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Electric Power Distribution System Reliability

EPM 456
1.1 Introduction

The primary purpose of an electricity distribution system is to meet the

customer’s demands for energy after receiving the bulk electrical energy from
transmission or sub transmission substation. There are basically two major types
of distribution substations: primary substation and customer substation. The
primary substation serves as a load center and the customer substation interfaces to
the Low Voltage (LV) network. Customer substation is referred to a distribution
room normally provided by the customer. The distribution room can accommodate
a number of High Voltage (HV) switchgear panel and the transformer to enable LV
connection to the customer incoming switchboard. Protection and monitoring
equipment are provided to enable effective operation of the distribution network.

Depending on the geographical location, the distribution network can be in

the form of overhead lines or underground cables. Cables are commonly used in
the urban areas and overhead lines are adopted for rural areas. Different network
configurations are possible in order to meet the required supply reliability. So,
it will be an action plan to optimize system reliability.

Planning of the distribution network is essential to enable the required

demand can be met and based on various forecast loading and supply reliability.

One of the principle purposes of electric utility is to minimize the

probability of load curtailment during the contingencies. This purpose must be
accomplished by the appropriate remedial actions against these
contingencies. Reliability analysis is an automated extension of the
contingency evaluation as a network reliability assessment is commonly
performed to measure or inspect the influence of equipment unavailability on
the system reliability in economic terms in order to calculate the annual
interruptions costs, and hence, to compare all of the proposed alternative
schemes. The results of this assessment are used to justify the investments of
new lines and new transformers in the network upgrades.
Increasing excessive paths in transmission networks have constantly
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been believed to be a good scheme to improve the service reliability.

Nonetheless, network overlapping equations by power flows force more system
constraints. Likewise, autonomous removing of a couple of lines might reduce the
limitsviolation in some contingencies thereby improving service reliability.

1.1 Electric Power System

1.1.1 Electric Power System Planning

An electric power system is a network of electrical components used to

supply, transmit, and use electric power. The basic function is to supply customers
with electricity while maintaining acceptable levels of quality and continuity of
supply. The production of electric energy must be continuous and be able to satisfy
the consumption rates at all times. It is therefore necessary to plan generation
capacity with adequate reserve to meet the load demand. The continuity of energy
supply can be increased by improved system structure, increased investment during
the planning phase, operating phase or both.

The system reliability can be increased with an increase in investment in the

planning and operating phases by improving the existing system and development
of new infrastructure. Over-investment can lead to excessive operating costs,
which must be reflected in the tariff structure. Consequently, the economic
constraint will be violated, although the probability of the system being inadequate
may become very small. On the other hand, under-investment leads to the opposite
situation. It is evident therefore that the reliability and economic constraints can
compete, and this can lead to difficult managerial decision at both the planning and
operating phases.

1.1.2 Power System Reliability

In general, the word of reliability is defined by the International Electro

technical Commission (IEC) as the ability of a component or a system to
perform its required function under a given operating condition for a
specified period of time. In this context, the term “power system reliability”
can be defined as a measure of the ability of the system to provide customers
with an acceptable level of quality, adequacy and continuity of supply of
electricity.
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It should be noted that the definition of reliability may vary from different
perspectives. The two main perspectives for reliability consideration in a power
system are customer perspective of quality and continuity of service and utility
perspective of achieving an acceptable level of system reliability as shown in
Figure (1).

Figure (1): Reliability concepts from different perspectives.

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The customers care about quality of service and being able to use their
appliances any time needed during a day. Therefore any interruption in service is
undesirable from the customer’s perspective. The utility’s perspective of reliability
considers both the service reliability at the load points and reliability of the supply
side which may include the reliability of generation, transmission and distribution
assets.

Reliability studies and the development of reliability models and tools are
important activities in the design, operation, and planning of reliable power
systems. It is important to create ways to evaluate power system reliability in order
to minimize non-continuity in service and interruptions in the electric supply. In
field of power system, such evaluation can be defined as analyzing the ability of
the system to satisfy the load requirements.

