to PTSD,” (2017). This one example

demonstrates the three most significant findings in this research: the development of extreme

responses due to interpersonal trauma, repeat exposures, and several trauma types. When
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analyzing this data, it was noted that these three issues as they had the strongest correlation with

the rigor of trauma reactions, in contrast to the expected result of the severity of one particular

response.

Consistently, increased exposure to traumas produced more significant and more severe

responses. This was seen nearly across the board from individual symptoms to the development

of PTSD and C-PTSD. For example, it was shown that victims of multiple experiences of abuse

were more likely to have symptoms of PTSD compared to those who have only one incident (Pill

& Mildred, 2017). Previous studies have mentioned the connection between multiple childhood

abuse or interpersonal violence occurrences and the development of C-PTSD (Hyland et al.,

2017). The fact that additional exposure to trauma can increase both the prevalence of PTSD and

C-PTSD is substantial, as they are two of the most severe responses to trauma and are long-term

difficulties. Further, vicarious trauma6 can only occur with repeated exposure to the client and

often becomes more extreme with the number of exposures (Coles et al., 2014). With increased

exposure to trauma comes a high risk of severe reactions and even Secondary Traumatic Stress*.

The distinctive increase in the development of long-term trauma-related disorders, even when

removed from the trauma itself, is highly significant in these findings. These repeat exposures

must be minimized as much as possible and should be treated with intense care.

Another highly agreed-upon point amongst studies was that exposure to multiple types of

trauma increased the amount and severity of trauma responses. According to the “Trauma Types

and Responses” study, those exposed to multiple types of trauma experienced high rates of all of

the symptomatic reactions. Moreover, they noted elevated rates of adverse coping mechanisms

including self-harm, substance abuse, and suicide attempts. Additional research has shown that

the risk of developing C-PTSD increases with the number of forms of traumas (Hyland et al.,
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2017). This is likely due to the changing in cognitive patterns, which leads to the more complex

representation of PTSD. Psychotic events have also been shown to increase if someone has been

exposed to three or more types of trauma (Croft et al., 2018). As a whole, the studies interpreted

that exposure to multiple types of trauma was correlated with an increase in various types of

responses and their intensity.

` Interpersonal traumas were also highly correlated with the severity of trauma responses,

as compared to non-interpersonal traumas. The development of C-PTSD was heavily correlated

with interpersonal traumas in multiple studies. This is especially reported to be true with traumas

that occurred in childhood, due to the consequence of averse social skills that often led to more

severe symptoms and even C-PTSD (Hyland et al., 2017). Additionally, the occurrence of

childhood interpersonal trauma can cause negative self-thoughts which can further create

complications in dealing with personal and social relationships, thus leading to the development

of C-PTSD (Hyland et al., 2017). Traumas that are intentionally inflicted by other people tend to

further experience negative views of oneself and others, as well as a negative view of the world,

which could be part of the reason that the effects tend to be increased. Other trauma responses

are also correlated with interpersonal trauma, such as the connection between sexual abuse,

physical abuse, bullying, and neglect with psychotic experiences (Croft et al., 2018). Intimate

Partner Violence, a common type of interpersonal trauma, is associated with depression, suicide,

and drug use (Pill, 2017). As reported by the Trauma Types and Responses Survey, those who

had interpersonal traumas were more likely to be diagnosed with PTSD, GAD, and OCD, as well

as high levels of flashbacks and insomnia (Steelman, 2022). Interpersonal Trauma victims were

also over 2.5 times more likely to attempt suicide (Steelman, 2022). Furthermore, both

peritraumatic4 and posttraumatic emotional reactions to stress are increased when the trauma is
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interpersonal, compared to an accident/injury and those emotions are also more likely to increase

over time as a result of interpersonal trauma (Amstadter & Vernon, 2008). The prevalence of

interpersonal traumas leads to distrust in the individual, others, and humanity which seems to

create a struggle leading to more significant traumatic responses.

