Chapter 1

Preliminaries

1.1 Introduction

In this chapter, we give some preliminary definitions and theorems

in Graph Theory, which are needed for the subsequent chapters.

Throughout the thesis, G denotes a finite simple undirected con-

nected graph with at least two vertices. For graph theoretic termi-

nology, we refer to [6, 10].

Definition 1.1.1. [10] A graph G consists of a finite non-empty

set V of p vertices together with a prescribed set E of q unordered

pairs of distinct vertices of V . Each pair e = {u, v} of vertices in

E is an edge of G and e is said to join u and v. We write e = uv

and say that u and v are adjacent vertices; vertex v and edge e are

incident with each other. If two vertices are not joined, then we

say that they are non-adjacent. If two distinct edges e and f are

incident with a common vertex, then they are adjacent edges. The

1
vertex set and the edge set of G are denoted by V (G) and E(G),

respectively. The number of vertices in G is called the order of G

and the number of edges in G is called the size of G. A graph with

p vertices and q edges is called a (p, q) graph.

Definition 1.1.2. [10] If two or more edges join the same pair

of distinct vertices, then these edges are called parallel edges or

multiple edges. If an edge e joins a vertex v to itself, then e is called

a loop. A graph G without loops and parallel edges is called a simple

graph.

Definition 1.1.3. [6, 10] The null graph is the graph whose vertex

set and edge set are empty. A (1, 0) graph is called a trivial graph.

Otherwise it is non-trivial.

Definition 1.1.4. [6] A graph H is called a subgraph of G, if

V (H) ⊆ V (G) and E(H) ⊆ E(G). If H is a subgraph of G and

either V (H) is a proper subset of V (G) or E(H) is a proper subset

of E(G), then H is a proper subgraph of G.

Definition 1.1.5. [10] A spanning subgraph of G is a subgraph H

with V (H) = V (G). For any set S ⊆ V (G), the induced subgraph

G[S] or hSi is the maximal subgraph of G with vertex set S. Thus

two vertices of S are adjacent in G[S] if and only if they are adjacent

in G.

2
Definition 1.1.6. [10] Two graphs G and H are equal if V (G) =

V (H) and E(G) = E(H). Two graphs G and H are isomorphic,

written G ∼
= H, if there exists a one-to-one correspondence between

their vertex sets which preserves adjacency.

Definition 1.1.7. [10] The complement G of a simple graph G

is the simple graph with the same vertex set V (G) such that two

vertices are adjacent in G if and only if they are not adjacent in G.

Definition 1.1.8. [10] The degree of a vertex v in a graph G is

the number of edges of G incident with v and is denoted by deg(v)

or d(v). The minimum and maximum degrees among the vertices

of a graph G are denoted by δ = δ(G) and ∆ = ∆(G), respectively.

A vertex of degree 1 is called a pendant vertex or an end vertex. A

vertex of degree p − 1 is called a full vertex. An isolated vertex is

a vertex of degree 0. Any vertex, which is adjacent to a pendant

vertex is called a support vertex.

Remark 1.1.9. [10] If G is a (p, q) simple graph, then 0 ≤ deg(v) ≤

p − 1 for every vertex v ∈ V (G).

Theorem 1.1.10. [10] Let G be a graph of order p and size q.

Then

(i). the sum of the degrees of the vertices of a graph G is 2q.

(ii). the number of vertices of odd degree in a graph G is even.

3
Definition 1.1.11. [7] If e = {u, v} is an edge of a graph G with

d(u) = 1 and d(v) > 1, then the edge e is a pendant edge, u a leaf

and v a support vertex.

Definition 1.1.12. [10] A graph G is a regular graph if ∆(G) =

δ(G) and it is k-regular or regular of degree k if every vertex of G

has degree k, that is ∆(G) = δ(G) = k.

