Measurements Devices Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Sys

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING (USING NEAT SKETCHES AS POSSIBLE):

1) What is meant by dynamic characteristics of instruments?
When an instrument is required to measure a time-varying process variable, one has to be
concerned with "dynamic characteristics", these characteristics quantify the dynamic
relation between the input and output, the behavior of the system when inputs vary with time
and so does the output, is called dynamic response. Such a response in measurement systems
is found to occur in industrial, aerospace and biological applications.

2) State the dynamic characteristics of measurement system.

- Speed of response
- Measuring lag
- Fidelity
- Dynamic error

3) Briefly define and explain each of these terms:

a) Speed of response: is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds
to changes in the measured quantity.
b) Measuring lag: It refers to retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to
changes in measured quantity. The lag is caused by conditions such as capacitance, inertia, or
resistance.
c) Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the
measured quantity without any dynamic error. lt refers to the ability of the system to reproduce
the output in the same form as the input.
d) Dynamic error: The dynamic error, also called "measurement error", the difference
between the true value of the quantity changing with time and the value indicated by the
measurement system.

4) Briefly discuss the dynamic response of instruments.

The evaluation of the ability of a system to faithfully transmit and present al! the pertinent
information included in the input signal and to exclude all else is called the response.
The behavior of the system when inputs vary with time (i.e., inputs are dynamic in nature) and
so does the output, is called dynamic response. Such a response in measurement systems is
found to occur in industrial aerospace and biological applications.

2017-2018 Page | 1
Measurements Devices Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Sys

5) What is meant by steady state and transient response?

The response of a measurement system subjected to a time varying input can be divided into
the following two parts: Steady state response - Transient response.
Steady state response: is simply the response when time reaches infinity.
Transient response: in measurement systems, is defined as the part of response which goes to
zero as time becomes large.

6) What are the types of standard input signals that are applied to the measurement system?
Step function: it is A sudden change from one steady value to another.
Ramp or linear function: In this case, the input varies linearly with time.
Sinusoidal function: In this case the input varies sinusoidally with a constant maximum
amplitude.

7) What is meant by zero order system? Give examples of zero order measurement system.
In this case the output of the measuring system (ideal) is directly proportional to input, no
matter how the input varies. The output is faithful reproduction of input without any distortion
or time lag. The behavior of the zero-order system is represented by the following mathematical
solution:

Examples of zero-order system: Mechanical levers – Amplifiers - Potentiometer

8) What is meant by first order system? Give examples of first order measurement system.
The behavior of a first-order system is given by following first-order differential equation:

Examples of first-order system: Velocity of a true falling mass - Air pressure buildup in
bellow - Measurement of temperature by mercury-in-glass thermometers - Thermistors and
thermocouples - Resistance-capacitance network.

2017-2018 Page | 2
Measurements Devices Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Sys

SOLVE THE FOLLOWING PROBLEMS (TABULATE THE FINAL ANSWERS):

1) An experiment is conducted to determine the time constant of a K type thermocouple. A
thermocouple was inserted into a beaker of boiling water and allowed to reach equilibrium with
the boiling water. Then it was removed quickly to a stand so that it is cooled by air moving
across the junction by convection. From the records the following data has been gathered:

Given: the following table

Required:
(a) The time constant of the system. (b) The initial temperature of the thermocouple.
Solution:

Thermocouple response
100
Temperature, oC

80

60

40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4
Time, s
- From the time response equation of first order system:

𝑇 = (𝑇0 − 𝑇∞ )𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 + 𝑇∞
- This equation can be rewritten as:
𝑡 1
ln( 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ ) = − + ln( 𝑇0 − 𝑇∞ ) → 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑡 + 𝑐 → 𝑘=−
𝜏 𝜏

Semi log chart

4.5
4
3.5
ln(T-Tꚙ)

3
2.5
2
y = - 0.6065x + 4.2837
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Time, s

2017-2018 Page | 3
Measurements Devices Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Sys

