PHYS 1201: GENERAL

PHYSICS II
Electricity and Magnetism

M.H. Banda

bandajoelo@gmail.com

Department of Physics and Electronics

Mzuzu University

October 24, 2020

 Electric charges
Properties of electric charges

▶ Electric charge comes in two types, referred to as positive and negative.

▶ The SI unit of electric charge is the coulomb, C.

Properties of electric charges

1. Like charges repel one another; unlike charges attract.

2. The total charge in an isolated system is conserved.

3. Charge comes in discrete, quantized units of magnitude e = 1.6 × 10−19 C.

▶ The charge of an electron is −e, and the charge of a proton is +e.

 Insulators and conductors

▶ An insulator does not allow electrons within it to move from atom to atom.

▶ In conductors, each atom gives up one or more electrons that are then free to
move throughout the material.

▶ Semiconductors have properties that are intermediate between those of insu-

lators and conductors.
 Electrostatics
Coulomb’s law

Coulomb’s law in vector form

▶ The electric force exerted by a point charge q1 on a
second point charge q2 is
q1 q2 ⃗
F12 = ke r̂12 (3.1)
r2
where r is the distance between the two charges,
r̂12 is a unit vector directed from q1 toward q2 , and
ke is a constant.
 Electrostatics
Coulomb’s law: Magnitude of electric force

▶ It follows from (3.1) that the magnitude of electric force exerted by one point
charge q1 on another point charge q2 is given by

|q1 ||q2 |
Fe = k e . (3.2)
r2

▶ The constant ke (otherwise known as the Coulomb constant) appearing in

Equations (3.1) and (3.2) is given by
1
ke = . (3.3)
4πε0

where the constant ε0 = 8.8542 × 10−12 C2 /N m2 is known as the permit-

tivity of free space.
▶ Therefore, the Coulomb constant has the value ke = 8.9876 × 109 N m2 /C2 .
 Electrostatics
Coulomb’s law: Superposition of forces

Superposition of forces
▶ The electric force on one charge due to two or more other charges is the
vector sum of each individual force.

Examples
▶ On Coulomb’s law, see Examples 23.1 through 23.4 in Serway 9th Ed.
 Electrostatics
Electric field

▶ The electric field E at some point in space is the electric force Fe that acts
on a small positive test charge placed at that point divided by the magnitude
q0 of the test charge:
Fe
E= (3.4)
q0

▶ If a charge q is placed in an electric field E, it experiences an electric force

given by
Fe = qE (3.5)
 Electrostatics
Electric field: Electric field of a point charge

Electric field of a point charge

▶ At a distance r from a point charge q, the
electric field due to the charge is
q
E = ke r̂ (3.6)
r2
where r̂ is a unit vector directed from the
charge toward the point in question.

▶ The electric field is directed radially out-

ward from a positive charge and radially in-
ward toward a negative charge.
 Electrostatics
Electric field: Superposition of electric fields of points charges

Superposition of electric fields of point charges

▶ The total electric field due to two or more charges is given by the vector sum
of the fields due to each charge individually:
X qi
E = ke r̂i (3.7)
i
ri2

where ri is the distance from the ith source charge qi to the point in question
and ri is a unit vector directed from qi toward the point in question.
 Electrostatics
Electric field: Electric field lines

▶ The electric field can be visualized by drawing lines according to a given set
of rules.

Rules for drawing electric field lines

▶ Electric field lines have the following properties:

1. They point in the direction of the electric field vector E at every point.

2. They start at positive (+) charges or at infinity.

3. They end at negative (−) charges or at infinity.

4. They are more dense where E has a greater magnitude. In particular,

the number of lines entering or leaving a charge is proportional to the
magnitude of the charge.
 Electrostatics
Electric filed lines...

