A PROJECT ON

ASSESSMENT OF DAMPNESS IN EXISTING BUILDINGS

TAKING AKURE, ONDO STATE, NIGERIA AS A CASE STUDY.

COMPILED BY:

MOHAMMED ADESHINA ABDULKABIR

BDG/16/8461

TO BE SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING, SCHOOL OF

ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AKURE, ONDO STATE

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (B-TECH) IN BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

NOVEMBER, 2022
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study
Shelter is one of the most important basic necessity of life. Humans could actually seek for

shelter starting from staying under a tree up to the level of constructing buildings with timber

which is a product of a tree and also using other advanced materials such as steel and polystyrene.

A building is an enclosure for spaces designed for the specific use, meant to control local climate,

distribute services and evacuate waste (Fadamiro, 2001). This definition suits the architectural

point of view most. But looking at a building in a structural view, it is defined as a structure for

human activities which must be safe for the occupants (Odulami, 2002). This is to basically satisfy

health, fire and structural safety as prescribed by the National building code. A building can also

be defined as a structural entities that is capable of transmitting weights to the ground (Oke, 2015).

It is of a high importance that we maintain our source of shelter which are our buildings. Proper

assessment of any factor which could tamper with the building therefore preventing it to provide

its basic health and structural requirements is needed. When these assessments are being neglected,

building failure tends to occur. Arguments have been made that dampness contributes to more than

50% of all known building failures (Halim et al., 2012; Trotman & Harrison, 2004; Hollis, 2000).

Water on the other hand is an unavoidable requirement for human settlement, which could turn

around to harm man’s existence and could also destroy the whole habitats if not managed properly

(Alexander Adeyemi Fakere and Clement Oluwole Folorunsho, 2014). In developing countries it

is practically impossible not to use water in building constructions. Olujimi (2005) accords that,

among all the resources available to man, water is the most universally accepted and the most vital

for practically all human activities. Ume and Okereke (2008), buttress this assertion that the
availability of water is essential for human habitat development even though there could be several

consequences attached.

Water use in construction of buildings has to ultimately evaporate until materials reach their usual

state of dryness in order to prevent early depreciation (Kamnetzky, 1991). The surfaces of

materials which are exposed tends to dry earlier than the internal surfaces due to exposure to

element of climate such as solar radiation and wind; and during the process, moisture is drawn to

the surface thus forming uneven patterns on the finishing after drying (Folorunsho, 2010). This is

a way dampness finds its way into buildings distorting the exterior surface color and making moist

the interior part due to lack of protection of the building walls. Hence, dampness cannot occur

without water.

Dampness in a short and simple term is when excess water is on building which results to

visible growth of mould and also destroys wall surface materials (Alake O, et all., 2022).

Dampness can be defined as the penetration of water through the wall and individual elements of

a building (Ugochuckwu et al., 2018). Agyekum et al., (2013) also defined dampness as excessive

quantity of moisture contained in building materials and components that cause advert movement

or deterioration, resulting in unacceptable internal environmental conditions. Dampness is defined

as the amount of moisture content present in a material and classified it as capillary moisture

content, equilibrium moisture content, hygroscopic water content, total water content and potential

moisture content (Burkinshaw, 2004). Dampness is the presence of unwanted moisture in the

structure of a residential or commercial building, it occurs mainly in old buildings, either as a result

of water running from outside or as a condensation within the structure (Stanley et al., 2020).

Dampness in building can damage much more than a building appearance. It may also lead to
deterioration of plaster and masonry, promotes timber decay and create unhealthy condensation

(Oliver 2017).

Sources of dampness can be classified as rising humidity, penetrating moisture,

condensation and pipe leakage (Burkinshaw, 2004; Hollis et al., 2000). Damp in building can

occur naturally when the foundation of a building is not well treated with the appropriate materials

which may lead to rising damp. The rising damp could be caused by water from the ground moving

up and rising into the house as a result of capillary action. This occurs due to structural issues of

the building, in particular, the damp-proof course or membrane. The damp-proof course in a

waterproof layer in the wall of a building near to the ground, and is installed to prevent rising

damp. It is usually a horizontal strip made from plastic or bitumen felt, built into the wall at least

about 15cm above the ground level. The damp-proof membrane is a water proof sheet laid

underneath the concrete floor to protect the house from ground water rising. Rising damp occur

when there are issues in with the damp-proof course and membrane. There may not be a course or

membrane, gaps in the course or membrane, or the ground may be higher than the damp-proof

barrier. The penetrating damp is caused by water leaking through the walls due to reasons like:

damaged bricks, leaking pipes, cracks in external walls or cracks in windows or door frames.

Condensation damp is caused by moist air condensing on walls. Warm and moist air come into

contact with a cold surface such as the walls, and the air cannot hold the moisture, causing drops

of water to appear and causing mold on the walls. Condensation occurs due to lack of ventilation,

cold surfaces, and lack of central heating. The pipe leakage is basically when there is a bore in the

pipe or when the pipe is not water tight at joints and allows gradual escape of water.