Definition 1.1.13. [10] A graph G is said to be complete if every

pair of distinct vertices of G are adjacent. A complete graph on p

vertices is denoted by Kp . Thus Kp has pC2 edges and is regular of

degree p − 1.

Definition 1.1.14. [10] A graph G is called a bipartite graph

or bigraph if the vertex set V can be partitioned into two disjoint

subsets V1 and V2 such that every edge of G joins a vertex of V1 to

a vertex of V2 . If G contains every edge joining the vertices of V1

to the vertices of V2 , then G is called a complete bipartite graph

or biclique. If V1 and V2 have p and q vertices, then the complete

bipartite graph is denoted by Kp,q . A star is a complete bipartite

graph K1,p .

Theorem 1.1.15. [6] If k > 0, then a k-regular bipartite graph

has the same number of vertices in each partite set.

Definition 1.1.16. [6] The P etersen graph is the simple graph

4
whose vertices are the 2-element subsets of a 5-element set and

whose edges are the pairs of disjoint 2-element subsets.

Definition 1.1.17. [10] A walk of a graph G is an alternating se-

quence of vertices and edges u = u0 , e1 , u1 , e2 , . . . , en , un = v begin-

ning and ending with vertices, in which each edge ei = ui−1 ui . This

walk joins u and v, and may also be denoted u = u0 , u1 , . . . , un =

v, it is sometimes called a u − v walk. The length of the walk

u0 , u1 , . . . , un is n, the number of occurrences of edges in it. The

walk is said to be open if u and v are distinct vertices and the walk

is said to be closed if u = v.

Definition 1.1.18. [10] A walk in which all the vertices are distinct

is called a path. A path on p vertices is denoted by Pp . A closed

walk in which all the vertices are distinct is called a cycle. A cycle

on p vertices is denoted by Cp .

Theorem 1.1.19. [10] A graph is bipartite if and only if all its

cycles are even.

Definition 1.1.20. [10] The girth of a graph G is the length of a

shortest cycle in G. The circumf erence of a graph G is the length

of any longest cycle in G. If the graph G has no cycle, then the

girth and circumference of G are infinite. The graph C3 is called

triangle. A graph G is triangle f ree if it does not contain cycles

of length 3.

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Definition 1.1.21. [10] A graph G is said to be connected if every

pair of vertices of G is joined by a path. A maximal connected

subgraph of G is called a component of G. A graph is said to be

disconnected if it has at least two components.

Theorem 1.1.22. [1] If G is a simple disconnected graph, then G

is connected.

Theorem 1.1.23. [10] Let G be a (p, q) connected graph. Then

q ≥ p − 1.

Definition 1.1.24. [10] A cut vertex of a graph G is a vertex

whose removal increases the number of components.

Theorem 1.1.25. [10] Let v be a vertex of a connected graph G.

Then the following statements are equivalent:

(i). v is a cut vertex of G.

(ii). There exist vertices u and w distinct from v such that v is on

every u − w path.

(iii). There exists a partition of the set of vertices V − {v} into

subsets U and W such that for any vertices u ∈ U and w ∈ W ,

the vertex v is on every u − w path.

Theorem 1.1.26. [10] Every non-trivial connected graph has at

least two vertices which are not cut vertices.

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Definition 1.1.27. [9, 10] A non-trivial connected graph with no

cut vertices is called a non-separable graph. A block of a graph G is

a maximal non-separable subgraph of G. A connected graph G is a

block graph if every block of G is complete.

Definition 1.1.28. [10] A graph G is called acyclic if it has no

cycles. A connected acyclic graph is called a tree. A vertex of

degree 1 in a tree T is called a leaf . The set of leaves of T is

denoted by L(T ). Any graph without cycles is a f orest and thus

the components of a forest are trees.

Theorem 1.1.29. [10] Let G be a (p, q) graph. Then the following

statements are equivalent:

(i). G is a tree.

(ii). Every two vertices of G are joined by a unique path.

(iii). G is connected and p = q + 1.