Figure (2) shows the two main types of system reliability evaluation categories
which are related to system adequacy and system security.

Figure (2): System reliability evaluation categories.

Power system adequacy is the capability of the system to supply a

sufficient amount of energy to its customers at all times considering scheduled
and unscheduled outages of the elements.

System adequacy relates to the existence of necessary generation,

transmission, and distribution facilities within the system to satisfy the customer
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requirements. Adequacy is therefore operated with static/steady state conditions

and does not include disturbances that occur during the operation of the
system. These disturbances are in the system security domain. Most of the
probabilistic techniques are developed for the system adequacy assessment.
System adequacy is usually associated with system planning for both long and
short terms, but is also very important in system operation.

Power system security is the ability of the system to respond and

withstand the disturbances arising within the system without causing
widespread cascading events. System security is concerned with both system
planning and operation.

System adequacy precedes system security. Satisfactory system security

cannot be obtained without acceptable system adequacy.
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1.1.3 Power System Hierarchical Levels

The reliability analysis is an essential study for the design, operation, and
planning of the power system. Electric power system is categorized into the three
segments or functional zones of generation, transmission and distribution. In order
to study the reliability of a power system, three hierarchical levels have been
defined as shown in Figure (3). It is necessary to ensure a reasonable balance in
the reliability of these various segments. System adequacy analysis is usually
conducted in each of the three functional zones or in the three hierarchical levels.

Figure (3): Hierarchical levels in a power system.

The reliability of the power generation system is studied through
Hierarchical Level One (HL1). Reliability assessment at HL1 is associated only
with the generation facilities to meet the customer demand. Transmission and
distribution facilities are not included in this assessment at this level. HL1 is also
known as “generating capacity reliability evaluation” due to the system
generation is analyzed to determine its ability to meet the total system load
requirements considering corrective and protective measures taken of the
generating units.
The basic adequacy indices in this level are Loss Of Load Expectation
(LOLE), Loss Of Energy Expectation (LOEE), Expected Failure Frequency (FF)
and Expected Failure Duration (FD) [40]. These indices are defined as follows:
 LOLE: Expected number of days (or hours) per year in which available
capacity is less than the daily peak load (or hourly load).
 LOEE: Expected energy not supplied by the generation system due to the
load demand exceeding the available generating capacity.
 FF and FD: Expected frequency of capacity shortage events in a year and
expected duration of a shortage event.
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The reliability of a composite generation and transmission system is

studied through Hierarchical Level Two (HL2). Reliability assessment at HL2 is
associated and operated with the ability of generation and transmission facilities to
deliver energy to the bulk supply points. HL2 is also known as “composite system
or bulk transmission system evaluation”.

Finally, the reliability of the whole system including generation,

transmission, and distribution system is evaluated using hierarchical level three
(HL3). Due to the complexity of a practical power system, assessment in this level
is not performed by the three functional zones; instead, the distribution system
which receives its reliability data from the load point indices of HL2 is evaluated.
The most important indices in this level are System Average Interruption Duration
Index (SAIDI), System Average Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI) and
Customer Average Interruption Duration Index (CAIDI).

