SVKM’s Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies

Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management & Engineering

Unit I
Differential Calculus of functions of one variable

Overview:
This unit covers the mean value theorems (Rolle's theorem, Lagrange's mean value theorem and
Cauchy's mean value theorem), Convergence of Sequences and series, Taylor’s and Maclaurin's
Series Expansion, Indeterminate forms and finding limits using L-Hospital's rule. (09 hours)
Outcome:
After completion of this unit, students would be able to:
1. interpret mean value theorems and implement the concepts comprehensively; deploy
power series for advanced mathematical analysis.
2. operate and analyse functions of single and several variables and relate the results to real
life problems.

Detailed Syllabus:

1.1 Mean value theorems

1.2 Convergence of Sequences and series
1.3 Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s Series Expansion
1.4 Indeterminate forms and L' Hospital's rule
1.1 Mean value theorems

Prerequisites

Basic definitions:

Closed interval: An interval of the form a ≤ x ≤ b , that includes every point between a and b and
also the end points, is called a closed interval and is denoted by [a, b] .

Open Interval: An interval of the form a < x < b , that includes every point between a and b but
not the end points, is called an open interval and is denoted by (a, b )

Continuity: A real valued function f (x ) is said to be continuous at a point x0 if

lim f ( x) = f ( x0 )
x → x0

The function f (x ) is said to be continuous in an interval if it is continuous at every point in the

interval.

Roughly speaking, if we can draw a curve without lifting the pen, then it is a continuous curve
otherwise it is discontinuous, having discontinuities at those points at which the curve will have
breaks or jumps.

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We note that all elementary functions such as algebraic, exponential, trigonometric, logarithmic,
hyperbolic functions are continuous functions. Also the sum, difference, product of continuous
functions is continuous. The quotient of continuous functions is continuous at all those points at
which the denominator does not become zero.

Differentiability: A real valued function f (x ) is said to be differentiable at point x0 if

f ( x) − f ( x0 )
lim exists uniquely and it is denoted by f ' ( x0 ) .
x → x0 x − x0

A real valued function f(x) is said to be differentiable in an interval if it is differentiable at every in

f ( x + h) − f ( x )
the interval or if lim exists uniquely. This is denoted by f ' ( x ) . We say that
h →0 h
either f ' ( x ) exists or f(x) is differentiable.

Geometrically, it means that the curve is a smooth curve. In other words a curve is said to be
smooth if there exists a unique tangent to the curve at every point on it. For example a circle is a
smooth curve. Triangle, rectangle, square etc are not smooth, since we can draw more number of
tangents at every corner point.

We note that if a function is differentiable in an interval then it is necessarily continuous in that

interval. The converse of this need not be true. That means a function is continuous need not imply
that it is differentiable.

 Mean Value Theorems

 Rolle’s Theorem (French Mathematician Michelle Rolle 1652-1679) :
If
•
  is continuous in the closed interval ,  ,
•
 is differential in the open interval , ,
•
 =

Then there is at least one value  in the open interval ,  such that
′  = 0.

Geometrical Meaning of Rolle’s Theorem: Consider a curve f (x ) that satisfies the conditions of
the Rolle’s Theorem as shown in figure:

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[a,f(a)] [b,f(b)]

x
a c b

As we see the curve f (x ) is continuous in the closed interval [a, b] , the curve is smooth i.e. there
can be a unique tangent to the curve at any point in the open interval (a, b ) and also f ( a ) = f (b ) .
Hence by Rolle’s Theorem there exist at least one point c belonging to (a, b ) such that f ' (c) = 0 .
In other words there exists at least one point at which the tangent drawn to the curve will have its
slope zero or lies parallel to x-axis.

 Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem(Italian-French Mathematician J. L. Lagrange

1736-1813):
If
•
  is continuous in the closed interval ,  ,
•
  is differential in the open interval , ,
Then there is at least one value  in the open interval ,  such that

=
′   .


Geometrical Meaning of Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem: Consider a curve f (x ) that

satisfies the conditions of the LMVT as shown in figure:

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[b,f(b)]

[a,f(a)]

x
a c b

From the figure, we observe that the curve f (x ) is continuous in the closed interval [a, b] ; the
curve is smooth i.e. there can be a unique tangent to the curve at any point in the open interval
(a, b) . Hence by LMVT there exist at least one point c belonging to (a, b) such that
f (b) − f ( a )
f ' (c ) = . In other words there exists at least one point at which the tangent drawn to
b−a
the curve lies parallel to the chord joining the points [ a, f (a)] and [b, f (b)] .

 Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem (French Mathematician A. L. Cauchy 1789-

1857):
If
•
  and  are continuous in the closed interval ,  ,
•
  and  are differential in the open interval , ,
• ′  ≠ 0 for any  in , 
Then there is at least one value  in the open interval ,  such that
 ′ 

= ′ .

1.2 Convergence of Sequences and series:

Sequence

A sequence is a succession of numbers of terms formed according to some definite rule. The nth
term in a sequence is denoted by un .

For example, if un = 2 n + 1 .

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By giving different values of n in un , we get different terms of the sequence.

Thus u1 = 3, u2 = 5, u3 = 7,.....

A sequence having unlimited number of terms is known as an infinite sequence.

Limit

If a sequence tends to a limit l , then we write lim ( un ) = l .

n →∞

Convergent Sequence

If the limit of a sequence is finite, the sequence is convergent. If the limit of a sequence does not
tend to a finite number, the sequence is said to be divergent.

1 1 1 1
e.g. 1, , , ,...., 2 ,.... is a convergent sequence.
4 9 16 n

3,5, 7,....., (2n + 1),.... is a divergent sequence.

Bounded Sequence

u1 , u2 , u3 ,...., u n ,.... is a bounded sequence if un < k for every n .

Monotonic Sequence

The sequence is either increasing or decreasing, such sequences are called monotonic.

e.g. 1, 4, 7,10,.... is a monotonic sequence.

1 1 1
1, , , ,.... is also a monotonic sequence.
2 3 4

1, −1,1, −1,1,.... is not a monotonic sequence.

A sequence which is monotonic and bounded is a convergent sequence.

Series

An expression in which the successive terms are formed by some definite law (pattern) is called a
series. An expression of the form u1 + u2 + u3 + ....... + un + ...... is called a series.

If the number of terms is finite then the series is called Finite series and if the number of terms is
unlimited then it is called an Infinite series.

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∞
An infinite series u1 + u2 + u3 + ....... + un + ...... is denoted by u
n =1
n or by u n and the sum of its

first n terms is denoted by S n .

Convergent series: A series u n is said to be convergent if S n tends to a definite finite unique

limit S as n tends to infinity. Thus for a convergent series lim S n = S where S is called the sum of
n →∞

the series.

Divergent series: A series u n is said to be divergent if S n tends to either ∞ as n tends to

infinity. Thus for a divergent series lim S n = +∞ or − ∞ .
n →∞

General Properties of series:

1. The nature of an infinite series remains unaltered by the addition or removal of a finite
number of terms or by multiplication of each term by a fixed number (not equal to zero).
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
2. If u
n =1
n and v
n =1
n converge then a)  (un + vn ) and b)  (un − vn ) also converges.
n =1 n =1

Geometric series:

The infinite series 1 + r + r 2 + ....... + r n −1 + ...... is

1
i) Convergent if r < 1 and its sum is
1− r
ii) Divergent if r ≥ 1 .

Test for convergence:

D’Alembert’s Ratio Test:

∞
un +1
Let u
n =1
n be a nonnegative series. Assume that un ≠ 0 for all n and that lim
n →∞ u
=l
n

∞
a. If 0 ≤ l < 1 , then u
n =1
n converges.

∞
b. If l > 1 , then u
n =1
n diverges.

If l = 1 then we cannot draw any conclusion from this test alone.

Cauchy’s Root Test:

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∞
Let u
n =1
n be a nonnegative series and assume that lim n un = l
n →∞

∞
a. If 0 ≤ l < 1 , then u
n =1
n converges.

∞
b. If l > 1 , then u
n =1
n diverges.

If l = 1 then we cannot draw any conclusion from this test alone.

1.3Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s series expansion:

Taylor’s Series:-
       

 =
    
  
  
  ⋯.
2! 3!

Maclaurin’s Series:-

x2 x3
f ( x ) = f ( 0) + x f ' ( 0) + f '' ( 0 ) + f ''' ( 0 ) + ...
2! 3!

