CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Plants offer a large range of natural compounds belonging to

different molecular families which have various properties to humans

(Hervé et al., 2008). Phytochemicals are plant or fruit derived chemical

compounds that can be used as therapeutic agents. They reduce the risk of

cancer due to dietary fibres, polyphenol antioxidants and anti-

inflammatory effects. (Kinderley, D., 2006). The phytochemicals are

produced via secondary metabolism in relatively small amounts (Hasler,

C.M., 1998).

In recent times quite a number of some plants i.e. palms, leaves,

stems and roots of some plants have been used due to the presence of

phytonutrients in them. Scientifically, research is being undertaken to

bring to limelight, the therapeutic properties of the phytochemicals

present in these plants and also use them as a yardstick in modern

medicinal plant uses (Riby, J.E. et al., 2006). Some groups of

phytochemicals, which appear to have significant health potentials, are

carotenoids, flavonoids, phytoestrogens, non-digestible carbohydrate i.e.

dietary fibre and prebiotics (Prior, R.I and Cao, G. 2000).

A typical example of this plant is a palm, coconut (Cocos nucifera

linn). It belongs to the family Arecaceae (Palmae). Palmea is a vast

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family consisting of about 217 genera and about 2500 species. Cocos

nucifera belongs to the order arecales and it is the sole species of the

genus cocos belonging to the subfamily cocoideae, which includes 27

genera, and 600 species (Evans W.C., 2002). One of the primary natural

products from dry coconut fruit is the coconut fibre which can be used for

fuel and are a source of charcoal. Activated carbon manufactured from

coconut shell is considered superior to those obtained from other sources,

mainly because of small macropores structure which renders it more

effective for the absorption of gas and vapor and for the removal of color,

oxidants, impurities and odor of compounds (Grimwood, E.E., et al.,

1975).

A dried half coconut shell with husk can be used to buff floors. It is

known as a bunot in the Philippines and simply a "coconut brush" in

Jamaica. The fresh husk of a brown coconut may serve as a dish sponge

or body sponge. In Thailand, the coconut husk is used as a potting

medium to produce healthy forest tree saplings. The process of husk

extraction from the coir bypasses the retting process, using a custom-built

coconut husk extractor designed by ASEAN-Canada Forest Tree Seed

Centre (ACFTSC) in 1986. Fresh husks contain more tannin than old

husks. Tannin produces negative effects on sapling growth (Somyos K.,

1991). In parts of South India, the shell and husk are burned for smoke to

repel mosquitoes.

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3
1.2 Statement of the Problem

Much research has been done to ascertain the phytochemicals of

many various plants. However, that of Cocos nucifera is lacking for fibre.

This study seeks to fill this knowledge gap by evaluating the

phytochemicals of coconut fibre (Cocos nucifera linn) in order to

diversify their use as important ingredient in the life of man.

1.3 Significance of the Study

This research will provide detailed application in pharmaceuticals

foods and other relevant areas. This is expected to help create job for the

unemployed Nigerians who would go into commercial cultivation of and

processing of coconut.

1.4 Aim and Objectives

The following serves as the aim and objectives of this study.

1.4.1 Aim

i. To provide detailed information on phytochemical of coconut fibre

(Cocos nucifera linn).

1.4.2 Objectives

i. To prepare fibre extract of coconut (Cocos nucifera linn), using

various organic solvent.

ii. To obtain the extract, characterize and evaluate the phytochemical

properties.

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iii. To determine the phytochemical constituents of (Cocos nucifera

linn)

5
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Coconut Tree

The coconut (Cocos nucifera L. family Arecaceae) is a well

distributed fruit tree all around the world, providing food, especially in

the tropical and subtropical regions and for its many uses it is often called

the “tree of life”. Chan E and Elevitch C.R. (2006). There are 12 different

crops of nuts under the name of coconut palm (DebMandal and Mandal,

2011). C. nucifera is widely distributed over the Brazilian northeastern

coast, where is known as “Coco-da Bahia”.

Popular medicinal uses (against arthritis and diarrhea) of coconut

husk fiber have been reported (Esquenazi et al., 2002; Alviano et al.,

2004; Rinaldi et al., 2009), but the knowledge of its potential benefit or

adverse effects in human beings is still very preliminary. Previous studies

showed that aqueous C. nucifera husk fiber extracts present important

biological activities such as antimicrobial, antiviral, antinociceptive, anti-

inflammatory, antioxidant and antineoplasic properties (Esquenazi et al.,

2002; Alviano et al., 2004; Rinaldi et al., 2009; Akinyele et al., 2011;

Dua et al., 2013). Coconut husk fiber is rich in polyphenolic compounds.