Figure 1: Electric field lines for systems of charges (a) Field lines for a dipole. (b) Some
field lines extend to infinity, in a system with a net charge. If the charges have opposite
signs, some field lines start on one charge and terminate on the other charge. (c) All of the
field lines in a system with charges of the same sign extend to infinity.
 Electrostatics
Electric Field: Motion of charged particle in uniform electric field

▶ Recall that when a particle of charge q and mass m is placed in an electric

field E, it experiences an electric force Fe = qE.
▶ If that is the only force exerted on the particle, it must be the net force, and
it causes the particle to accelerate:

qE
Fe = qE = ma ⇒ a= (3.8)
m

▶ If E is uniform, the particle moves with constant acceleration.

▶ If the particle has a positive charge, its acceleration is in the direction of the
electric field and vice versa.
Examples
▶ On Electric field, see Examples 23.5 and 23.6; 23.10 and 23.11 in Serway
9th Ed.
 Gauss’s law
Electric flux

▶ The electric flux through a surface is the amount of

electric field that pierces the surface.

▶ The area vector dA for an area element (patch ele-

ment) on a surface is a vector that is perpendicular
to the element and has a magnitude equal to the area
dA of the element.

▶ The electric flux dΦE through a patch element with

area vector dA is given by a dot product:

dΦE = E · dA (4.1)
 Gauss’s law
Electric flux...

▶ The total flux through a flat surface is given by

Z
ΦE = E · dA (4.2)
surface

▶ If the electric field is uniform and makes an angle θ with the normal to
a surface of area A, the electric flux through the surface is given by

ΦE = EA cos θ. (4.3)

▶ The net flux through a closed surface is given by

I
ΦE = E · dA (4.4)
 Gauss’s law
Electric flux...

Negative, positive and zero flux

▶ An inward piercing field is negative flux.

▶ An outward piercing field is positive.

▶ A skimming field is zero flux.

Example
▶ On electric flux, see Example 24.1 in Serway 9th
Ed.
 Gauss’s law
Gauss’ law of electrostatics

▶ Gauss’s law of electrostatics relates the charge enclosed by a given surface

to the electric flux through the surface.

Gauss’ law of electrostatics

▶ It states that the net electric flux ΦE through any closed surface is equal to
the net charge qin inside the surface divided by ε0 :
qin
ΦE = .
ε0

▶ Gauss’s law, can be used to calculate the electric field due to various sym-
metric charge distributions.

Examples
On Gauss’ Law, see Examples 24.2 in Serway 9th Ed.
 Electric potential
Electric potential energy

▶ The electric force is conservative, just like the

force of gravity.
▶ As a result, there is a potential energy U associ-
ated with the electric force.
▶ The change in electric potential energy is de-
fined by ∆U = −W , where W is the work done
by the electric field.
▶ When a positive charge q is moved between
points A and B in an electric field E, the change
in the potential energy is given by
Z B
∆U = −q E · ds (5.1)
A
 Electric potential
Electric potential and potential difference

▶ Electric potential, V is defined as the electric potential energy per charge.

U
V = (5.2)
q

▶ The potential difference between two points A and B is defined to be

Z B
∆U
∆V = =− E · ds (5.3)
q A

▶ The potential difference between two points A and B in a uniform electric

field, is given by
Z B
∆V = −E · ds = −E · s (5.4)
A
where s is the displacement vector.
 Electric potential
Potential difference in a uniform electric field

▶ The potential difference between two points separated by a distance d in a

uniform electric field E is
∆V = −Ed (5.5)
if the direction of travel between the points is in the same direction as the
electric field.
 Electric potential
Electric potential and potential energy of point charges

▶ The electric potential for a point charge q at a distance r is

q
V = ke (5.6)
r

▶ The electric potential of two or more point charges is given by

X qi
V = ke (5.7)
i
ri

▶ The electric potential energy of a pair of point charges q1 and q2 separated

by a distance r12 is
q1 q2
U = ke (5.8)
r12
 Electric potential
Obtaining value of electric field from electric potential

▶ If the electric potential is known as a function of coordinates x, y, and z,

the components of the electric field can be obtained by taking the negative
derivative of the electric potential with respect to the coordinates.