1.4Indeterminate form:

A mathematical expression can also be said to be indeterminate if it is not definitively or precisely

determined. Certain forms of limits are said to be indeterminate when merely knowing the limiting
behavior of individual parts of the expression is not sufficient to actually determine the overall
limit.

For example, a limit of the form 0/0, i.e., where , is

indeterminate since the value of the overall limit actually depends on the limiting behavior of the
combination of the two functions (e.g., , while ).

There are seven indeterminate forms involving 0, 1, and :

Limits

L’ Hospital Rule : If f(x) and g(x) are two functions which can be expanded by Taylor’s
series in the neighbourhood of x = a and if f (a) = g(a) = 0,

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f(x) f′(x)
then lim = lim provided the latter limit exists.
x →a g(x) x → a g′(x)

Note : Rule for finding the limits

(i) lim [f(x) + g(x)] = lim f(x) + lim g(x)

x→a x→a x→a

(ii) lim f(x).g(x) = lim f(x) . lim g(x)

x →a x →a x →a

lim f(x)
f(x) x→0
(iii) lim =
x→a g(x) lim g(x)
x→0

sin x sin−1 x
Formulae : (i) lim =1 (ii) lim =1
x→0 x x →0 x

(iii) lim tan x = 1 (iv) lim (1+ x)1/ x = e

x→0 x x →0

x
(v) lim  1 +  = e
1
x→∞  x

Classwork problems

1.1 Problems on Mean value theorems

Session 1

Rolle’s Theorem

Example 1: Verify Rolle’s Theorem for f ( x) = x 2 in [− 1,1]

First we check whether the conditions of Rolle’s theorem hold good for the given function:

(i) f ( x) = x 2 is an elementary algebraic function, hence it is continuous everywhere

and so also in [− 1,1] .
(ii) f ' ( x ) = 2 x exists in the interval (-1, 1) i.e. the function is differentiable in (-1, 1).
(iii) Also we see that f (−1) = (−1) 2 = 1 and f (1) = 12 = 1 i.e., f ( −1) = f (1)
Hence the three conditions of the Rolle’s Theorem hold good.

∴ By Rolle’s Theorem ∃ c ∈ (− 1,1) : f ' (c ) = 0 that means 2c = 0  c= 0 ∈ (− 1,1)

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HenceRolle’s Theorem is verified.

Example 2: Verify Rolle’s Theorem for f ( x) = ( x − a ) m ( x − b) n in [a, b] where a <b and a, b>0.

f (x) is a product of elementary algebraic functions which are continuous and hence it is
continuous in [a, b]

f ′( x) = m( x − a ) m −1 ( x − b) n + n( x − a ) m ( x − b) n −1

= [m( x − b) + n( x − a )]( x − a ) m −1 ( x − b) n −1

= [ x( m + n) − ( mb + na )]( x − a ) m −1 ( x − b) n −1 exists in (a, b )

f ( a) = 0 and also f (b) = 0 ∴ f ( a ) = f (b)

Hence the three conditions of the Rolle’s Theorem hold good.

∴ ∃ c ∈ ( a, b ) : f ' ( c ) = 0

mb + na
∴ [c( m + n) − (mb + na )](c − a ) m −1 (c − b) n −1 = 0  c = , a, b
m+n

mb + na
Out of these values of c, since c = ∈ ( a, b) , the Rolle’s Theorem is verified.
m+n

1. Is Rolle's Theorem applicable to the following functions?

(i) f ( x) = x in −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 (ii) f ( x ) = x in 1 ≤ x ≤ 2

 −π π 
(iii) f ( x ) = sin x in  ,
 4 4 

Ans. (i) No (ii) No (iii) No

 x2 + 2 −1 ≤ x ≤ 0
2. Verify Rolle's Theorem for the function f ( x ) = 
x + 2 0 ≤ x ≤1

Ans: Not Applicable.

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−x
3. Verify Rolle's Theorem for the function x( x + 3)e 2
in [ −3,0] .

Ans. Theorem is verified and c = −2 .

x2 − 4 x
4. Verify Rolle's Theorem for the function in [ 0, 4] .
x+2

Ans. Theorem is verified and c = −2 + 2 3 .

5. Apply Rolle’s Theorem to f ( x ) = sin x cos 2 x in 0, π  and find c.

 4

Ans: c =π .
6

 x 2 + ab 
6. Find ‘c’ of Rolle’s Theorem for log   in [ a, b ] , a > 0, b > 0.
(a + b) x 

Ans: c = ab .