- From the semi log chart the time constant can be calculated as:
1
𝑘 = − = −0.6065 → 𝝉 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟓 𝒔
𝜏
- The initial temperature can be calculated as:
𝑇 = (𝑇0 − 𝑇∞ )𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 + 𝑇∞ → 85 = (𝑇0 − 25)𝑒 −0.35/1.65 + 25
𝑻𝟎 = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟏𝟕 .𝑶 𝑪
- The initial temperature can be also calculated as:
𝑇𝜏 = 0.632(𝑇0 − 𝑇∞ ) → (52 − 25) = 0.368 (𝑇0 − 25)
𝑻𝟎 ≈ 𝟗𝟖. 𝟑𝟔 .𝑶 𝑪

2) A mercury thermometer has the room temperature, 75 oF. Suddenly, it is placed in a 400 oF oil
bath. The following data are obtained for the response of the thermometer.

Given: the following table

Time, sec 0 1 2.5 5 8 10 15 30

Temperature, oF 75 107 140 205 244 282 328 385
Required:
(a) Plot a graph showing the response of the thermometer. (b) the time constant.
Solution:
- The graph showing the response of the thermometer

Thermometer response
450
400
350
Temperature, oF

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time, s
- The time constant
𝑡 5
ln(𝑇∞ − 𝑇) = − + ln(𝑇∞ − 𝑇0 ) → ln( 400 − 205) = − + ln( 400 − 75)
𝜏 𝜏
𝝉 = 𝟗. 𝟕𝟖 𝒔

2017-2018 Page | 4
Measurements Devices Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Sys

3) A certain thermometer has a time constant of 15 s and an initial temperature of 20 oC. It is

suddenly exposed to a temperature of 100 oC. Determine the rise time and the time to attain
90% of the steady state value, and the temperature at this time.

Given: τ = 15 s, T0 = 20 oC, Tꚙ = 100 oC.

Required:
(a) The rise time. (b) the time to attain 90% of the steady state value.
Solution:
- The Rise time can be calculated as:
𝑡𝑟 = 𝑡90% − 𝑡10%
𝑡90% 𝑡90%
ln(𝑇∞ − 𝑇) = − + ln(𝑇∞ − 𝑇0 ) → ln( 100 − 92) = − + ln( 100 − 20)
𝜏 15
𝑡90% = 34.53 𝑠
𝑡10% 𝑡10%
ln(𝑇∞ − 𝑇) = − + ln(𝑇∞ − 𝑇0 ) → ln( 100 − 28) = − + ln( 100 − 20)
𝜏 15
𝑡10% = 1.58 𝑠
𝒕𝒓 = 34.53 − 1.58 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟗𝟓 𝒔
- The time to attain 90% of the steady state value:
𝒕𝟗𝟎% = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟓𝟑 𝒔

4) A thermometer having a time constant of 0.3 min is placed in a temperature bath, and after the
thermometer comes to equilibrium with the bath, the temperature of the bath is increased
linearly with time at a rate of 1.1°C/min.
a) What is the difference between the indicated temperature and the bath temperature (i) 0.1
min, (ii) 1.0 min after the change in temperature begins?
b) What is the maximum deviation between indicated temperature and bath temperature, and
when does it occur?
c) Plot the forcing function and response on the same graph. After a long enough time, by
how many minutes does the response lag the input?

2017-2018 Page | 5
Measurements Devices Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Sys

Given: τ = 0.3 min, R = 1.1 °C/min.

Required:
(a) The difference between the indicated and bath temperature (i) 0.1 min, (ii) 1.0 min.
(b) The maximum deviation between indicated, bath temperature, and when does it occur?
(c) Plot the forcing function and response on the same graph.
(d) After a long enough time, by how many minutes does the response lag the input?
Solution:
- Let the path temp = 70 °C.
(a) The difference between the indicated and bath temperature (i) 0.1 min, (ii) 1.0 min.
∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 − 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑇𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅𝑡 + 𝑇0 → 𝑎𝑡 0.1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.1 × 0.1 + 70 = 70.11 °𝐶
𝑎𝑡 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.1 × 1 + 70 = 71.1 °𝐶

𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 = (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇0 + 𝑅𝜏)𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 + (𝑇0 + 𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅τ)

𝑎𝑡 0.1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (1.1 × 0.3) 𝑒−0.1/0.3 + (70 + 1.1 × 0.1 − 1.1 × 0.3) = 70.016 °C

𝑎𝑡 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (1.1 × 0.3) 𝑒−1/0.3 + (70 + 1.1 × 1 − 1.1 × 0.3) = 70.781 °C

∆𝑇 = 70.11 − 70.016 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟒 °𝑪 𝒂𝒕 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒎𝒊𝒏
∆𝑇 = 71.1 − 70.781 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟗 °𝑪 𝒂𝒕 𝟏 𝒎𝒊𝒏
(b) The maximum deviation between indicated, bath temperature, and when does it occur?
∆𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝑅𝜏) = 1.1 × 0.3 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑 °𝑪 𝒂𝒕 𝒕 ≈ 𝟒 𝒎𝒊𝒏 ≫ 𝟎. 𝟑 𝒎𝒊𝒏
(c) Plot the forcing function and response on the same graph.

Chart Title
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Time. s

(d) After a long enough time, by how many minutes does the response lag the input?
0.33
∆𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 0.3 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝒂𝒕 𝒕 ≈ 𝟒 𝒎𝒊𝒏 ≫ 𝟎. 𝟑 𝒎𝒊𝒏
1.1

2017-2018 Page | 6
Measurements Devices Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Sys

5) A thermometer having first-order response with a time constant of 1.1 min is at 120 oC. The
thermometer is suddenly placed in a bath at 150 oC at t = 0 and left there for 1.5 min, after
which it is immediately returned to a bath at 100 oC.
a) Draw a sketch showing the variation of the thermometer reading with time.
b) Calculate the thermometer reading at t = 0.5 min and at t = 2.5 min.

Given: τ = 1.1 min, T (120 oC 150 oC) in 1.5 min, T  100 oC.
Required:
(a) Draw a sketch showing the variation of the thermometer reading with time.
(b) Calculate the thermometer reading at t = 0.5 min and at t = 2.5 min.
Solution:
(a) The sketch showing the variation of the thermometer reading with time.

160

150

140
Temperature

130

120

110

100

90

80
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Time, s

(a) The thermometer reading at t = 0.5 min and at t = 2.5 min.

𝑇 = (𝑇0 − 𝑇∞ )𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 + 𝑇∞ → 𝑇 = (120 − 150)𝑒 −0.5/1.1 + 150 = 𝟏𝟑𝟏. 𝟐 𝒐𝑪

𝑇 = (𝑇0 − 𝑇∞ )𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 + 𝑇∞ → 𝑇 = (142.32 − 100)𝑒 −0.5/1.1 + 100 = 𝟏𝟏𝟔. 𝟖 𝒐𝑪

2017-2018 Page | 7
Measurements Devices Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Sys

6) A first order system is subjected to a ramp input given by If = 23 + Rt where R = 3,5,10 unit/s.
The initial condition is 30 unit. Consider two cases with τ = 1.5 s and 10 s and for these two
cases draw graphs showing input as well as output responses of the system.

Given: τ = 1.5 s, If = 23 + Rt, R = 3,5,10 unit/s, Iin = 30 units.

Required:
(a) draw graphs showing input as well as output responses of the system.
Solution:
(a) The graphs showing input as well as output responses of the system.

120 R= 3 units/sec
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

200 R= 5 units/sec

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

350 R= 10 units/sec
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

2017-2018 Page | 8
Measurements Devices Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Sys

7) A first order system is subject to a ramp input given by T = 20 + 5t where temperature is in ◦C

and t is in s. The initial temperature of the probe is 30 ◦C and the time constant of the probe is
τ = 2 s. Determine the probe temperature at t = 7 s and at t = 25 s.

Given: τ = 2 s, T = 20 + 5t, Tin = 30 ◦C.