The C. nucifera husk fiber aqueous extracts are mainly composed by

catechin, epicatechin and condensed tannins (B-type procyanidins)

(Esquenazi et al., 2002). Plant phenols represent an important group of

6
natural antioxidants and some of them are potent antimicrobial

compounds (Chakraborty and Mitra, 2008). In general, polyphenols can

prevent chronic diseases by their antioxidant, free radical scavenger and

metal chelator properties (Daglia, 2012).

In Nigeria, the coconut tree (Cocos nucifera L) is produced in

about 22 states, it is called “Aki Oyibo” or “Aki Bekee” in Igbo,

“Kwakwa” in Hausa and “Agbon” in Yoruba. It is common in the south-

east, south-south, south west north east and north central geographical

zones of the country where its parts have many uses such as the leaves for

roof thatch, garden fencing etc. (Yakubu, 2006).

The industrial use of this plant generates large amounts of husk

fiber as industrial reject, featuring an environmental problem. Based on

our interest in searching for medicinal plants with antimicrobial activity

and in expanding the knowledge about the phytochemical profile of C.

nucifera, the purpose of this study was to investigate the photochemical

activity of coconut fiber.

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2.2 Taxonomical Classification

Kingdom: Plantae

Division: Magnoliophyta

Class: Liliopsida

Subclass: Arecidae

Order: Arecales

Family: Arecaceae

Genus: Cocos

Species: C. nucifera

Binomial Name: Cocos nucifera Linnaeus

2.3 Botanical Description

Cocos nucifera (L.) is an important member of the family

Arecaceae (palm family) popularly known as coconut, coco, coco-da-

bahia, or coconut-of-the-beach (Aragão WM., 2002). The plant is

originally from Southeast Asia (Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines)

and the islands between the Indian and Pacific Oceans. From that region,

the fruit of the coconut palm is believed to have been brought to India and

then to East Africa. After the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, this

plant was introduced into West Africa and, from there, dispersed to the

American continent and to other tropical regions of the globe (Purseglove

JW., 1972). The plant is an arborescent monocotyledonous tree of around

8
25 m in height (giant coconut) with a dense canopy. The root of the

coconut system is fasciculate. The stem is an unbranched type, and at its

apex, a tuft of leaves protects a single apical bud. The pinnate leaves are

feather-shaped, having a petiole, rachis and leaflets. Under favorable

environmental conditions, the giant adult coconut emits 12-14

inflorescence spikes per year, while the adult dwarf coconut can emit 18

spikes in the same period. The axillary inflorescence has globular clusters

of female flowers. The plant is monoecious (male and female

reproductive organs on the same plant) (Passos EEM., 1998). The

coconut fruit comprises an outer epicarp, a mesocarp, and an inner

endocarp. The epicarp, which is the outer skin of the fruit, and the

mesocarp, which is heavy, fibrous, and tanned when dry, have many

industrial uses. The endocarp is the hard dark core. Inside is a solid white

albumen of varied thickness, depending on the age of the fruit, and with

an oily pulp consistency and a liquid albumen called coconut water that is

thick, sweet, and slightly acidic (Passos EEM., 1998; Andrade AM etal.,

2004).

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Fig. 1: Coconut Fibre

10
2.4 Constituent of Coconut Fibre

Coconut fiber, obtained from coconut, is a natural fiber extracted

from the husk of coconut. The coconut is steeped in hot seawater, and

subsequently, the fibers are removed from the shell by combing and

crushing, the same process as jute fiber. The individual fiber cells are

narrow and hollow with thick walls made of cellulose, and each cell is

about 1 mm long and 10–20 μm in diameter. The raw coconut fibers

show length varying from 15 to 35 cm and diameter from 50 to 300 μm.

When they are immature and then become hardened and yellowed

because a layer of lignin is deposited on their walls. Coconut fiber shows

a good stiffness and is used in products such as floor mats, doormats,

brushes, mattresses, coarse filling material, and upholstery (Y. Yan,

2016).

2.5 Phytochemicals

Phytochemicals are chemical compound that naturally occur in

plants (phyto-plant in Greek). We are surrounded with hundreds of fruits,

vegetables, whole grains and spices rich in vitamins, minerals and other

essential substance called Phytochemicals. They are critical for

maintaining health and preventing disease they are found in plants and

have been used alone or in combination to prevent cancer, heart disease,

diabetes etc. Some phytochemicals with varying physiological properties

may be elements rather than complex molecules e.g. Selenium (abundant

11
in many fruits and vegetables) is a dietary mineral involved with major

metabolic pathways including thyroid hormone metabolism and immune

function (Brown and Arthur, 2001). Particularly it is an essential nutrient

and cofactor for the enzymatic synthesis of gluthathione, an endogenous

anti-oxidant (Khanna et al., 2007).