7. Verify Rolle’s Theorem for ( x − a ) m ( x − b) n in [ a, b ] , where m, n are positive integers.

mb + na
Ans. Theorem is verified and c = ,a < c < b .
m+n

a b
8. Use Rolle’s Theorem to prove that the equation ax 2 + bx = + has a root between 0 and
3 2
1.

Session 2

Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem

Example 1: Verify LMVT for f ( x ) = ( x − 1)( x − 2)( x − 3) in [0, 4]

f ( x) = ( x − 1)( x − 2)( x − 3) = x3 − 6 x 2 + 11x − 6 is an algebraic function hence it is continuous in

[0, 4]

f ′( x ) = 3x 2 − 12 x + 11exists in (0, 4) i.e., f ( x ) is differentiable in (0, 4) .

i.e.,both the conditions of LMVT hold good for f ( x ) in [0, 4] .

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f (4) − f (0)
Hence ∃c ∈ (0, 4) : f ′(c) =
4−0

(3)(2)(1) − ( −1)( −2)(−3)

i.e., 3c 2 − 1c + 11 =
4−0

2
i.e, 3c 2 − 12c + 11 = 3  3c 2 − 12c + 8 = 0  c = 2 ± ∈ (0, 4)
3

Hence the LMVT is verified.

Example 2: Verify LMVT for f ( x) = log e x in [1, e]

f ( x) = log e x is an elementary logarithmic function hence continuous in [1, e] .

1
f ′( x) = exists in (1, e ) or f ( x ) is differentiable in (1, e ) .
x

i.e., both the conditions of LMVT hold good for f ( x ) in [1, e]

f (e) − f (1) 1 log e − log1

Hence ∃c ∈ (1, e) : f ′(c) =  =
e −1 c e −1

1 1
 =  c = e − 1 ∈ (1, e) . Hence the LMVT is verified.
c e −1

1. Examine the validity of the conditions and the conclusion of Lagrange’s Mean Value theorem
for the functions:
1
i) e x on [ 0,1] ii) x 3
on [ −1,1] iii) x 2 − 4 on [ 2,3] iv) tan −1 x on [ 0,1]

Ans: i) c = log ( e − 1) , ii) Not applicable, iii) c = 5 , iv) c =

(16 − π )
2

.
π

1
2 Find 'c ' of the Lagrange Mean Value theorem, if f ( x) = x( x − 1)( x − 2), a = 0, b = .
2

6 − 21
Ans. c=
6

3. Verify Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem for f ( x) = lx 2 + mx + n in [ a, b] .

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b+a
Ans. Theorem is verified and c =
2

4. Verify Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem for f ( x) = loge x in [1, e] .

Ans. Theorem is verified and c = 1.718

5. Show that the chord joining the points x = 2, x = 3 on the curve y = x 3 is parallel to the

tangent to the curve at x = 19 .

3

1 tan −1 x
6. Using Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem show that < <1 .
1 + x2 x

b−a b−a
7. Prove that < sin −1 b − sin −1 a < , 0 < a < b <1
1 − a2 1 − b2

π 3  3 π 1
Hence deduce that i) + < sin −1   < +
6 15 5 6 8

π 1 1 π 1
ii) − < sin −1   < −
6 2 3 4 6 15

Session 3

Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem

Example 1: Verify the Cauchy’s MVT for f ( x ) = x 2 and g ( x) = x 4 in [ a, b]

f ( x ) = x 2 and g ( x) = x 4 are algebraic polynomials hence continuous in [ a, b]

f ′( x ) = 2 x and g ′( x) = 4 x3 exist in ( a, b )

also we see that g ′( x ) ≠ 0 for all x ∈ ( a, b) since 0 < a < b

i.e., the conditions of CMVT hold good for f ( x ) and g ( x ) in [ a, b] .

f '(c) f (b) − f ( a )
Hence ∃ c ∈ ( a, b ) : =
g '(c ) g (b) − g ( a )

2c b2 − a 2 1 1 b2 + a 2
i.e., =  = c= ∈ ( a, b) . Hence the CMVT is verified.
4c 3 b4 − a 4 2c 2 b2 + a 2 2