(iv). G is acyclic and p = q + 1.

Corollary 1.1.30. [10] Let T be a (p, q) connected tree. Then q =

p − 1.

Theorem 1.1.31. [10] Every non-trivial tree has at least two end

vertices.

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Definition 1.1.32. [6] Let v be a vertex of a graph G. The induced

subgraph G[V (G) − v] is the subgraph of G obtained by the removal

of v and edges incident with v. It is denoted by G − v. A set S ⊆

V (G) is a cutset of G if G−S is a disconnected or trivial graph. The

connectivity of a graph G is the cardinality of a minimum cutset of

G and is denoted by κ(G). Thus the connectivity of a disconnected

graph G is κ(G) = 0, while the connectivity of a connected graph G

with a cut vertex is κ(G) = 1. Also, the connectivity of a complete

graph Kp is κ(Kp ) = p − 1.

Theorem 1.1.33. [6] Let G be any connected graph of order p.

Then

(i). κ(G) ≤ δ(G).

(ii). 1 ≤ κ(G) ≤ p − 1.

(iii). if G is non-complete, then 1 ≤ κ(G) ≤ p − 2.

Definition 1.1.34. [18] For a cut vertex v in a connected graph

G and a component H of G − v, the subgraph H and the vertex v

together with all edges joining v to V (H) is called a branch of G at

v.

Definition 1.1.35. [10] The union of two graphs G and H is the

graph G∪H with vertex set V (G)∪V (H) and edge set E(G)∪E(H).

8
Definition 1.1.36. [11] The join G + H of graphs G and H is

the graph with vertex set V (G + H) = V (G) ∪ V (H) and edge set

E(G + H) = E(G) ∪ E(H) ∪ {uv : u ∈ V (G) and v ∈ V (H)}. The

fan graph of order n is defined as K1 + Pn−1 , where Pn−1 is the path

on n − 1 vertices. It is denoted by Fn or F1,n−1 . The wheel of order

n ≥ 4 is defined as K1 + Cn−1 , where Cn−1 is the cycle on n − 1

vertices. It is denoted by Wn .

Definition 1.1.37. [11] The middle graph of a graph G = (V, E) is

the graph M (G) = (V ∪ E, E ′ ), where uv ∈ E ′ if and only if either

u is a vertex of G and v is an edge of G containing u, or u and v

are edges in G having a vertex in common.

Definition 1.1.38. [11] The corona of a graph G is the graph

Cor(G) constructed from a copy of G, where for each vertex v ∈

V (G), a new vertex v ′ and a pendant edge vv ′ are added. The

corona of two graphs G1 and G2 is the graph G = G1 ◦ G2 formed

from one copy of G1 and |V (G1 )| copies of G2 where the ith vertex

of G1 is adjacent to every vertex in the ith copy of G2 .

Definition 1.1.39. [10] For vertices u and v in a connected graph

G, the distance d(u, v) is the length of a shortest u − v path in G.

If G has no such path, then d(u, v) = ∞. In a connected graph, the

distance is a metric. A u − v path of length d(u, v) is called a u − v

geodesic.

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Definition 1.1.40. [10] The eccentricity e(v) of a vertex v in a

connected graph G is defined as the distance between v and a vertex

farthest from v. That is, e(v) = max{d(u, v) : u ∈ V (G)}. The

radius rad(G) or r(G) is defined as minimum eccentricity among

the vertices of G. That is, rad(G) = min{e(v) : v ∈ V (G)} =

minu,v∈V (G) d(u, v). The diameter diam(G) or d(G) is defined as the

maximum eccentricity among the vertices of G. That is, diam(G) =

max{e(v) : v ∈ V (G)} = maxu,v∈V (G) d(u, v). Thus length of the

shortest geodesic in G is the radius of G and the length of any

longest geodesic in G is the diameter of G.

Theorem 1.1.41. [10] For every connected graph G, rad(G) ≤

diam(G) ≤ 2 rad(G).