American Cancer Society (ACS) rejects the claim that taking

phytochemicals supplement is good for long term health benefits. Rather

consuming the fruits, vegetables, spices, beans for which they are taken

provide a better alternative (NIH, 2014).

2.6 Primary Metabolites

Proximate constituents of plant like Carbohydrate, Protein, Lipid

(fat and oil) are the primary metabolites which are responsible for growth

and development.

2.6.1 Carbohydrate

Carbohydrates are produced through a process known as

photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight in the chlorophyll of plant by

water and carbondioxide. Carbohydrates have the molecular formula

C6H12O6, sometimes called Saccharide (Sugar). Classified based on

number of saccharides molecules: Monosaccharide, Oligosaccharide,

Polysaccharide. Carbohydrate serves various functions that include

sweetening agent, reducing agent, food for in fact, raw material (in wine,

syrup, jellies, alcohol etc) among others.

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2.6.2 Protein

Proteins carry on most or all vital life processes in the human

system, is the most important compound that is found or made up off

living organism, Protein is main organic constituent of the body such as

skin, hair, nails, muscles etc. Thus, protein may be defined as

condensation polymer of α-amino acids and having peculiar overall

structure which determine their specific physiological functions in the

living organism (Bahl and Bahl, 1980). Protein may be classified either

by chemical composition or by molecular shape.

 By chemical composition categories includes;

Simple protein and Conjugate protein

 By molecular shape they includes;

Fibrous protein and Globular protein

Amino acid is a bifunctional compound containing both an amine

and carboxylic acid, they are the basic units that form protein molecule.

Base on essentiality Histidine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine,

Phenylalanine, Theonine, Tryptophan, and Valine are essential amino

acids and Alanine, Serine, Asparagine, Aspartic acid, Glutamate,

Glutamic acid, Glycine, Arginine, Proline, Tyrosine and Cystidine are

non-essential amino acid.

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2.6.3 Lipids

Lipids are biologically active compounds that are insoluble in

water (Philip, 1997), but soluble in organic solvent like benzene, ether,

chloroform (McDonald et al., 1995). In plants lipid are of two types i.e.

Structural and Storage lipid.

 Structural lipid is present as constituent of various membranes and

protective surface layers and make up about 7% of leaves of higher

plants (Umar, 2005).

 Storage lipids occur in fruits and seed and are predominantly oil

(McDonald et al., 1995).

According to Umar, 2005 lipid can be classified based on backbone

structure i.e.

 Glycerol which further sub-classified into;

Simple and Compound or Complex

 Non-glycerol

Natural fats and oils are the tri-ester of glycerol with long chain

carboxylic acids (12-20 carbons), known as triglycerides or

triacylglycerides. The distinctions between fat and oil are based on their

difference state at room temperature. Natural occurring fatty acid are

unbranched and have even number of carbon atoms (Umar, 2005), it may

be saturated and unsaturated (sub-classified into Monoenoic are those

with fewer double bond per molecule and Polyenoic or Poly unsaturated

14
fatty acid (PUFA) and exist in Trans and Cis configuration) (McDonald

et al., 1995). Some fatty acid are essential (Polyenoic) e.g. linoleic acid,

linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, their primary sources are terrestrial and

marine plants, phytoplanktons, marine animals (McDonald et al., 1995).

2.6 Minerals

Minerals are large family of nutrient essential to human body

although some are present in the body but in small percentage. They are

components of hormones and certain factors with special physiological

functions (Tianshi, 1997).

These elements (Sodium, Potassium, Phosphate, Zinc, Iron,

Copper, Magnesium and Phosphorus) not only take part in various

metabolic processes but also play vital role in growth, development,

immunity, regulation, mitotic cell division, genetic expression in the

body. They differ from the proximate constituent because they cannot be

synthesize by the body i.e. they are ingested.

2.6.1 Calcium

It’s one of the basic constituent in which 99% is present in the

skeleton (bones), teeth and 1% in the blood cell and soft tissues of human

body. It plays key role in neuromuscular reflexes, blood coagulation, cell

adhesion, heart rhythm regulation among others. The recommended daily

allowance (RDA) of calcium by US National Institute of Health (NIH) is

80mg for average adult not lower than 150mg for pregnant women,

15
nursing mothers and elderly, and 1000mg for children (Tianshi, 1997).