Required:
(a) The probe temperature at t = 7 s and at t = 25 s.
Solution:
(a) The probe temperature can be calculated as:
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 = (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇0 + 𝑅𝜏)𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 + (𝑇0 + 𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅τ)
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 = (30 − 20 + 5 × 2)𝑒 −7/2 + (20 + 5 × 7 − 5 × 2) = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟔𝟎𝟑 °𝑪 𝒂𝒕 𝟕𝒔
𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 = (30 − 20 + 5 × 2)𝑒 −25/2 + (20 + 5 × 25 − 5 × 2) = 𝟏𝟑𝟓. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟕 °𝑪 𝒂𝒕 𝟕𝒔

8) The time constant of a first order thermal system is given as 30 s. The uncertainty in the value
of the time constant is given to be ±0.5 s. The initial temperature excess of the system over and
above the ambient temperature is 25 ◦C. It is desired to determine the system temperature
excess and its uncertainty at the end of 20 s, 30 s and 45 s from the start. What is the associated
time lag at each time? Knowing that temperature excess variation is exponential.

Given: τ = 30 ± 0.5 s, T0 = 25 ◦C, Tꚙ = 0 ◦C.

Required:
(a) The system temperature excess and its uncertainty at the end of 20 s, 30 s and 45 s.
(b) The associated time lag at each time.
Solution:
(a) The system temperature excess and its uncertainty:

𝑇 = (𝑇0 − 𝑇∞ )𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 + 𝑇∞  𝑇20 = (25)𝑒 −20/30 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟖𝟑𝟓 ◦C

𝑇30 = (25)𝑒 −30/30 = 𝟗. 𝟏𝟗𝟔 ◦C 𝑇45 = (25)𝑒 −45/30 = 𝟓. 𝟓𝟕𝟖 ◦C

The system temperature excess uncertainty:
𝑡 𝑡 20
𝜕 𝑡 20
𝑈𝑇 = ( (25)𝑒 −𝜏 ) 𝑈𝜏 = (25 2
𝑒 −𝜏 ) 𝑈𝜏 → 𝑈20 = (25 2
𝑒 −30 ) 0.5 = ± 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟑 ◦C
𝜕𝜏 𝜏 30
30 45
30 45
𝑈30 = (25 2
𝑒 −30 ) 0.5 = ± 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟑 ◦C 𝑈45 = (25 2
𝑒 −30 ) 0.5 = ± 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟗 ◦C
30 30

2017-2018 Page | 9
Measurements Devices Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Sys

9) A first-order instrument with a time constant of 2 s is to be used to measure a periodic input.

If a dynamic error of 2% can be tolerated, determine the maximum frequency of periodic input
that can be measured. What is the associated time lag (in seconds) at this frequency?

Given: τ = 2 s, Ed = ± 2 %.
Required:
(a) Maximum frequency of periodic input that can be measured.
(b) The associated time lag at this frequency.
Solution:
(a) The Maximum frequency:
1 1
𝑀𝜔 = ≤ 0.98 → = 0.98 → 𝛚𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔
√1 + (τω)2 √1 + (2 × ω𝑚𝑎𝑥 )2
(b) The associated time lag at this frequency:
∅ −tan−1 (𝜔𝜏) −tan−1 (2 × 0.10)
𝛽= = = = −𝟏. 𝟗𝟕𝟑 𝒔
𝜔 𝜔 0.10

10) A temperature sensor is to be selected to measure temperature within a reaction vessel. It is

suspected that the temperature will behave as a simple periodic waveform with a frequency
somewhere between 1 and 5 Hz. Sensors of several sizes are available, each with a known time
constant. Based on time constant, select a suitable sensor, assuming that a dynamic error of 2%
is acceptable

Given: f 1 – 5 Hz, Ed = ± 2 %.
Required:
(a) Based on time constant, select a suitable sensor.
Solution:
(a) The suitable sensor:
1 1
𝑀𝜔 = ≤ 0.98 → = 0.98 → 𝝉 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟐𝟑 𝒔
√1 + (τω)2 √1 + (τ × (2π))2
1
→ = 0.98 → 𝝉 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟕 𝒔
√1 + (τ × (5 × 2π))2

The suitable sensor time constant is 0.0637 s or less.