According to Prowler (2011), who emphasized that a high proportion of damp problems in

buildings are caused by ambient climate dependent factors of condensation and rain penetration.
All these sources of moistures enables the growth of various fungi in the materials such as wood

and causing mold health issues, which could also lead to sick building syndrome (SBC). Sick

building syndrome is a condition whereby people get infected with chronic diseases from the

building they work in or reside in (this is according to the World Health Organization Regional

Office for Europe). The transfer of moisture in buildings is a very complex issue that can cause

the deterioration of buildings by damaging bricks/block work, the decaying and breaking up of

mortar joints, fungal attacks in timber, and corrosion in iron and steel as well as stained wall

surfaces (both internally and externally) (Agyekum et all., 2013). One of the most important

requirement of a building is for it to remain very dry, that’s damp proof. In this case if this condition

is not fulfilled, the structure may get unhygienic to the occupants and dangerous from the structural

perspective, since dampness breeds germs of specific illness and deteriorates the structure (Stanley

et al., 2020). There are three major conditions that should be present for moisture to occur in

buildings. There should be: a source of moisture available; a means for the moisture to also travel;

and a driving force to enhance moisture movement (Straube, 2007; Straube & Schumacher, 2007;

Straube, 2002). Agyekum et al., (2013) also added that the elimination of anyone of these

conditions will varnish moisture. This research will therefore, assess the factors affecting

dampness in existing buildings in Akure, in a bid to examine the awareness of the people and to

make recommendations on how to prevent and eradicate dampness from already affected

buildings.

1.2 Statement of Problems

Over the years, it has been clear that living, working or going to school in damp buildings

is associated with adverse health effects (J. M. Cox-Ganser, 2015). World Health Organization

(WHO) and Institute of Medicine (IOM) published two major reviews in 2004 and 2009 relating

to health effects and damp indoor environments. These reviews were report and guidelines for
dampness and mould. There was also a follow up review to the WHO guidelines, these three

publications reviled that occupants of damp indoor environments are at risk for upper and lower

respiratory symptoms, onset and exacerbation of asthma, respiratory infections, eczema,

hypersensitivity pneumonitis and allergic rhinitis.

Late in 2003 IOM report covered a pertinent literature published on health effects including

asthma. Findings on asthma showed that there were sufficient existed evidences for associating

the presence of mould or other agent in damp buildings with asthma exacerbation and that limited

or suggestive evidenced existed for associating exposure to damp indoor environment with asthma

development. The committee came to conclusion that excessive indoor dampness is a public health

problem and that prevention or reduction of this condition should be a public health goal.

The WHO guidelines report covered literature published up to July 2007 on health effects

including asthma. Regarding asthma, a conclusion was made that there is enough epidemiological

evidence of an association between indoor dampness related factors and asthma development,

asthma exacerbation and current asthma. These findings were upheld in an updated review

(Mendell MJ et all., 2011). According to a 2007 meta-analysis of 33 studies which estimated that

exposure to dampness and mould in the home rises the risk of asthma development, ever diagnosed

asthma and the current asthma by 30-50% (Fisk WJ et all., 2007).

According to Mudarri D and Fisk WJ (2007) 21 percent of U.S. current asthma cases are

attributable to dampness and mould, which translate to 4.6 million of 21.8 million U.S. current

asthma cases attributable to dampness and mould. The study also estimated that the annual cost of

asthma attributable to dampness mould exposure at $3.5 billion.

If optimum maintenance and quality standards of construction is being carried out without

negligence, then why is there a rampant and alarming level of dampness in existing buildings to

cause these much illness.

Reports have proven that the level of dampness in existing buildings has also brought about damp

patches, mould growths, damage to surface finishes such as blistering paint and bulging plaster,

corrosion and decay of the building fabric, poor performance of insulation, salt staining and tide

marks which exists in buildings.

Conclusively, a very significant problem in the Akure construction industry is dampness due to

rain penetration, the slope of soil, the soil type which has the presence of salt (Alake O et all.,

2022). In as much as there are high numbers of existing buildings with dampness, it is very

important we further investigate it causes, and also to provide a solution to these problems in order

to prevent respiratory illness for occupants, falling of mortar from the affected walls and soaking

of the building which could actually result to collapse.

This study will assess the causes of dampness and how it could be controlled in existing

buildings in Akure.

1.3 Research Questions

This research will be carried out to provide a solution to the following research questions:

1. What are the reasons for dampness in existing buildings in Akure.

2. What are the risks and effects of dampness in an existing building in Akure.

3. How can dampness be controlled in an existing building.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The sole objective of this study is to assess dampness in existing buildings in Akure.

The specific objectives are:

 1. To identify the causes for dampness in most existing buildings in Akure.

2. To survey the effects and risk attached to presence of dampness in existing buildings

in Akure.

3. To provide preventive measures and possible solutions in controlling dampness in

existing buildings in Akure.