Modern medical studies proved that more than 100 diseases are closely

related to calcium deficiency such as late groeth of hair, osteoprosisi,

heart, digestive system, arthritis, rickets (Adeyeye, 2002).

2.6.2 Sodium

Sodium is classified as major mineral nutrient and essential to

human health, it is necessary for water-acid balance, cell permeability, for

glucose absorption, nerves and muscles functioning. Its deficiency can

cause dehydration of body due to lowering of osmotic pressure

(McDonald et al., 1995). The RDA is 200-500mg for adult.

2.6.3 Potassium

Potassium is primarily an intracellular cation (Umar, 2005) and is

very essential in the formation of glycogen, protein synthesis, regulation

of fluid pressure balance, neuromuscular excitability and muscles

contraction (Hegarty, 1998). RDA is 200mg per day but only 8% is retain

in the body (NIH, 2014). Potassium deficiency causes weakness,

paralysis, growth retardation and rarely death (McDonald et al., 1995).

2.6.4 Phosphorus

The most abundant minerals in human body are phosphorus

(700mg) and 1200mg of calcium in man, about 80-85% of phosphorus is

found in skeleton. Phosphorus is present in cell, blood as soluble

phosphate ion, in lipids, protein, carbohydrate, nucleic acid and

16
nucleoproteins (responsible for cell division, reproduction and

transmission of heredity traits) (Adeyeye, 2002).

2.6.5 Magnesium

Activator of many enzymes in carbohydrates, protein and lipid

metabolism is magnesium (McDonald et al., 1995). Magnesium serve as

intracellular fluid, function in stabilizing some structures and energizing

others in all types of biopolymers e.g. DNA, RNA, Protein, Lipid (Garba,

1999).

Magnesium deficiency causes uncontrollable twisting of muscles

leading to convulsion, even death (Hegarty, 1988). RDA intake is 150mg

per day for children, 200-400mg per day for men and 300mg per day for

women.

2.7 Secondary Metabolites

They are phytochemicals that have significant pharmacological and

biological effect on living system and are often used for drugs and

pharmaceuticals. Examples are Alkaloid, Steroid, Tannin, Glycoside,

Cardiac glycoside, Saponin, Flavonoid etc.

2.7.1 Alkaloid

Alkaloid are the basic substance which contain one or more

nitrogen atoms, usually in combination as part of cyclic system (Harbone,

1973). They are single class of secondary plants metabolites of which

about 5,500 are known. Alkaloid may be defined as plant derivative

17
compound that is toxic or physiologically active, contain nitrogen in

heterocyclic ring, is basic and limited distribution in plant kingdom (Bahl

and Bahl, 1980).

CH3 N

Fig. 2: Nicotine structure

2.7.2 Saponin

Structurally, two types of Saponin are recognized i.e. Steroidal

(common tetracyclic triterpenoids C27) and Triterpenoid (pentacyclic

triterpenoids C30), both have glycosidal linkage at C3.

RO

Fig. 3: Tetracyclic triterpenoid

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2.7.3 Steroids

Are lipid fractions compound characterized by cyclopents (α)

phenanthrene (fig. 4). Steroid are compounds based on combination of

three cyclohexane rings and one five members ring, they play some part

in biochemical systems.

Fig. 4: Steroid general structure

Cholesterol, sex hormones (androgen-testosterone, estrogen-

estroidiol and progestin’s- progesterone), bile acid and Vit D are

commonest and biologically crucial steroids.

CH3 CH3
CH3

O
Fig. 7: Testosterone

2.7.4 Cardiac glycoside

Glycosides are colourless, non-volatile, crystalline and bitter

testing solid compound. Chemically they are group of organic compounds

19
which can be resolved by hydrolysis into sugar component (glycone) and

other organic substances (aglycone).

O OH
OR

O
Fig. 8: Glycoside structure

2.7.5 Anthraquinone

Is a tricyclic structure heaving weak reducing properties which

may account for the use of anthranols and anthrones as anticeptic in

certain skin diseases. They are seldom found among Monocotyledon,

only in Liliaceae and in form of usual c-glycoside. Among Dicotyledon,

they occur in Rubiaceae, Leguminoceae, Polygonaceae, Ericaceae etc

also in certain fungi and linchens. Anthraquinone is applicable in

vegetable drugs (Balbao, 1976).

O OH
O

O
Fig. 9: Alizarine structure

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2.7.6 Flavonoid

Largest group of natural occurring phenols and occur in plant both

in free state and as a glycoside. Flavonoid may be described as a series of

C6-C3-C6 compound.

C C C

Fig. 9: Flavonoid structural skeleton

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