Theorem 1.1.42. [1] Let G be any simple graph. If diam(G) ≥ 3,

then diam(G) ≤ 3.

Definition 1.1.43. [1, 5] Two vertices u and v of G are antipodal

if d(u, v) = diam(G). A vertex v in G is a peripheral vertex if

e(v) = diam(G). A diametral path in a graph is a shortest path

whose length is equal to the diameter of the graph.

Definition 1.1.44. [5] A vertex v is an extreme vertex of G if the

subgraph induced by its neighbors is complete. The set of extreme

vertices of G is denoted by Ext(G).

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Definition 1.1.45. [11] For a vertex v ∈ V (G), the open neighbor-

hood N (v) is the set of vertices adjacent to v, and N [v] = N (v)∪{v}

is the closed neighborhood of v. For X ⊆ V (G), the open neighbor-

S
hood of X is defined as N (X) = x∈X N (x) and the closed neigh-
S
borhood of X is defined as N [X] = x∈X N [x].

Definition 1.1.46. [4] A vertex v is said to lie on an x−y geodesic

P if v is an internal vertex of P . The closed interval I[x, y] consists

of x, y and all vertices lying on some x − y geodesic of G. For a

S
non-empty set S ⊆ V (G), the set I[S] = x,y∈S I[x, y] is the closure

of S.

Definition 1.1.47. [4] The interior of the interval I[x, y] is the set

I(x, y) = I[x, y] − {x, y}. For any non-empty set S ⊆ V (G), the set
S
I(S) = x,y∈S I(x, y) is the interior of S.

Definition 1.1.48. [8] The 2-path closure P2 [S]G of a set S ⊆ V (G)

in G is defined by P2 [S]G = S ∪ {w ∈ V (G) : w ∈ IG (u, v) for some

u, v ∈ S with dG (u, v) = 2}. The set S ⊆ V (G) is called a 2-path

closure absorbing set in G if ever P2 [S]G = V (G).

Definition 1.1.49. [4] A set S ⊆ V (G) is called a geodetic set if

I[S] = V (G). Thus every vertex of G is contained in a geodesic

joining some pair of vertices in S. The geodetic number g(G) of G

is the minimum cardinality of a geodetic set of G. A geodetic set

with cardinality g(G) is called a g-set of G.

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Definition 1.1.50. [18] A connected geodetic set of G is a geodetic

set S such that the subgraph G[S] induced by S is connected. The

connected geodetic number gc (G) of G is the minimum cardinality

of a connected geodetic set of G. A connected geodetic set with

cardinality gc (G) is called a gc -set of G.

Definition 1.1.51. [4] A geodetic set S of G is called a minimal

geodetic set if no proper subset of S is a geodetic set of G. The

upper geodetic number g + (G) of G is the maximum cardinality of a

minimal geodetic set of G.

Definition 1.1.52. [19] A connected geodetic set S of G is called

a minimal connected geodetic set if no proper subset of S is a con-

nected geodetic set of G. The upper connected geodetic number

gc+ (G) of G is the maximum cardinality of a minimal connected

geodetic set of G.

Example 1.1.53. For the graph G given in Figure 1.1, S1 = {v1 , v3 }

and S2 = {v2 , v4 , v5 } are minimal geodetic sets of G, so g(G) = 2

and g + (G) = 3.

v4 v3

v5

v1 v2
Figure 1.1: G
12
 Also, it is clear that S1 = {v1 , v3 , v5 }, S2 = {v1 , v2 , v3 }, S3 =

{v1 , v3 , v4 }, S4 = {v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 } and S5 = {v1 , v2 , v4 , v5 } are minimal

connected geodetic sets of G, so gc (G) = 3 and gc+ (G) = 4.

Theorem 1.1.54. [5] Every geodetic set S of a graph G contains

its extreme vertices. In particular, every end vertex of G belongs to

every geodetic set of G.