2017-2018 Page | 10
Measurements Devices Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Sys

11) A signal expected to be of the form F(t) = 10 sin 15.7t is to be measured with a first-order
instrument having a time constant of 50 ms. Write the expected indicated steady response
output signal. What is the expected time lag between input and output signal? Plot the output
amplitude spectrum; y(0) = 0 and K = 1V/V.

Given: F(t) = 10 sin 15.7t, time constant of 50 ms.

Required:
(a) the expected indicated steady response output signal.
(b) the expected time lag between input and output signal.
(c) Plot the output amplitude spectrum.
Solution:
𝜔 = 15.7 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 . 𝑇𝑎 = 10 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 . 𝜏 = 0.050 𝑠
(a) The system response:
𝑇𝑎
𝑇 = 𝑐 𝑒−𝑡/𝜏 + sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝜔𝜏)
√1 + 𝜔 2 𝜏 2
The system steady response:
𝑇𝑎 10
𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 = sin(𝜔𝜏 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝜔𝜏) = sin(15.7 × 𝑡 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (15.7 × 0.05))
√1 + 𝜔 2 𝜏 2 √1 + 15.72 0.052
𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 = 7.869 sin(15.7𝑡 − 0.6655)

(b) the expected time lag between input and output signal:
∅ −tan−1 (𝜔𝜏) −tan−1 (15.7 × 0.05)
𝛽=
= = = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟐𝟑 𝒔
𝜔 𝜔 15.7
(c) The output amplitude spectrum plot:
10
𝑇0 = 0 → 0 = 𝑐 + sin(0 − 0.6655) → 𝑐 = 4.8568
√1 + 15.72 0.052
15

10

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
-5

-10

-15

2017-2018 Page | 11
Measurements Devices Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Sys

HOMEWORK EXERCISES:
1) What is meant by Parameters and Variables? Give an example with sketches.

Parameters are internal variables which are related to the system itself, but variables are related
to the external conditions which have some direct or indirect effects upon the system for
example the equation Y= a X + b, contains the variables X and Y and one depends on the other
as any change in the variable X results in a change in the variable Y.
And the system here does not change as the line remains the same line whether the variables
(e.g. X, Y) are changed or not.
This line will change only if one or both variables (a or b) is changed, in this case (a) and (b)
are considered the parameters of this straight line. As you can say that the system is defined by
its parameters
Example: RC circuit
∙ ( ) 1
System equation is 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜏 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑡),𝜏 =
𝑅𝐶

Variables are:
• Input (independent variable) = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
• Output (dependent variable) = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
Parameters are:
1
As 𝜏 = → parameters are:
𝑅𝐶

• Resistance R
• Capacitance C

2) A thermometer is initially at a temperature of 70◦F and is suddenly placed in a liquid which is

maintained at 300◦F. The thermometer indicates 200 and 270◦F after time intervals of 3 and 5
s, respectively. Estimate the time constant for the thermometer.

Given: T0 = 70 F, T∞ = 300 F, T3 = 200 F, T5 = 270 F.

Required:
(a) The time constant for the thermometer.
Solution:
- From the time response equation of first order system:

𝑇 = (𝑇0 − 𝑇∞ )𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 + 𝑇∞
200 = (70 − 300)𝑒 −3/𝜏 + 300
𝝉 ≈ 𝟑. 𝟔 𝒔𝒆𝒄

2017-2018 Page | 12
Measurements Devices Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Sys

3) A thermometer acting as a first-order system is initially at a temperature of 35◦C and is then

suddenly subjected to a temperature of 110◦C. After 8 s the thermometer indicates a

temperature of 75◦C. Calculate the time constant and the 90 percent rise time for the

thermometer.

Given: T0 = 35 ◦C, T∞ = 110 ◦C, T8 = 75 ◦C.