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1
Example 2: Verify the Cauchy’s MVT for f ( x ) = log x and g ( x) = in [1, e]
x

1
f ( x ) = log x and g ( x) = are elementary logarithmic and rational algebraic functions that are
x
continuous in [1, e]

1 −1
f ′( x) = and g ′( x) = exist in (1, e )
x x2

also we see that g ′( x ) ≠ 0 for all x ∈ (1, e)

i.e., the conditions of CMVT hold good for f ( x ) and g ( x ) in (1, e ) .

f '(c ) f (e) − f (1)

Hence ∃ c ∈ (1, e ) : =
g '(c) g (e) − g (1)

1
i.e., c = log e − log1  −c = 1  c = e ∈ (1, e) . Hence the CMVT is verified.
−1 1 1 e −1
c2 −1 −1
e e

1. Verify Cauchy’s mean value theorem for the following functions:

f ( x) = x 2 , g ( x) = x3 in 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 .

14
Ans. Theorem is verified and c =
9

2. Verify Cauchy’s mean value theorem for f ( x) = e x and g ( x) = e− x and show that ‘c’ of
Cauchy’s mean value theorem is the average of a and b.

a+b
Ans. Theorem is verified and c =
2

3. Verify Cauchy’s mean value theorem by considering the functions sin x,cos x for the

Interval ( a, b ) .

a+b
Ans. Theorem is verified and c =
2

1 1
4. Considering the functions 2
and , prove that ‘c’ of Cauchy’s mean value theorem is
x x

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2ab
.
a+b

sin b − sin a cos c

5. Prove that = c . Also deduce that ec sin x = ( e x − 1) cos c .
eb − e a e

1.2 Convergence of sequence and series:

Session 4

1 1 1 1
1. Test the convergence of 1 − + 2 − 3 + 4 ........ .
2 2 2 2
∞
32 n
2. Test the convergence of  3n
.
n =0 2

∞
 4 2 
3. Show that the series  2 n
−  converges and find its sum.
n(n + 1) 
n =1 

Session 5

Using Ratio test,

∞
2n
1. Test the convergence of  2
.
n =1 n

1 2 3
2. Test the convergence of + + + ...... .
1 + 2 1 + 2 1 + 23
2

n !2 n
∞
3. Test the convergence of  n
.
n =1 n

Using Root test,

n
∞
 log n 
1. Show that  
n =1  1000 
 diverges.
∞
n
2. Show that  n converges.
n =1 2

1.2Taylor’s Series:
Session 6

 −    −  

 =
 +  − 
  + 

 + 
 + ⋯.
2! 3!

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1. Expand cos x in powers of  x −  .

π
 2
3 5

Ans. cos x = −  x −  +  x −  −  x −  + ...

π 1 π 1 π
 2  3!  2  5!  2
2. Expand log x in powers of ( x − 2 ) .
2 3

Ans. log x = log 2 +

( x − 2) ( x − 2) ( x − 2)
− + − ...
2 8 24

3. Expand x 5 − x 4 + x 3 − x 2 + x − 1 in powers of ( x − 1) .
Ans: 3 ( x − 1) + 6 ( x − 1)2 + 7 ( x − 1)3 + 4 ( x − 1)4 + ( x − 1)5
4. Expand x 5 + 2 x 4 − x 2 + x + 1 in powers of ( x + 1) .
Ans: ( x + 1)2 + 2 ( x + 1)3 − 3 ( x + 1)4 + ( x + 1)5

Session 7

Maclaurin’s Series of Standard functions:

Prove that
x2 x3
a) e x = 1 + x + + + ....
2! 3!
x3 x5
b) sin x = x − + − ....
3! 5!
x 2 x3 x4
c) log(1 + x) = x − + − + .....
2 3 4
x2 x3 x 4
d) log(1 − x) = − x − − − − .....
2 3 4

1.4 Problems on Indeterminate forms and L'Hospital's rule

Session 8
0
Indeterminate type of the form
0

1. Evaluate lim
log 1 − x(2
) {Ans: 2 }
x →0 log cos x

ex + e−x − x2 − 2 −1
2. lim 2 2
{Ans: }
x →0 sin x − x 4

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3x − 2 x 3
3. lim {Ans: log }
x →0 x 2
tan x − sin x 1
4. lim 3
{Ans: }
x→0 sin x 2
∞
Indeterminate type of the form
∞
log(1 − x )
5. Evaluate lim {Ans: 0 }
x →1 cot πx
6. Evaluate lim logtanx tan2x .
x→0