Theorem 1.1.55. [2] Let G be a connected graph. Then g(G) = p

if and only if G = Kp .

Theorem 1.1.56. [5] The geodetic number of a tree T is the num-

ber of end vertices in T . In fact, the set of end vertices L(T ) of T

is the unique minimum geodetic set of T .

Theorem 1.1.57. [1] For any connected graph G, no cut vertex of

G belongs to any minimum geodetic set of G.

Theorem 1.1.58. [1] For a connected graph G, g(G) = 2 if and

only if there exist peripheral vertices u and v such that every vertex

of G is on a diametral path joining u and v.

Theorem 1.1.59. [18] Every cut vertex of a connected graph G

belongs to every connected geodetic set of G.

Theorem 1.1.60. [18] Let G be a connected graph of order p ≥ 2.

Then G = K2 if and only if gc (G) = 2.

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Definition 1.1.61. [11] A set of vertices S in a graph G is called a

dominating set if every vertex in v ∈ V is either an element of S or is

adjacent to an element of S. Thus, N [S] = V (G). The domination

number γ(G) of G is the minimum cardinality of a dominating set

in G. A dominating set with cardinality γ(G) is called a γ-set of G.

Definition 1.1.62. [16] A dominating set D is a connected domi-

nating set if it induces a connected subgraph in G. The minimum

of the cardinalities of the connected dominating sets of G is termed

as the connected domination number γc (G) of G. A connected dom-

inating set with cardinality γc (G) is called a γc -set of G.

Definition 1.1.63. [11] A dominating set S of G is called a minimal

dominating set if no proper subset of S is a dominating set of G. The

upper domination number Γ(G) of G is the maximum cardinality

of a minimal dominating set of G. A minimal dominating set of

cardinality Γ(G) is called a Γ-set of G.

Definition 1.1.64. [7] If G is a graph and X a subset of V (G),

then we call a set D ⊆ V (G) an X-dominating set of a connected

graph G if X ⊆ N [D]. The X-domination number γX (G) is the

cardinality of a minimum X-dominating set of G.

Example 1.1.65. For the graph G given in Figure 1.2, S1 = {v1 , v4 },

S2 = {v2 , v4 }, S3 = {v2 , v3 }, S4 = {v2 , v5 } and S5 = {v1 , v3 , v5 } are

minimal dominating sets of G, so γ(G) = 2 and Γ(G) = 3. Also, it

14
is clear that S1 = {v2 , v3 } and S2 = {v2 , v5 } are minimum connected

dominating sets of G. So that γc (G) = 2.

v3

v2
v1 v4

v5
Figure 1.2: G

Theorem 1.1.66. [11, 16, 18] For a connected graph G,

(i). gc (G) ≥ 1 + diam(G).

l m
diam(G)+1
(ii). γc (G) ≥ γ(G) ≥ 3 .

Definition 1.1.67. [12, 17] The Cartesian product of two graphs

G and H, denoted G×H, is the graph with vertex set V (G)×V (H)

specified by putting (u1 , v1 ) adjacent to (u2 , v2 ) if and only if u1 = u2

and v1 v2 ∈ E(H), or v1 = v2 and u1 u2 ∈ E(G). For ui ∈ V (G), set

Hi = {ui } × H is a layer of H and for vj ∈ V (H), set Gj = G × {vj }

is a layer of G in G × H. The Cartesian product Pi × Pj of Pi and

Pj is called a grid graph.

Definition 1.1.68. [20] The mappings πG : (u, v) 7→ u and πH :

(u, v) 7→ v from V (G × H) onto G and H, respectively, are called

projections.