Required:
(a) The time constant for the thermometer.
(b) 90 percent rise time for the thermometer
Solution:
- From the time response equation of first order system:
𝑇 = (𝑇0 − 𝑇∞ )𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 + 𝑇∞
75 = (35 − 110)𝑒 −8/𝜏 + 110
𝝉 ≈ 𝟏𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟕 𝒔𝒆𝒄
Rise time for the thermometer:
𝑡𝑟 = 𝑡90% − 𝑡10%
102.5 = (35 − 110)𝑒 −𝑡90%/10.497 + 110 → 𝑡90% = 24.17 𝑠𝑒𝑐
42.5 = (35 − 110)𝑒 −𝑡10%/10.497 + 110 → 𝑡10% = 1.106 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡𝑟 = 24.17 − 1.106 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟎𝟔𝟒 𝒔𝒆𝒄

4) A small temperature sensor operates as a first-order system and is stated to have a time constant
of 0.1 s. If it is initially at a temperature of 100◦C and suddenly exposed to an environment

temperature of l5◦C, how long will it take to indicate a temperature of 17◦C?

Given: T0 = 100 ◦C, T∞ = 15 ◦C, τ = 0.1 sec.

Required:
(a) Time at T = 17 ◦C.
Solution:
- From the time response equation of first order system:
𝑇 = (𝑇0 − 𝑇∞ )𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 + 𝑇∞
17 = (100 − 15)𝑒 −𝑡/0.1 + 15
𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝒔𝒆𝒄

2017-2018 Page | 13
Measurements Devices Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Sys

5) If the temperature sensor of Prob. 4 is exposed to a harmonic temperature source, for what
frequency range will its amplitude response be within 10 percent? What will be the time delay
under these circumstances?

Given: τ = 0.1 s, Ed = ± 10 %.
Required:
(a) Maximum frequency of periodic input that can be measured.
(b) The associated time lag at this frequency.
Solution:
(a) The Maximum frequency:
1 1
𝑀𝜔 = ≤ 0.9 → = 0.9 → 𝛚𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝟒 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔
√1 + (τω)2 √1 + (0.1 × ω𝑚𝑎𝑥 )2
(b) The associated time lag at this frequency:
∅ −tan−1 (𝜔𝜏) −tan−1 (0.1 × 4.84)
𝛽= = = = − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟑 𝒔
𝜔 𝜔 4.84

6) A thermometer has a time constant of 10 s and behaves as a first-order system. It is initially at

a temperature 30◦C and then suddenly subjected to a surrounding temperature of 120◦C.

Calculate the 90 percent rise time and the time to attain 99 percent of the steady-state
temperature.

Given: T0 = 30 ◦C, T∞ = 120 ◦C, τ = 10 s.

Required:
(a) The 90 percent rise time. (b) The time to attain 99 percent of the steady-state.
Solution:
- From the time response equation of first order system:
𝑇 = (𝑇0 − 𝑇∞ )𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 + 𝑇∞
Rise time for the thermometer:
𝑡𝑟 = 𝑡90% − 𝑡10%
111 = (30 − 120)𝑒 −𝑡90%/10 + 120 → 𝑡90% = 23.025 𝑠𝑒𝑐
39 = (30 − 120)𝑒 −𝑡10%/10 + 120 → 𝑡10% = 1.193 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡𝑟 = 23.025 − 1.193 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟖𝟑𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄
The time to attain 99 percent:
119.1 = (30 − 120)𝑒 −𝑡99%/10 + 120 → 𝒕𝟗𝟗% = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟎𝟓 𝒔𝒆𝒄

2017-2018 Page | 14
Measurements Devices Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Sys

7) The thermometer in prob.6 is subjected to a harmonic temperature variation having an

amplitude of 20 ◦C and a frequency of 0.01 Hz. Determine the phase lag of the thermometer

and the amplitude attenuation. The time constant is still taken as 10 s.

Given: A = 20 ◦C, ω = 0.01 Hz, τ = 10 s.

Required:
(a) The 90 percent rise time. (b) The time to attain 99 percent of the steady-state.
Solution:
- The associated time lag:
∅ −tan−1 (0.01 × 2𝜋 × 10) −0.5604
𝛽= = = = − 𝟖. 𝟗𝟑 𝒔
𝜔 0.01 × 2𝜋 0.0628

8) A first-order system has a phase shift of −50◦ at a certain frequency. What will be the phase
lag at a frequency of twice this value? What will be the relative amplitude responses at the two
frequencies?