▶ For example, the x component of the electric field is

dV
Ex = − (5.9)
dx
 Electric potential
Equipotential surfaces and the electric field

▶ Equipotential surfaces are defined as surfaces on

which the electric potential is constant.
▶ Different equipotential surfaces correspond to dif-
ferent values of the potential.
▶ The electric field is always perpendicular to the
equipotential surfaces, and it points in the direction
of decreasing electric potential.

Examples
▶ On Electric potential, see Examples 25.1 through
25.3 in Serway 9th Ed.
Capacitance and dielectrics
Definition of capacitance

▶ A capacitor is a device that stores electric

charge.
▶ Basically, a capacitor comprises of of two con-
ductors called plates.
▶ If the conductors carry charges of equal mag-
nitude and opposite sign, a potential difference
∆V exists between them.
▶ The capacitance C of a capacitor is defined as
the ratio of the magnitude of the charge on ei-
ther conductor to the magnitude of the potential
difference between the plates:
Q
C= (6.1)
∆V
 Capacitance and dielectrics
Calculating capacitance

▶ The capacitance of a particular capacitor configuration is generally deter-

mined by:
1. Assuming a charge Q to have been placed on the plates.

2. Finding the electric field due to this charge.

3. Evaluating the potential difference ∆V between the plates.

4. Calculating C from Q = C∆V .

 Capacitance and dielectrics
Calculating capacitance...

Parallel plate, cylindrical, and spherical capacitors

▶ A parallel-plate capacitor with flat parallel plates of area A and spacing d has
capacitance:
ε0 A
C= (6.2)
d

▶ A cylindrical capacitor (two long coaxial cylinders) of length L and radii a

and b has capacitance:
2πε0 L
C= (6.3)
ln(b/a)

▶ A spherical capacitor with concentric spherical plates of radii a and b has

capacitance:
4πε0 ab
C= (6.4)
b−a
 Capacitance and dielectrics
Combinations of capacitors

Parallel combination
▶ If two or more capacitors are connected in parallel, the potential difference
is the same across all capacitors.
▶ The equivalent capacitance of a parallel combination of capacitors is given
by
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + ... (6.5)

Series combination
▶ If two or more capacitors are connected in series, the charge is the same on
all capacitors.
▶ The equivalent capacitance of the series combination is given by

1 1 1 1
= + + + ... (6.6)
Ceq C1 C2 C3
 Capacitance and dielectrics
Energy stored in a charged capacitor

▶ A capacitor, in addition to storing charge, stores electrical energy.

▶ The energy stored in a capacitor of capacitance C with charge Q and poten-

tial difference ∆V is
1 1 Q2
UE = Q∆V = C(∆V )2 = (6.7)
2 2 2C

▶ The energy density (energy per unit volume ) in an electric field is given by

1
uE = ε0 E 2 (6.8)
2
Capacitance and dielectrics
Capacitors with dielectrics

▶ A dielectric is an insulating material that increases

the capacitance of a capacitor.

▶ When a dielectric material is inserted between the

plates of a capacitor, the capacitance increases by
a dimensionless factor κ, called the dielectric con-
stant:
C = κC0 (6.9)
where C0 is the capacitance in the absence of the
dielectric.
Current and resistance
Electric current

▶ The electric current I in a conductor is defined as

dQ
I= (7.1)
dt
where dQ is the charge that passes through a cross
section of the conductor in a time interval dt.
▶ The average current is defined by

∆Q
Iavg = (7.2)
∆t

▶ By convention, the direction of electric current is

taken as the direction in which positive charge car-
riers would move even though (normally) only con-
duction electrons can move.
Current and resistance
Electric current...