1.2 Electric Distribution System

An electric power distribution system is the final stage in the electrical
power system and links the bulk electric system to the customers.
Distribution of electric power is done by distribution networks which consist
of distribution substations, primary distribution feeder, secondary substations
(distribution transformers), service mains or lateral distributors. Figure (4)
shows a simplified drawing of a distribution system in an overall electric power
system.
Generation Substation: The place where electric power produced by
parallel connected three phase alternators/generators is called Generating Plant.
The ordinary generating voltage may be 11 kV, 11.5 kV, 12 kV, 15.75 kV (High
Dam Substation), 15.75 kV (Gas Turbines Nubra Substation) or 19.5 kV (Steam
Turbines Nubra Substation). But economically, it is good to step up the produced
voltage to 132 kV, 220 kV or 500 kV by generating step up power transformers
which are placed in a Generating substation.
Primary Transmission System: The electric supply is transmitting to load
center by overhead transmission system/lines. (Hint: High Voltage (HV) ratings
such as 132 kV in South Upper Egypt and 220 kV in Great Cairo, Sinai, East and
West Delta and also Extra High Voltage (EHV) of 500 kV from Aswan to Cairo).
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Figure (4): An overall electric power system and its distribution system.
Transmission substation: A transmission substation connects two or more
transmission lines. It may have transformers to convert between two transmission
voltages, voltage control/power factor correction devices such as capacitors,
reactors or static VAR compensators and equipment such as phase shifting
transformers to control power flow between two adjacent power systems.
Distribution substations: transfer power from the transmission system to
the distribution system of an area. These substations are connected to the sub-
transmission system in order to reduce the transmission HV to medium voltage
ranging between 1 kV and 35 kV according to IEC (Hint: The standard ratings are:
11 kV and 22 kV in Egypt) with the use of transformers. Distribution substations
convert energy to lower primary system voltages for local distribution and usually
provide facilities for voltage regulation of the primary voltage.
Feeder feeds power from one point to another without being tapped from
any intermediate point. A primary distribution feeder in Egypt usually operates in
the range of 22 kV to 11 kV and supplies the load in well-defined geographical
areas. These feeders carry power from the main distribution substation to the
secondary substation.
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Secondary substation is located near to its customer. Distribution

transformers are mainly three phase pole mounted type and often installed on poles
or on pads or near the consumer sites and transform the primary voltage to the
secondary voltage. The secondary of the distribution transformer is connected to
the distributors and finally different customers are fed electric power by means of
the service main which is tapped from the different points of distributors. Service
lines deliver energy from secondary circuits of distribution transformer to
consumer premises at the required voltage level. A lateral distributor supplies
power to individual customers.

A circuit breaker is usually present in the main feeder to detect the fault in
any part of the system and to protect the overall system from the damaged fault.
Manual sectionalizing equipment such as disconnects or isolators are also installed
at strategic locations on the main feeder for isolating the faulted sections and
restoring supply to the healthy sections. The time required performing isolation
and switching actions while a faulted component is being repaired is known as the
restoration time. Fuses are usually present in the lateral distributors at the junction
where they meet the main feeder to isolate the failures in the lateral sections from
rest of the main section.

1.2.1 Distribution System Configurations

The reliability from one electrical system to another is different in its

evaluation according to the shape of the system connection. Distribution system
configurations have two main classifications which are Radial Distribution System
(RDS) and open ring system (meshed or parallel distribution system).

1.2.1.1 Radial Distribution System

It is important to note that the distribution system is a vital link between the
bulk power system and its customer. In many cases, these links are radial. A radial
distribution system consists of series components, including lines, disconnects (or
isolators) and bus bars. A radial distribution circuit generally uses main feeders
and lateral distributors to supply energy requirements. Failure of any of these
components will cause an outage of service at the load points for all the system.
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The reliability of this system is affected by the type of protection such as the
fuse gear which install at tee-point in each lateral distributors to isolate failures on
the lateral sections from the main feeders and disconnects or isolators at judicious
points along the main feeder. The characteristics of RDS shown in Figure (5) are
series, low cost, simple design and lower reliability systems which only contain
one source of supply to feed the load points.

Figure (5): Single source radial power distribution system.

1.2.1.2 Open Ring Distribution System

A system which is operated as single radial feeder systems by using

normally open points (sectionalizer switch open) in the mesh but with two or more
supplies of power. The purpose of these normally open points is to reduce the
amount of equipment exposed to failure on any single feeder circuit. In the event of
a system failure or during scheduled maintenance periods, the normally open
points can be closed and another opened in order to minimize the total load that
disconnected. This maintains a high reliability level of power supply to the
customers. In this course, the reliability evaluation techniques are applied on such
this system. A simple example of a ring system is shown in Figure (6).