Further research has shown a connection between the age of trauma and the type of

response- especially when it comes to harmful behavior and negative self-views. For example,

Hyland et al. found that “childhood trauma (especially interpersonal and sexual abuse) is highly

associated with ‘mental contamination’, self-denigration, self-disgust, self-harm, and

suicidality,” (2017). This is likely the result of negative self-views during childhood. Other

investigations have shown a correlation between responses to trauma when it occurs in

adolescence, specifically with the instances of psychotic episodes (Croft et al., 2018). Several

studies have noted the correlation between childhood exposure to violence and the development

of PTSD, and exceptionally strong relationships have been cited between childhood violence and

hyperarousal symptoms (Smith & Patton, 2016). Additionally, many investigations denote that

younger exposures to trauma lead to heightened anxiety, vigilance, and states of stress. It is also

associated with negative moods, views, and interactions, probably relating to the developmental

stages that occur in tandem with traumatic events. Also of note is the increased risk of trauma

occurrences in adulthood if the person was exposed to trauma as a child. Childhood abuse

victims were twice as likely to be abused both physically and sexually into adulthood (2017).

Childhood exposures to trauma seem to increase the severity of responses in many ways– likely

due to the maturation of the brain occurring in tandem with traumatic experiences. Childhood

trauma survivors consistently report negative views of themselves and the world, a trait most

strongly associated with these victims. The interference of trauma during the development of
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world views appears to have significant negative effects on the long-term well-being of

childhood trauma survivors.

In addition to the relationships between the number of exposures, exposures to multiple

trauma types, age of exposure, and the interpersonal nature of the traumas, connections have

been found between the individual trauma types and their responses. The most specific and

unique findings on correlations between separate trauma types and respective responses tended

to occur in cases of Domestic Abuse, Religious Trauma, Sexual Assault, and exposure to

Violence.

Domestic Abuse victims saw an increase in nearly every kind of trauma response, but

most notably concerning symptoms of avoidance. 72% of Domestic Abuse survivors experienced

high levels of avoidant reactions, which was 12% higher than average (Steelman, 2022). Those

who had experienced domestic abuse have also been correlated with instances of Major

Depressive Disorder in several studies. Researchers associated Major Depressive Disorder with a

27.73% increase in those who had encountered Domestic Abuse compared to the average

responder (Steelman, 2022). Furthermore, Pill and Mildred have found that the connection goes

both ways- those who have depression were more likely to undergo domestic violence in their

lives and victims of domestic violence were more likely to have depression (2017). Despite this,

research shows little to no connection between domestic abuse and increased rates of psychotic

episodes or development of C-PTSD, as compared to survivors of other trauma types.

Sexual Assault also had a significant set of responses that were highly correlated with it.

Childhood sexual assault demonstrated the highest correlation with the development of C-PTSD,

at nearly 9.43% (Hyland et al., 2017). Of importance should be the increase in the risk of

C-PTSD in sexual assault survivors as compared to survivors of rape and/or attempted rape (Pill
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& Mildred, 2017). The opposite relationship was noted with PTSD with the Trauma and

Response survey demonstrating that victims of rape were twice as likely to be diagnosed with

PTSD as compared to victims of sexual assault (Steelman, 2022). This could be due to the

instances of repeated trauma being more likely with sexual assault, compared to rape which

could lead to C-PTSD. Other particularly strong associations with sexual assault victims are

instances of depression, which were the second highest after domestic abuse, and 17.5% above

average (Steelman, 2022). This goes along with the findings that sexual assault sufferers tend to

report higher levels of shame, sadness, and guilt both peritraumatic and posttraumatic compared

to other trauma victims (Amstader & Vernon, 2008). In fact, those with sexual assault trauma

reported the highest emotional change in general (Amstader & Vernon, 2008). It seems that

sexual assault survivors tend to have long-term emotional dysregulation after the traumatic event

which further explains the prevalence of C-PTSD development.

Another distinctive set of trauma responses comes from Religious Trauma. Those with

religious trauma reported exceptionally high levels of many reactions, including avoidance,

nightmares, and panic attacks (Steelman, 2022). Religious trauma victims also reported high

levels of self-harm and substance abuse- 19.17% and 29.17% above average respectively

(Steelman, 2022). As a matter of fact, people reporting Religious Traumas had the highest

abundance of nightmares and the second highest reported abundance of avoidance, panic attacks,

and Generalized Anxiety Disorder diagnoses (Steelman, 2022). This is specifically of interest

because little research has been done on Religious Traumas and their effects, but when

researched it tends to show high rates of reactions and increased magnitude of those reactions. It

should be noted that because this particular topic is understudied, results could vary with larger
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groups; however, the correlation in the Trauma Types and Responses Survey was quite

significant.