Microscopic model of current

▶ Consider a segment of a uniform cylindrical con-
ductor of cross-sectional area A in which a current
is flowing.
▶ If n is number of charge carriers per volume, then
the number of charge carriers in a segment ∆x of a
wire is nA∆x.
▶ If each charge carrier carries charge q, then the total
charge in the segment ∆x is ∆Q = nAq∆x.
 Current and resistance
Electric current...

Microscopic model of current...

▶ If the carriers move with a drift velocity vd parallel to the axis of the cylinder,
the magnitude of the displacement they experience in a time interval ∆t is
∆x = vd ∆t. Therefore, the average current in the conductor is

∆Q nAqvd ∆t
Iavg = = = nAqvd (7.3)
∆t ∆t
 Current and resistance
Current density

▶ The current density J in the conductor is the current per unit area:

I
J= (7.4)
A

▶ Because the current I = nqAvd , the current density is

nqAvd
J= = nqvd (7.5)
A

▶ For many materials, the current density is proportional to the electric field:

J = σE (7.6)

where the constant of proportionality σ is called the conductivity of the

conductor. Equation (7.6) is Ohm’s law.
Current and resistance
Resistance and Ohm’s law

▶ Consider a segment of straight wire of uniform

cross-sectional area A and length l.
▶ If the electric field established by the potential dif-
ference ∆V = Vb − Va is uniform, the magnitude
of the potential difference across the wire is related
to the E-filed by

∆V ∆V
E= ⇒ J =σ (7.7)
l l

▶ It follows that
 
l l
∆V = J= I = RI (7.8)
σ σA
 Current and resistance
Resistance and Ohm’s law...

▶ The quantity R = l/σA is called the resistance of the conductor.

▶ Resistance is defined as the ratio of the potential difference across a conduc-
tor to the current in the conductor:
∆V
R= (7.9)
I

▶ Resistivity ρ of a material is the inverse of conductivity:

1
ρ= (7.10)
σ

▶ Therefore, resistance of a uniform block of material along the length l can

be expressed as
l
R=ρ (7.11)
A
 Current and resistance
Resistance and Ohm’s law...

▶ Ohm’s law can be stated as follows:

Ohm’s law
For many materials, the ratio of the current density to the electric field (or the
ratio of the electric field to the current density) is a constant.

Ohm’s law
The current through a device is always directly proportional to the potential
difference applied to the device.
 Current and resistance
Resistance and temperature

▶ The resistivity of a conductor varies approximately linearly with temperature

according to the expression

ρ = ρ0 [1 + α(T − T0 )] (7.12)

where ρ0 is the resistivity at some reference temperature T0 and α is the

temperature coefficient of resistivity.
▶ Therefore, resistance of a conductor can be expressed as

R = R0 [1 + α(T − T0 )] (7.13)

where R0 is the resistance at temperature T0 .

Current and resistance
Electrical power

▶ If a potential difference ∆ is maintained across a

circuit element, the power, or rate at which energy
is supplied to the element, is

P = I∆V (7.14)

▶ Because the potential difference across a resistor is

given by ∆V = IR, the power delivered to a resis-
tor can be expressed as

(∆V )2
P = I 2R = (7.15)
R
Direct-current circuits
Electromotive force
▶ The emf E of a battery is the maximum possible
voltage the battery can provide between its termi-
nals.
▶ A real battery has internal resistance r and when it is
in a circuit in which there is a current I, its terminal
voltage ∆V is given by

∆V = E − Ir (8.1)

▶ An idealized battery has zero internal resistance and

so its terminal voltage equals its emf.
▶ For a real battery in a circuit in which there is a cur-
rent I, the terminal voltage ∆V must equal the po-
tential difference across the external/load resistance
R and so
E = IR + Ir (8.2)
 Direct-current circuits
Electromotive force...
▶ Solving Equation (8.2) for the current gives

E
I= (8.3)
R+r

▶ Equation (8.3) shows that the current in this simple circuit depends on both
the load resistance R and the internal resistance r.
▶ If R is much greater than r, as it is in many real-world circuits, we can
neglect r.
▶ Multiplying Equation (8.2) by the current I in the circuit gives