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Definition 1.1.69. [6] The k-dimensional cube or hypercube or

k-cube Qk is the simple graph whose vertices are the k-tuples with

entries in {0, 1} and whose edges are the pairs of k-tuples that differ

in exactly one position. Thus hypercube Qk is a k-regular bipar-

tite graph with |V (Qk )| = 2k and |E(Qk )| = k.2k−1 . Also, the

diam(Qk ) = k. The k-cube Qk is defined recursively by Q1 = K2

and Qk = K2 × Qk−1 for all k ≥ 2.

Theorem 1.1.70. [22] Let G = (V, E) be the Cartesian product

G1 × G2 of connected graphs G1 = (V1 , E1 ) and G2 = (V2 , E2 ).

(i). If a = (a1 , a2 ), b = (b1 , b2 ) ∈ V , then IG [a, b] = IG1 [a1 , b1 ] ×

IG2 [a2 , b2 ].

(ii). If S ⊆ V , then I[S] ⊆ I[S1 ] × I[S2 ].

Definition 1.1.71. [3] The strong product G ⊗ H of graphs G

and H is the graph with the vertex set V (G) × V (H) in which

two distinct vertices (u1 , v1 ) and (u2 , v2 ) are adjacent whenever (1)

u1 = u2 and v1 v2 ∈ E(H), or (2) v1 = v2 and u1 u2 ∈ E(G), or (3)

u1 u2 ∈ E(G) and v1 v2 ∈ E(H).

Theorem 1.1.72. [21] Let G and H be connected graphs. Then

Ext(G ⊗ H) = Ext(G) × Ext(H).

Theorem 1.1.73. [3] Let G and H be graphs and (g, h), (g ′ , h′ ) ∈

V (G ⊗ H). Then, dG⊗H ((g, h), (g ′ , h′ )) = max{dG (g, g ′ ), dH (h, h′ )},

16
and consequently diam(G ⊗ H) = max{diam(G), diam(H)}.

Theorem 1.1.74. [3] Let G and H be graphs and (g, h), (g ′ , h′ ) ∈

V (G ⊗ H) such that dG⊗H ((g, h), (g ′ , h′ )) = dG (g, g ′ ), then the pro-

jection of the vertices of a (g, h) − (g ′ , h′ ) geodesic in G ⊗ H on to

G is a g − g ′ geodesic in G.

Theorem 1.1.75. [20] Let G and H be connected graphs and P

be a (u, v) − (u′ , v ′ ) geodesic in G ⊗ H of length n. If dG (u, u′ ) ≥

dH (v, v ′ ), then πG (P ) is a u − u′ geodesic in G of length n, and if

dG (u, u′ ) ≤ dH (v, v ′ ), then πH (P ) is a v − v ′ geodesic in H of length

n.

Theorem 1.1.76. [20] Let G and H be connected graphs and S

be a geodetic set of G ⊗ H. Then, πG (S) is a geodetic set of G or

πH (S) is a geodetic set of H.

Theorem 1.1.77. [20] Let G and H be connected graphs and S

be a geodetic set of G ⊗ H. If Ext(G) 6= φ, then πH (S) is a geodetic

set of H.

Theorem 1.1.78. [3] Let S1 ⊆ V (G) and S2 ⊆ V (H) for graphs

G and H, then IG [S1 ] × IH [S2 ] ⊆ IG⊗H [S1 × S2 ].

Theorem 1.1.79. [3, 20] Let S1 ⊆ V (G) and S2 ⊆ V (H) for graphs

G and H. If S1 and S2 are geodetic sets of G and H, respectively,

then S1 × S2 is a geodetic set of G ⊗ H.

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Theorem 1.1.80. [20] Let G and H be non-trivial connected

graphs. Then g(G ⊗ H) ≥ 4.

Theorem 1.1.81. [23] For any m, n ≥ 2, if S1 and S2 are domi-

nating sets of minimum cardinality in Pm and Pn , respectively, then

S1 × S2 is a dominating set of minimum cardinality in Pm ⊗ Pn .

Theorem 1.1.82. [10] A tree with p ≥ 3 has diameter 2 if and

only if it is a star.

18