Figure (6): Sectionalized loop configuration with three secondary

substations per section.
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1.2.2 Distribution System Reliability

In the past, the distribution segment of a power system received

considerably less attention in terms of reliability planning compared to generation
and transmission segments. The basic reason behind this is the fact that generation
and transmission segments are very capital intensive, and outages in these
segments can cause widespread catastrophic economic consequences for society.
Electric power distribution systems constitute the greatest risk to the
interruption of power supply, where it has been reported that more than 80% of all
customer interruptions occur due to failures in the distribution system. Therefore
distribution systems reliability becomes more interested today’s to ensure
appropriate system reliability levels and to provide effective information for
regulatory agencies to set proper benchmarks in the deregulated environment.
The result of performing the reliability study is illustrated by reliability
indices. The reliability indices, which are the numerical parameters, reflect the
capability of the system to provide the customers by acceptable level of supply.

1.2.3 Distribution System Reliability Evaluation

Analysis of past performance and prediction of future performance are two

crucial factors of distribution system reliability evaluation. The practical
applications of these techniques, however, are not as extensive. Reliability
evaluation of a distribution system is associated with the continuity of supply of
energy from the bulk supply points to the individual customer load points. The
reliability of a distribution system can be described using two sets of reliability
parameters. These are the load point reliability indices and the system
reliability indices.

The load point failure rate ( λj), average outage time (𝑟j) and average
annual outage time (𝑈j) are the basic load point indices. The system reliability
indices can be obtained from the basic load point indices and information on the
number of customers and load connected at each load point in the system.
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1.2.3.1 Load Point Reliability Indices

A distribution system provides power supply from a substation to individual

customer load points. Three basic reliability indices can be used to describe the
degree of reliability and service continuity.

The component reliability data of failure rate ( λ i), outage time (𝑟i) can be
used to determine the reliability indices for the load points through Minimal Cut
Sets (MCSs). The load point reliability indices expression is given from (1-1) to (1-
3). The average failure rate indicates the number of failures a load point will
experience during a given period of time. The average outage time is the average
restoration duration of load point. The average annual outage time is the average
total duration of outage in a year experienced at the load point.

These reliability indices are expected values and represent the long-run
average value.

Where λi and 𝑟i are the failure rate and the average repair time of the
component i, while 𝜆j, rj and 𝑈j are the average failure rate, repair time and
unavailability at load point j.

1.2.3.2 System Reliability Indices

Additional reliability indices will be calculated in order to obtain an overall

representation of the systems performance and their reliability. These system
reliability indices utilize the basic load point indices in order to reflect the
performance of the system and significance of the system outages. These indices
can be used to assess the reliability of a particular feeder, a certain load point, a
section of the system or the entire distribution system. The customer and load-
oriented indices were considered in this chapter as following:
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(i) System Average Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI)

This is a measure of the average frequency of interruptions experienced by the
system.
∑ λ j 𝑁j
SAIFI = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟 i𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡i𝑜𝑛𝑠 = ⁄∑Nj (int/yr)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑

Where, λj is the failure rate of load point j and Nj is the number of customers at
load point j.

(ii) System Average Interruption Duration Index (SAIDI)

This is a measure of the average duration of interruption experienced by the

system.
∑ U j Nj
SAIDI = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟 i𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡i𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡i𝑜𝑛𝑠 = ⁄ (hr/yr)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 ∑ Nj

(iii) Customer Average Interruption Duration Index (CAIDI)

This is a measure of the average duration of interruption experienced by the

customer affected by the interruption.

CAIDI = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟 i𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡i𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡i𝑜𝑛𝑠 ∑ 𝑈 j 𝑁j

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟 i𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡i𝑜𝑛𝑠 = ⁄ ∑λ j𝑁j
(hr/cust.int)

(iv)Average Service Availability Index (ASAI) [%]:

𝑐𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑣𝑎i𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣i𝑐𝑒
ASAI =
𝑐𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣i𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠
∑ 𝑁j * 8760− ∑ 𝑈𝐽 𝑁j
= ⁄ = 1- SAIDI / 8760 = 1-ASUI
∑ 𝑁j * 8760

Where, 8760 is the number of hours in a year.