IE = I 2 R + I 2 r (8.4)

▶ Equation (8.4) indicates that because power P = I∆V , the total power out-
put IE associated with the emf of the battery is delivered to the external load
resistance in the amount I 2 R and to the internal resistance in the amount I 2 r.
 Direct-current circuits
Combinations of resistors
Series combination
▶ If two or more resistors are connected in series, the current is the same
through all resistors.
▶ The equivalent resistance of a set of resistors connected in series is

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... (8.5)

Parallel combination
▶ If two or more resistors are connected in parallel, the potential difference is
the same across all resistors.
▶ The equivalent resistance of a set of resistors connected in parallel is found
from the relationship
1 1 1 1
= + + + ... (8.6)
Req R1 R2 R3
 Direct-current circuits
Kirchhoff’s laws

▶ Circuits involving more than one loop are conveniently analyzed with the use
of Kirchhoff’s rules:

Junction rule (charge conservation)

▶ At any junction, the sum of the currents must equal zero:
X
I=0 (8.7)
junction

Loop rule (energy conservation)

▶ The sum of the potential differences across all elements around any circuit
loop must be zero:
X
∆V = 0 (8.8)
closed loop
Direct-current circuits
Kirchhoff’s laws...

▶ The following sign conventions apply when

using the loop rule:

1. When a resistor is traversed in the

direction of the current, the potential
difference ∆V across the resistor is −IR.

2. When a resistor is traversed in the

direction opposite the current,
∆V = +IR.

3. When a source of emf is traversed in the

direction of the emf (negative terminal to
positive terminal), the potential difference
is +E.

4. When a source of emf is traversed

opposite the emf (positive to negative), the
potential difference is −E.
Direct-current circuits
RC circuits

▶ A circuit containing a series combination of a resis-

tor and a capacitor is called an RC circuit.

Charging a capacitor
▶ If a capacitor is charged with a battery through a
resistor of resistance R, the charge on the capacitor
and the current in the circuit vary in time according
to the expressions
 
q(t) = Qmax 1 − e−t/RC (8.9)
dq E
i(t) = = e−t/RC (8.10)
dt R
where Qmax = CE is the maximum charge on the
capacitor.
▶ The product RC is called the time constant τ of the
circuit.
Direct-current circuits
RC circuits....

Discharging a capacitor
▶ If a charged capacitor of capacitance C is dis-
charged through a resistor of resistance R, the
charge and current decrease exponentially in time
according to the expressions

q(t) = Qi e−t/RC (8.11)

dq Qi −t/RC
i(t) = =− e (8.12)
dt RC
where Qi is the initial charge on the capacitor and
Qi /RC is the initial current in the circuit.

Examples
▶ On Direct-current circuits, see examples 28.4
through 28.7 and examples 28.9 through 28.10 in
Serway 9th Ed.
Household wiring and electrical safety
Household wiring

▶ In a conventional installation, the utility company

distributes electric power to individual homes (in
parallel) by means of a pair of wires: live wire and
neutral wire.

▶ Figure on the left shows the wiring diagram for a

household circuit.

▶ The appliances that operate with an applied voltage

of 120 V can be connected in a manner indicated by
the resistances in the wiring diagram shown on the
left.
 Household wiring and electrical safety
Electrical safety

▶ When the live wire of an electrical outlet is connected directly to ground, the
circuit is completed and a short-circuit condition exists.

▶ A short circuit occurs when almost zero resistance exists between two points
at different potentials, and the result is a very large current.

▶ When that happens accidentally, a properly operating circuit breaker opens

the circuit and no damage is done.

▶ A person in contact with ground, however, can be electrocuted by touching

the live wire of a worn out cord or other exposed conductor.

▶ This situation should be avoided at all cost.

 Household wiring and electrical safety
Electrical safety...