Solution : Changing the base to e, we have

loge tan2x  ∞
lim logtan x tan2x = lim  Form 
x→0 x → 0 loge tan x  ∞

2 sec 2 2x
= lim tan2x (by L'Hospital Rule)
x → 0 sec 2 x

tanx

tan x   sec 2 2x 
= 2  lim ×  lim 
 x → 0 tan 2x   x → 0 sec 2 x 

tan x  1
= 2 lim × 
x→0 tan 2x  1
tan x  0
= 2 lim  Form 
x→0 tan 2x  0

sec 2 x 1
= 2 lim 2
= 2 =1 Hence the value.
x →0 2 sec 2x 2(1)

Indeterminate type of the form 0 × ∞

7. Evaluate lim tan x log x {Ans: 0 }
x →0

8. Evaluate lim sinx logx .

x→0

Solution : lim sin x log x

x→0

(Form 0 ×∞)

log x  0
= lim  Form 
x→0 cosec x  0

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1/ x
= lim
x →0 − cosec x cot x

sin2 x
= − lim
x → 0 x cos x

2 sin x cos x
= − lim
x →0 cos x − x sin x

= − 
0 
= 0 Hence the value.
 1− 0 

Indeterminate type of the form ∞ − ∞

9. . Evaluate lim
x →∞
( x − x + 1 log x ) {Ans: 0 }

10. Evaluate lim (sec x − tan x ) {Ans: 0 }

x →π
2

 1
11. Evaluate lim cot x −  {Ans: 0 }
x →0
 x
12. Evaluate lim  
x 1
− .
x →1  x - 1 logx 


 x 1 
Solution: lim  − (Form ∞−∞)
x →1  x − 1 log x 


= lim 
x log x − x + 1  0
 Form 
x →1  (x − 1)log x    0

= lim 
(1+ log x) − 1 
 (by L’Hospital Rule)
x →1 (x − 1)
 + log x 
 x 

= lim   
log x 0
1   Form 
x →1  0
 1− + log x 
 x 

  1 
   
= lim   x  
1
= Hence the limit.
x →1 1 1 2
 + 
 x 2
x 

Session 9
Indeterminate type of the form 1∞
tan 2 x
13. Evaluate lim (cos ecx) {Ans: e }
x →π 2

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 SVKM’s Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies
Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management & Engineering

1 1
14. Evaluate lim(cos x ) x2 {Ans: }
x →0
e
1
15. Evaluate lim 
tanx  x2
 .
x →0  x 

1
L = lim 
tan x  x2
Let
x →0  x 
 (Form 1∞ )

1  tan x 
∴ log L = lim .log   (Form ∞× 0)
x →0 x2  x 

 tan x 
log  
 x   0
= lim  Form 
x →0 x 2
 0

 x   x sec x − tan x 
2
  
= lim  tan x   x2  by L’Hospital Rule
x →0 2x

1 (1)[x sec 2 x − tan x]  0

= lim  Form 
2 x →0 x3  0

1 sec 2 x + 2x sec 2 x tan x − sec 2 x

= lim by L’Hospital Rule
2 x →0 3x 2

1  tan x  1
= lim (sec 2 x)  =
3 x →0  x  3

1
∴ L = e3 .

Indeterminate type of the form 0 0

1
(
16. Evaluate lim 1 − x 2
x →1
) log (1− x )
{Ans: e }
( x −1)
17. Evaluate lim( x − 1) {Ans: e }
x →1

Indeterminate type of the form ∞ 0

x
1
18. Evaluate lim  {Ans: 1}
 
x →0 x

2 sin x
1
19. Evaluate lim  {Ans: 1 }
 
x →0 x

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 SVKM’s Narsee Monjee Institute of Management Studies
Mukesh Patel School of Technology Management & Engineering

Evaluating constants

ae x − be − x − cx
20. Evaluate lim =4 {Ans: a = 2 , b = 2 , c = 4 }
x →0 x − sin x

x (1 + a cos x ) − b sin x 5 3
21. If lim 3
= 1 , find a and b.{Ans: a = − , b = − }
x→0 x 2 2

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