(v) Average Service unavailability Index (ASUI) [%]:
ASUI = 1- ASAI = SAIDI / 8760
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(vi) Total Energy Not Supplied (EENS)

This is the sum of each load times its outage duration.

EENS = L (Load (MW)) * U (Outage Duration (hr/yr)) (MWh/yr)

(vii) Average Energy Not Supplied (AENS)

AENS = Total Energy Not Supplied / Number of customers

= 𝐸𝐸𝑁𝑆⁄
∑𝑁j (MWh /cust.yr)
The average values of these indices can be easily computed as the associated
analytical techniques are highly developed for both radial and meshed systems.

1.2.4 Distribution System Reliability Techniques

Various probabilistic techniques have been developed and used in

distribution system reliability evaluation to obtain quantitative adequacy indices at
the individual customer load points. Quantitative reliability assessment is an
important aspect in distribution system planning and operation. The objective of
quantitative reliability assessment is to determine how adequately all these
components perform their intended functions.

Two fundamental methodologies are applied to calculate reliability indices.

These techniques can be categorized as an analytical technique and a simulation
technique.

In the analytical technique the system is represented by its mathematical

equivalent model. The reliability indices are calculated by applying the direct
numerical solution on the equivalent model.

Simulation technique deals with analyzing random behaviors of the system

in order to estimate the reliability indices. Even though the results of the analytical
approach are not as precise as the one for simulation approach, applying this
method consumes a comparatively shorter computational time which is an
important factor in reliability studies.
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Example 1: Consider the simple radial system shown in Figure (7). The
assumed failure rates and repair times of each line A, B and C are shown in Table
1.1.

Figure (7): Simple three load point radial system

Table 1.1 Component data for the system

Line (𝑓⁄𝑦𝑟) 𝑟 (ℎ𝑟)
A 0.20 6.0
B 0.10 5.0
C 0.15 8.0

This numerical example illustrates the typical and generally accepted feature
of a radial system that the customers connected to the system farthest from the
supply point tend to suffer the greatest number of outages and the greatest
unavailability. The results for this example were evaluated using the basic concepts
of network reliability. This assumes that the failure of line elements A. B and C are
simple open circuits with no compound effects, i.e. the failure of line element C
does not effect Load_A or Load_B. This is the same as assuming perfect isolation
of faults on line elements A, B and C by the breakers shown in Figure (7). The
load point reliability indices are shown in Table 1.2.
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Table 1.2 Load point reliability indices for the system

Load point 𝐿 (𝑓⁄𝑦𝑟) 𝑟𝐿 (ℎ𝑟) 𝑈𝐿 (ℎ𝑟⁄𝑦𝑟)
Load_A 0.2 6.0 1.2
Load_B 0.3 5.7 1.7
Load_C 0.45 6.4 2.9

The load point reliability indices have been executed by NEPLAN Software
as shown in Figure (8).

Figure (8): Load point reliability indices for the system

In order to illustrate the evaluation of the customer- and load-orientated

indices during the assessment of future performance, known as system prediction,
reconsider the system shown in Figure (7) and the primary reliability indices
shown in Table 1.2. Let the number of customers and average load demand at each
busbar be as shown in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3 Customers and load connected to the system

Load point Number of customers Average load demand (kW)
Load_A 200 1000
Load_B 150 700
Load_C 100 400
Total 450 2100
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The customer- and load-oriented indices can now be evaluated as follows:

 SAIFI = ∑ j 𝑁j
⁄ =
((0.2*200)+(0.3*150)+(0.45*100))
= 0.289 (int/yr)
Z 𝑁j (200+150+100)

 SAIDI = ∑ Uj Nj⁄ (( ) ( ) ( ))
= 1.2*200 + 1.7*150 + 2.9*100 = 1.74 (hr/yr)
∑ Nj (200+150+100)

 CAIDI = ∑ Uj Nj⁄ (( ) ( ) ( ))
= 1.2*200 + 1.7*150 + 2.9*100 = 6.04 (hr/cust.int)
∑ 𝜆j Nj ((0.2*200)+(0.3*150)+(0.45*100))