▶ A safety ground/earth wire that normally carries no current is of much help.

▶ It is both grounded and connected directly to the casing of the appliance.
▶ If the live wire accidentally makes contact with the casing of the appliance,
current can be carried to ground by way of the person, resulting in an electric
shock as shown in Figure below.
 Household wiring and electrical safety
Electrical safety...
▶ Electric shock can be avoided by connecting the appliance’s case to ground
through a third ground/earth wire.
▶ If the casing of the appliance is connected to the ground through the ground/earth
wire and the live wire is accidentally shorted to the casing, most of the cur-
rent takes the low-resistance path through the appliance to ground as shown
in Figure below.
 Magnetic fields
Magnetic poles and magnetic field lines
▶ The magnetic field, B gives an indication
of the effect a magnet will have in a given
region.
▶ The existence of a magnetic field at some
point in space can be determined by mea-
suring the magnetic force FB exerted on an
appropriate test particle placed at that point.

Magnetic Poles
▶ A magnet is characterized by two poles, re-
ferred to as the north pole and the alertsouth
pole.

Magnetic field lines

▶ Magnetic field lines point away from north
poles and toward south poles, and always
form closed loops.
 Magnetic fields
Properties of magnetic force

Properties that are similar to those of electric force

1. The magnetic force FB is proportional to the charge q of the particle.
2. The magnetic force on a negative charge is directed opposite to the force on
a positive charge moving in the same direction.
3. The magnetic force is proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic field
vector B

Properties totally different from those of electric force

1. The magnetic force is proportional to the speed v of the particle.
2. If the velocity vector makes an angle θ with the magnetic field, the
magnitude of the magnetic force is proportional to sin θ.
3. When a charged particle moves parallel to the magnetic field vector, the
magnetic force on the charge is zero.
4. When a charged particle moves in a direction not parallel to the magnetic
field vector, the magnetic force acts in a direction perpendicular to both v
and B.
 Magnetic fields
Representing vectors perpendicular to a plane

▶ If a vector points out of the plane perpendicularly, we use a dot (•) or a circle
with a dot inside (⊙) to represent it.
▶ If a vector points into the plane perpendicularly, we use a cross (×) or a circle
with a cross inside (⊗) to represent it.
 Magnetic fields
Magnetic force on moving charges
▶ In order for a magnetic field to exert a force on a particle, the particle must
have charge q and must be moving.
▶ The force on a negative charge is in the opposite direction to that on a positive
charge.
▶ The vector expression for the magnetic force on a charged particle moving
in a magnetic field is
FB = qv × B (9.1)
 Magnetic fields
Magnetic force on moving charges...

Magnitude of magnetic force on a moving

charge
▶ The magnitude of the magnetic force on a charged
particle moving in a magnetic field is

FB = |q|vB sin θ (9.2)

where q is the charge of the particle, v is its speed,

B is the magnitude of the magnetic field, and θ is the
angle between the velocity vector v and the mag-
netic field vector B.

▶ This expression shows that FB is zero when v is

parallel or antiparallel to B (θ = 0 or 180◦ ) and
maximum when v is perpendicular to B (θ = 90◦ ).
 Magnetic fields
Magnetic force on moving charges...

Magnetic force right-hand rule 1

▶ For a positive charge, point the fingers of your right hand in the direction of
v and curl them toward the direction of B. Your thumb then points in the
direction of the force FB .
 Magnetic fields
Magnetic force on moving charges...

Magnetic force right-hand rule 2

▶ For a positive charge, point the thumb of your right hand in the direction of v
and the extended fingers in the direction of B. The magnetic force FB on a
positive charge is in the direction you would push with your palm. The force
on a negative charge is in the opposite direction to that on a positive charge.
 Magnetic fields
Motion of charged particles in a magnetic field

Differences between motion in electric and magnetic fields

1. The electric force vector is along the direction of the electric field, whereas
the magnetic force vector is perpendicular to the magnetic field.