1.5 Scope of Study

This study will be carried out among selected residential buildings in Akure, Ondo State,

Nigeria. The state was among the three states that was created from the old western region in 1976,

in order to bring the government closer to the people. It was an emerging city even before its

creation. Akure Ondo State is located in the south western part of Nigeria with coordinates

7.2571˚N, 5.2058˚E. It is the largest city and also the capital city of Ondo State. The city had a

population of 360,268 as at the 2006 census. Using 2% yearly increase, and it is expected that by

2015 it would rise to 430,553 and 475,365 in the year 2020. It has a land area of 991km² and also

one among the 18 local government areas in Ondo State being Akure South local government area.

It is essentially a Yoruba speaking city.

Akure has a tropical humid climate with two distinct seasons, namely, wet and dry season. The

wet season usually lasts seven months starting from April and ends October. There are sometimes,

one or more cases of heavy rain in either January, February or March from the East-West line

squalls. It is this early rainstorm that enables farmers to hoe their farms in preparation for the

planting season that starts in late March (Olabode, 2015). According to the Ondo State Ministry

of Agriculture, the total annual rainfall ranges between 1300mm and 1650mm.
The soil of Akure are mainly oxisols and utisols (tropical ferrugineous) which vary over space

with respect to texture, drainage and gravel content (Adeyemi, 2009).

The Vegetation type of Akure is forest vegetation, which is categorized as: forest, Gallery forests

and forest reserves. In these forests, typical rain forest tree such as Mahogany, Obeche, Iroko,

Afara etc. are present and used for timber. Other economic trees include African pear, Bamboo,

Raffia palm, Oil palm, Orange, Mango and Coconut. The persistent clearance of the vegetation in

and around Akure has led to the development of derived forest around the town (Fadairo, 2008).

The climatic and vegetation factor is likely to keep the ground very wet, and there is high tendency

that dampness may occur in buildings in Akure.

Due to the climatic nature of the area and high millimeters of rainfall record annually, many

residential buildings are affected with dampness. According to Alake O, et all. (2022) In a recent

research, indicated that a high number of buildings out of 129 buildings that were investigated are

affected with dampness due to the non-use of damp proof membrane and damp proof course during

construction. And that most of the buildings were constructed in a water-logged area and

professionals were not engaged in the construction of those buildings. The reasons for the

occurrence of dampness is due to pipe leakages, water-logged areas of site, non-use of D.P.M and

D.P.C, poor quality of concrete (permeable concrete), holes in roof, poor foundation. This research

is base on assessment of dampness, it will cover existing buildings in Akure. Response to research

questions would be gotten from the professionals in the built environment who are actually trained

in safe building construction i.e. the Architects, Builders and Engineers, and residents of the study

area. Information collected from the occupants of some selected residential buildings also shall be

subjected to further analysis and results shall be final.

1.6 Significance of Study
According to Al horr et al., (2016) human beings health should be the first when assessing

the overall comfort of the built environment. The environmental characteristics that links with

housing, community and neighborhood can affect human’s health physically, mentally and socially

(Agyekum et al., 2017; Udofia et al., 2014; Egan et al., 2010).

The U.S. centers for disease control and prevention (CDC), the institute of medicine (IOM) of

National Academy of Sciences convened a committee of experts in order to conduct a

comprehensive review of the scientific literature concerning the relationship between damp or

moldy indoor environment and appearance of adverse health effects in exposed populations.

Thereupon, the members of the commitee damp indoor spaces and health concluded that the

epidemiological evidence shows an association between exposure to damp indoor environments

and adverse health effects, including upper respiratory symptoms, cough, wheeze, asthma

symptoms in sensitized person with asthma (Mendell & Kumagai, 2017; Ye & Qian, 2017;

Norbäck et al., 2017; Smedje et al., 2017; Boulic et al., 2015; Wolde et al., 2007).

Dampness is a major building challenge that possess a health risk by aiding the growth of mold

and other microorganisms in very humid areas (ugochukwu et al., 2018). A building is said to have

dampness problem when the materials in the building are wet and leads to material damage or

visible growth of mould (Burkinshaw & Parrett, 2003).

It is a major agent of building deterioration, which has been an issue of concern to professionals

in building worldwide (Dacquisto et al., 2004).

Haven clarified the risk attached to presence of dampness in existing buildings, this research will

be useful in certain aspects which could actually benefit the general public. These aspects are:

Health wise: this study will help occupants to know that presence of dampness can damage

their properties and be injurious to their health, this study will also help to reduce the number of
people who could fall victims of diseases and illness caused by living in an indoor damp

environment.

Deterioration of buildings: this study will create awareness to the building owners for

them to know that dampness can deteriorate their buildings and also serve as an eye opener for

people who look forward to purchase an apartment to avoid buildings with dampness during their

survey for purchase.

Selection of right building materials: this study will help in showcasing the importance

of using the right materials during construction and also help in recommendation of the right

material to use in preventing dampness during construction and also the right material to use in

controlling dampness after the building has been constructed.

Preventive measures: this study will serve as a guideline to maintenance personnel and

technicians to the technical know-how in carrying out repair or renovation in buildings to prevent

effects of damp and right treatment to treat the affected building.

Need to engage professionals: the registered professional builders will also benefit from this

research because it will prompt the general public to engage professionals whenever they want to

carry out a construction work.

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