Check: CAIDI = (SAIDI/SAIFI) where unit: hr/int or hr/failure or hr/f)

 ASUI = SAIDI / 8760 = 1.74/8760 = 0.00019863

 ASAI = 1- ASUI = 1- 0.0019863 = 0.99980137

 EENS = L (Load (MW)) * U (Outage Duration (hr/yr))

= (1*1.2) + (0.7*1.7) + (0.4*2.9) = 3.55 MWh/yr

 AENS = 𝐸𝐸𝑁𝑆⁄Z 𝑁 = 3. 55⁄ = 0.00789 MWh/cust.yr
j 450

The system reliability indices have been executed by NEPLAN Software as

shown in Figure (9).

Figure (9): System reliability indices using NEPLAN software

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Example 2: Consider the system shown in Figure (10). This is a single line
representation of the system and the following discussion assumes that any fault,
single phase or otherwise, will trip all three phases.

Figure (10): Typical radial distribution network

It is normally found in practice that lines and cables have a failure rate
which is approximately proportional to their length. For this example let the main
feeder (Sections 1, 2, 3, 4) have a failure rate of 0.1 f/km yr and the lateral
distributors (a, b, c, d) have a failure rate of 0.2 f/km yr. Using these basic data, the
line lengths and the reliability parameters given in Table 1.4 to calculate the load
point reliability indices which shown in Table 1.5.
Table 1.4 System reliability parameters
Component Length (km) 𝐿 (𝑓⁄𝑦𝑟) 𝑟𝐿 (ℎ𝑟)
Section
1 2 0.2 4
2 1 0.1 4
3 3 0.3 4
4 2 0.2 4
Distributor
a 1 0.2 2
b 3 0.6 2
c 2 0.4 2
d 1 0.2 2
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Table 1.5 Load point reliability indices

Load pt A Load pt B
Component 𝑟 U 𝑟 U
Failure (𝑓⁄𝑦𝑟) (ℎ𝑟) (ℎ𝑟⁄𝑦𝑟) (𝑓⁄𝑦𝑟) (ℎ𝑟) (ℎ𝑟⁄𝑦𝑟)
Section
1 0.2 4 0.8 0.2 4 0.8
2 0.1 4 0.4 0.1 4 0.4
3 0.3 4 1.2 0.3 4 1.2
4 0.2 4 0.8 0.2 4 0.8
Distributor
a 0.2 2 0.4 0.2 2 0.4
b 0.6 2 1.2 0.6 2 1.2
c 0.4 2 0.8 0.4 2 0.8
d 0.2 2 0.4 0.2 2 0.4
Total 2.2 2.73 6.0 2.2 2.73 6.0
Load pt C Load pt D
Component 𝑟 U 𝑟 U
Failure (𝑓⁄𝑦𝑟) (ℎ𝑟) (ℎ𝑟⁄𝑦𝑟) (𝑓⁄𝑦𝑟) (ℎ𝑟) (ℎ𝑟⁄𝑦𝑟)
Section
1 0.2 4 0.8 0.2 4 0.8
2 0.1 4 0.4 0.1 4 0.4
3 0.3 4 1.2 0.3 4 1.2
4 0.2 4 0.8 0.2 4 0.8
Distributor
a 0.2 2 0.4 0.2 2 0.4
b 0.6 2 1.2 0.6 2 1.2
c 0.4 2 0.8 0.4 2 0.8
d 0.2 2 0.4 0.2 2 0.4
Total 2.2 2.73 6.0 2.2 2.73 6.0
Let the average load and number of customers at A, B, C and D be as shown
in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6 Customers and load connected to the system
Load point Number of customers Average load demand (kW)
A 1000 5000
B 800 4000
C 700 3000
D 500 2000
 The Higher Institute of Engineering Al-Shorouk City

Electrical Power and Machines Department

The system reliability indices can be evaluated as:

 SAIFI = 2.199 (int/yr)

 SAIDI = 6 (hr/yr)
 CAIDI = 2.728 (hr/cust.int)
 ASUI = 0.000685
 ASAI = 0.99932
 EENS = 84 MWh/yr
 AENS = 28 kWh/cust.yr
The system reliability indices have been executed by NEPLAN Software as
shown in Figure (11).