Given: ∅ = −50 ◦.
Required:
(a) The phase lag. (b) The relative amplitude responses.
Solution:
∅ = − tan−1 (𝜔𝜏) → −50 = − tan−1 (𝜔𝜏) → 𝜔𝜏 = 1.1917
The phase lag at a frequency of twice value:

∅ = − tan−1 (2 × 1.1917) → ∅ = −𝟔𝟕. 𝟐𝟑𝟖 𝒐

The relative amplitude responses:
1 1
𝑀𝜔1 = = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒𝟑
√1 + (τω1 )2 √1 + (1.1917)2
1 1
𝑀𝜔2 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟕
√1 + (τω2 )2 √1 + (2.3834)2

2017-2018 Page | 15
Measurements Devices Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Sys

9) A first-order system is subjected to a harmonic input of 3 Hz. The system has a time constant
of 0.5 s. Calculate the error of the amplitude response and the phase lag.

Given: ω = 3 Hz, τ = 0.5 s.

Required:
(a) The phase lag. (b) The error of the amplitude response.
Solution:
The phase lag at the Given frequency:

∅ = − tan−1 (𝜔𝜏) = − tan−1 (2𝜋 × 3 × 0.5) → ∅ = −𝟖. 𝟑𝟗 𝒐

The error of the amplitude response:
1 1
𝑀ω = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟓
√1 + (τω)2 √1 + (2π × 3 × 0.5)2
𝑒 = 1 − 0.1055 = 0.8945 = 𝟖𝟗. 𝟒𝟓%

10) A balloon is equipped with temperature- and altitude-measuring instruments and has radio
equipment that can transmit the output readings of these instruments back to the ground. The
balloon is initially anchored to the ground with the instrument output readings in steady state.
The altitude measuring instrument is approximately zero order, and the temperature transducer
is first order with a time constant of 15 seconds.

The temperature on the ground, T0, is 10 ◦C and the temperature T at an altitude of (x) meters
is given by the relation: T(x) = T0 - 0.01 x. If the balloon is released at time zero, and thereafter
rises upward at a velocity of 5 meters/second.

a) Draw a table showing the temperature and altitude measurements reported at intervals of
10 seconds over the first 50 seconds of travel.
b) Show also in the table the error in each temperature reading.
c) What temperature does the balloon report at an altitude of 5000 meters?

2017-2018 Page | 16
Measurements Devices Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Sys

Given: τ = 15 second, 𝑇 (𝑥) = 𝑇0 − 0.01𝑥 , 𝑇0 = 10 °𝐶 , 𝑉 = 5 𝑚/𝑠

Required:
a) A table showing the temperature and altitude measurements.
b) The error in each temperature reading
c) The temperature at an altitude of 5000 meters.
Solution:
a) A table showing the temperature and altitude measurements
𝑇𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 (𝑥) = 𝑇0 − 0.01𝑥
𝑥𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝑥(𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟) , 𝑣 = 𝑥/𝑡

𝑇𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 (𝑡) = 𝑇0 − 0.01𝑣 × 𝑡

First order temp sensor and input temp. changes gradually with time:

𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 = (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇0 + 𝑅𝜏)𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 + (𝑇0 + 𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅τ)

Sensor and balloon have the same initial temp. at 10°C

𝑇𝑖 = 𝑇0 = 10
𝑅 = 0.01𝑣 = 0.01 × 5 = 0.05 𝑚
By substitution

𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 = (𝑅𝜏)𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 + (𝑇0 + 𝑅𝑡 − 𝑅τ)

𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 = −0.75(𝑒 −𝑡/15 − 1) − 0.05𝑡 + 10

Time Altitude (x) Ideal Temp. Measured Temp. Abs. Error
0 0 10 10 0
10 50 9.5 9.86 0.36
20 100 9 9.55 0.55
30 150 8.5 9.15 0.65
40 200 8 8.7 0.7
50 250 7.5 8.22 0.72

c) At altitude 5000 meters

Time = X/V = 5000 / 5 = 1000 seconds

𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 = −0.75(𝑒 −1000/15 − 1) − 0.05 ∗ 1000 + 10 = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟐𝟓 °𝐂

2017-2018 Page | 17