2. The electric force acts on a charged particle regardless of whether the

particle is moving, whereas the magnetic force acts on a charged particle
only when the particle is in motion.

3. The electric force does work in displacing a charged particle, whereas the
magnetic force associated with a steady magnetic field does no work when a
particle is displaced because the force is perpendicular to the displacement
of its point of application.
 Magnetic fields
Motion of charged particles in a magnetic field...

Circular motion
▶ When a charged particle moves in a direction per-
pendicular to the magnetic field, at each point on
the particle’s path the magnetic force is at right an-
gles to the velocity and hence toward the center of a
circle.
▶ According to Newton’s second law,

mv 2
FB = ma =
r (9.3)
mv 2
⇒ |q|vB =
r

▶ It follows from Equation 9.3 that

mv
r= (9.4)
|q|B
 Magnetic fields
Motion of charged particles in a magnetic field...

Circular motion...
▶ The angular speed of the particle is

|q|B
ω= (9.5)
m

▶ The period of the motion is equal to the circumference of the circle divided
by the speed of the particle:
2πr
T =
v
2π
⇒ T = (9.6)
ω
2πm
⇒ T =
|q|B
 Magnetic fields
Motion of charged particles in a magnetic field...

Helical motion
▶ If a charged particle moves in a uniform
magnetic field with its velocity at some ar-
bitrary angle with respect to B, its path is a
helix.

▶ The parallel component of the velocity re-

mains constant with time (zero force in this
direction), whereas the perpendicular com-
ponent results in a circular motion, as just
discussed.

▶ Combining the two motions, we can see that

the particle follows a helical path.
 Magnetic fields
Applications involving charged particles moving in a magnetic field

Velocity selector
▶ The total force (called the Lorentz force) acting on
the charge moving with a velocity v in the presence
of both an electric field and a magnetic field is given
by
F = q(E + v × B) (9.7)
.
▶ In a device called a velocity selector, charged par-
ticles move through a region of space with both an
electric and a magnetic field.
▶ If the speed of the particle has a particular value, the
net force acting on it is zero; That is, qE = qvB so
that
E
v= .
B
 Magnetic fields
Magnetic force exerted on a current-carrying wire

Straight wire carries a current I

▶ If a straight wire of length L carries a cur-
rent I, the force exerted on that wire when
it is placed in a uniform magnetic field B is

FB = IL × B (9.8)

where L is a vector that points in the di-

rection of the current I and has a magnitude
equal to the length L of the wire; |L| = L.
▶ The magnitude of this force is

FB = ILB sin θ (9.9)

where θ is the angle between L and B.

 Magnetic fields
Magnetic force exerted on a current-carrying wire...

Arbitrarily shaped wire carrying a

current I
▶ If an arbitrarily shaped wire carrying a cur-
rent I is placed in a magnetic field, the mag-
netic force exerted on a very small segment
ds is
dFB = Ids × B (9.10)

▶ The total FB acting on the wire is found by

integrating over the length of the wire:
Z b
FB = I ds × B (9.11)
a

where a and b represent the endpoints of the

wire.
 Magnetic fields
Loops of current and magnetic torque

▶ Consider a rectangular loop carrying a current I in the presence of a uniform

magnetic field directed parallel to the plane of the loop.
 Magnetic fields
Loops of current and magnetic torque...

▶ The magnitude of F2 is equal to the magni-

tude of F4 ; thus

F2 = F4 = IaB (9.12)

▶ If the loop is pivoted so that it can rotate

about point O, these two forces produce
about O a torque that rotates the loop clock-
wise.
 Magnetic fields
Loops of current and magnetic torque...

▶ The magnitude of this torque τmax is

b b b b
τmax = F2 + F4 = (IaB) + (IaB) = IabB
2 2 2 2
where the moment arm about O is b/a for each force.
▶ Because the area enclosed by the loop is A = ab,
we can express the maximum torque as

τmax = IAB (9.13)

 Magnetic fields
Loops of current and magnetic torque...