Exposure to violence, among all other trauma types tested, seemed to have the highest

prevalence of one individual trauma response- hypervigilance. More than any other group,

violence-exposed people seemed to connect back to instances of stress and hypersensitivity to

surroundings. Additionally, this is the only trauma response that stood out significantly with

exposure to all types of violence. Smith and Patton report the particular experience of Black

Males exposed to violence feeling that they must always be expectant of violent behaviors at any

time (2016). Specifically, these young men described the behavior as being “On Point”.

Participant Adam explained this as,

I just be mindful of my surroundings, I don’t ever be loafing, for real. I stay on point. I

never let my guard down. Anywhere you go. Have to stay alert at all times. Doesn’t

matter where you go, anybody can just go at you for real (Smith & Patton, 2016).

They go on to explain that 68% of their sample reported changes in arousal levels, which was

their highest reported response to the trauma (Smith & Patton, 2016) Smith and Patton state,

For young men situated in context of pervasive, unpredictable violence, the traumatic

stress symptom of hypervigilance was also a practical strategy that served to prepare

young men for exposures to indirect violence and protect them from direct exposures to

violence (2016.)

Although hypervigilance is a common traumatic response, it did not seem to have the same

connections to other trauma types that it does with violent exposures. Also recorded by

researchers were the long-term effects of this alertness which included exhaustion, distrust of

society, and isolation (Smith & Patton, 2016). The continuous state of being alert and prepared
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for attack takes a toll on the emotional systems of violent-exposed people, especially when the

exposure occurs at a young age. This particular response, although not unique to violence

exposures, is strongly associated with this trauma type to an extent that is not prevalent in other

traumas.

There are, of course, some conflicting conclusions between this survey and past research.

As always, every study has its limitations- for the “Trauma Types and Responses” survey

particular limitations include a small sample size and a lack of representatives of many trauma

types- especially war, gang violence, and vehicle accidents. Conflicts between the research

include disagreement on the relationship between C-PTSD and IPV, with indications that one

symptom is highly likely; however, the occurrence of all symptoms only happened at

approximately a 5% rate (Pill & Mildred, 2017). They found higher connections between IPV

and diagnostic criteria for PTSD, as 58% of IPV victims met all of the criteria for this (Pill &

Mildred, 2017). In contrast, Hyland found that adult violence victims were more likely to

develop C-PTSD, rather than PTSD (2017). Additional disagreements in trauma are mentioned

in “Association of Trauma in Childhood and Adolescence With Psychotic Experiences in Early

Adulthood”, where researchers mention that previous research denoted a stronger relationship

between Sexual Assault and psychotic experiences, however, their research showed no increase

in the relationship between a trauma type and psychotic experiences (Croft et al., 2018). These

examples and other disagreements among researchers indicate the need for further research on

trauma types and responses in order to fully understand the relationship and develop new

treatment practices and techniques.

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Conclusion

Upon summarizing research across various studies and surveys, it is reasonable to assume that

the evidence shows that trauma types do influence the development of different trauma

responses. Interpersonal and childhood traumas are likely to increase the severity of trauma

responses, as can repeated exposures to trauma and experiences of multiple trauma types.

Additionally, individual trauma types are more likely to indicate specific individual reactions.

The connections between each trauma type and category of trauma type to its response can and

should be used to originate more specific therapies for trauma patients. Psychologists,

psychiatrists, and therapists alike have the ability to take more individualized action for their

clients and predict what responses are likely to come from their trauma to prevent them before

they fully form. Additionally, extra care should be taken in trauma types and categories that are

highly associated with maladaptive coping mechanisms including self-harm and substance

abuse- such as domestic abuse and interpersonal traumas. Understanding the specific traumas

most likely to produce the response can be used to proactively address these issues and detect

them earlier. The predictive nature of this research can and should be used to create the best

possible treatment.
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References

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Comparison of Trauma Types. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 16(4), 391–408.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10926770801926492

Bober, T., & Regehr, C. (2006). Strategies for reducing secondary or vicarious trauma: Do they

work?. Brief treatment and crisis intervention, 6(1), 1.

Coles, Astbury, J., Dartnall, E., & Limjerwala, S. (2014). A Qualitative Exploration of

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(2019). Association of Trauma Type, Age of Exposure, and Frequency in Childhood and

Adolescence With Psychotic Experiences in Early Adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry,

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Cloitre, M. (2017). Variation in Post-traumatic Response: the Role of Trauma Type in Predicting

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Pearlman, L., & Saakvitne, K. (Eds.). (1995). Trauma and the therapist: Countertransference

and vicarious traumatization in psychotherapy with incest survivors. New York: W. W.

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of Current Knowledge. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 34, 178–184.

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Index

1. Complex-Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (CPTSD/C-PTSD) was defined upon the

discovery of a group of symptoms that did not occur in all cases of PTSD but were prevalent in

many (Pill & Mildred, 2013). It is differentiated from PTSD by symptoms under the category

“Disturbances in Self-Organization” (DSO), which include difficulty controlling emotions, view

of self, and relationships (Hyland et al., 2017). These symptoms occur in addition to the

symptoms of PTSD, not on their own.

2. Interpersonal Trauma describes any form of a traumatic event that is targeted

between two people. Examples of this kind of trauma include rape, sexual assault, sexual

harassment, physical assault, and bullying.

3. “Intimate Partner Violence” (IPV) is defined as abuse by any form of romantic or

sexual partner, both physically and sexually (Saltzman et al., 1999). This can include rape,

domestic abuse, and sexual assault. Moreover, it should be noted that when used in the context of

the study “Trauma responses to intimate partner violence: A review of current knowledge,” IPV

only refers to violence perpetrated by a man acting upon a female victim. If otherwise coined in

the essay, IPV can refer to any form of violence between current or former partners, regardless of

the gender and/or sex of the involved parties.

4. Peritraumatic Responses are reactions to stressful circumstances that occur during or

immediately following the event (Amstader & Vernon, 2008). Controversy, posttraumatic

responses are those that occur a significant amount of time after the person has been removed

from the event (Amstader & Vernon, 2008).

5. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a psychological disorder uniquely defined

by the reactions that a person acquires to a particular anxiety-producing event. Symptoms

 19

expressed must fall into all four of the following sets: intrusion, avoidance, negative mood, and

hyperarousal, and occur more than 6 months after the traumatic event (DSM-5; APA, 2013).

These groups of symptoms are known as the different clusters of symptoms of PTSD and each

has involved several different more specific symptoms (DSM-5; APA, 2013). Intrusion

symptoms tend to include dreams, memories, and flashbacks; avoidance includes ignorance of

emotions/thoughts, as well as, specific places, objects, or people that might trigger memories;

negative mood can include lack of hope and overall depressive state; and hyperarousal tends to

form as an inability to calm down or a constant state of distress (DSM-5; APA, 2013). All of

these symptoms combined make PTSD; however, it should be known that these symptoms can

be experienced individually or not at all by a person with trauma. It is entirely possible and often

likely for someone with trauma to not develop PTSD; it is only one of many reactions to trauma

that occur. While it is the one most often discussed, it is not the only one that matters or should

be taken seriously.

6. Vicarious Trauma is a particular term defined as “The transformation of the

therapist's or helper’s inner experience as a result of empathetic engagement with survivor clients

and their traumatic material,” (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995). It is a traumatic response as

developed secondhand by a therapist, researcher, or helper, due to long-term exposure to a

client’s traumatic experience. Vicarious Trauma is a particular type of reaction to research and

therapy related to trauma, as the one helping, and can manifest in several ways. One particular

type of Vicarious Trauma that is significant is “Secondary Traumatic Stress” which is the

manifestation of vicarious trauma with symptoms of PTSD (Bober, 2006). Once again, this

would go back to the basic pillars of PTSD that include intrusion, hyperarousal, and avoidance,
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but specifically in the instance as experienced by someone helping a person who directly

encountered the trauma.