▶ A convenient vector expression for the torque exerted on a loop placed in a

uniform magnetic field B is

τ = IA × B (9.14)

where A the vector is perpendicular to the plane of the loop and has a mag-
nitude equal to the area of the loop; |A| = A.
▶ It follows that the magnitude of of the torque exerted on a loop placed in a
uniform magnetic field is
τ = IAB sin θ (9.15)
where θ is the angle between A and B.
▶ The product IA is defined to be the magnetic dipole moment µ (or simply
“magnetic moment”) of the loop: µ of a loop carrying a current I is

µ = IA (9.16)
 Magnetic fields
Loops of current and magnetic torque...
▶ The torque exerted on a current-carrying loop in a magnetic field B can be
expresses in terms of µ as
τ=µ×B (9.17)

▶ If a coil of wire contains N loops of the same area, the magnetic moment of
the coil is
µcoil = N IA (9.18)

▶ Torque exerted on coil of wire of N loops of area A is

τcoil = N µ × B (9.19)
and its magnitude is
τcoil = µcoil B sin θ = N IAB sin θ (9.20)
 Magnetic fields
Loops of current and magnetic torque...

Right-hand rule for determining the direction of A

▶ When you curl the fingers of your right hand in the direction of the current
in the loop, your thumb points in the direction of A.
▶ The direction of the magnetic moment µ is the same as the direction of A.
 Magnetic fields
The Biot–Savart law

▶ The magnetic field set up by a current-carrying conductor can be found from

the Biot–Savart law.
▶ The Biot–Savart law is based on the following experimental observations for
the magnetic field dB at a point P associated with a length element ds of a
wire carrying a steady current I:

1. The vector dB is perpendicular both to s (which

points in the direction of the current) and to the unit
vector r̂ directed from ds toward P .
2. The magnitude of dB is inversely proportional to
r2 , where r is the distance from ds to P .
3. The magnitude of dB is proportional to the current
I and to the magnitude ds of the length element ds.
4. The magnitude of dB is proportional to sin θ,
where θ is the angle between the vectors ds and r̂.
 Magnetic fields
The Biot–Savart law...
▶ The Biot–Savart law states that the magnetic field dB at a point P due to a
length element ds that carries a steady current I is
µ0 Ids × r̂
dB = (9.21)
4π r2
where µ0 = 4π × 10−7 T·m/A is the permeability of free space, r is the
distance from the element to the point P , and r̂ is a unit vector pointing from
ds toward point P .
▶ The total field at P by integrating Equation (9.21) over the entire current
distribution:
ds × r̂
Z
µ0 I
B= (9.22)
4π r2
▶ It can be shown using Biot–Savart law (see Example 30.1 in Serway, 9th Ed.)
that the magnitude of the magnetic field at a distance a from an infinitely
long, straight wire carrying an electric current I is
µ0 I
B= (9.23)
2πa
 Magnetic fields
The Biot–Savart law...

Forces between current carrying wires

▶ The magnetic force per unit length between two parallel
wires separated by a distance a and carrying currents I1
and I2 has a magnitude
FB µ0 I1 I2
= (9.24)
ℓ 2πa
▶ The force is attractive if the currents are in the same di-
rection and repulsive if they are in opposite directions.
▶ The force between two parallel wires is used to define
the ampere.
Definition of the ampere
▶ When the magnitude of the force per unit length between two
long, parallel wires that carry identical currents and are sep-
arated by 1 m is 2 × 10−7 N/m, the current in each wire is
defined to be 1 A.
 Bibliography

Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (2014). Fundamentals of Physics. John Wiley &

Sons, 10 edition.
Serway, R. A. and Jewett, J. W. (2014). Physics for Scientists and Engineers with
Modern Physics. Brooks/Cole, 9 edition.
Walker, J. S. (2016). Physics. Pearson Addison-Wesley, 5 edition.