Figure (11): System reliability indices using NEPLAN software

1.2.4.1 Effect of Lateral Distributor Protection

Additional protection is frequently used in practical distribution systems.

One possibility in the case of the system shown in Figure (10) is to install fuse
gear at the tee-point in each lateral distributor as shown in Figure (12). In this case
a short circuit on a lateral distributor causes its appropriate fuse to blow; this
causes disconnection of its load point until the failure is repaired but does not
affect or cause the disconnection of any other load point. The load point reliability
indices are therefore modified to those shown in Table 1.7.
 The Higher Institute of Engineering Al-Shorouk City

Electrical Power and Machines Department

Figure (12): Test system with fuse gear in lateral distributors

Table 1.7 Load point reliability indices
Load pt A Load pt B
Component 𝑟 U 𝑟 U
Failure (𝑓⁄𝑦𝑟) (ℎ𝑟) (ℎ𝑟⁄𝑦𝑟) (𝑓⁄𝑦𝑟) (ℎ𝑟) (ℎ𝑟⁄𝑦𝑟)
Section
1 0.2 4 0.8 0.2 4 0.8
2 0.1 4 0.4 0.1 4 0.4
3 0.3 4 1.2 0.3 4 1.2
4 0.2 4 0.8 0.2 4 0.8
Distributor
A 0.2 2 0.4
B 0.6 2 1.2
C
D
Total 1.0 3.6 3.6 1.4 3.14 4.4
Load pt C Load pt D
Component 𝑟 U 𝑟 U
Failure (𝑓⁄𝑦𝑟) (ℎ𝑟) (ℎ𝑟⁄𝑦𝑟) (𝑓⁄𝑦𝑟) (ℎ𝑟) (ℎ𝑟⁄𝑦𝑟)
Section
1 0.2 4 0.8 0.2 4 0.8
2 0.1 4 0.4 0.1 4 0.4
3 0.3 4 1.2 0.3 4 1.2
4 0.2 4 0.8 0.2 4 0.8
Distributor
A
B
C 0.4 2 0.8
D 0.2 2 0.4
Total 1.2 3.33 4.0 1.0 3.6 3.6
 The Higher Institute of Engineering Al-Shorouk City

Electrical Power and Machines Department

In this case the reliability indices are improved for all load points although
the amount of improvement is different for each one. The most unreliable load
point is B because of the dominant effect of the failures on its lateral distributor.
The additional indices for this system are:
 SAIFI = 1.153 (f/yr)
 SAIDI = 3.906 (hr/yr)
 CAIDI = 3.38767 (hr/f)
 ASUI = 0.000044589
 ASAI = 0.9995541
 EENS = 54.8 MWh/yr
 AENS = 18.3 kWh/cust.yr
The system reliability indices have been executed by NEPLAN Software as
shown in Figure (13).

Figure (13): System reliability indices using NEPLAN software

1.2.4.2 Effect of Disconnects
A second improvement scheme is the provision of disconnects or isolators at
judicious points along the main feeder. These are generally not fault-breaking
switches and therefore any short circuit on a feeder still causes the main breaker to
operate. After the fault has been detected, however, the relevant disconnect can be
opened and the breaker reclosed. This procedure allows restoration of all load
points between the supply point and the point of isolation before the repair process
has been completed.
 The Higher Institute of Engineering Al-Shorouk City

Electrical Power and Machines Department

Let points of isolation be installed in the previous system as shown in

Figure (14) and let the total isolation and switching time be 0.5 hour.

Figure (14): Test system reinforced with disconnects and fuse gear

The reliability indices for the four load points are now modified to those
shown in Table 1.8.

Table 1.8 Load point reliability indices

Load pt A Load pt B
Component 𝑟 U 𝑟 U
Failure (𝑓⁄𝑦𝑟) (ℎ𝑟) (ℎ𝑟⁄𝑦𝑟) (𝑓⁄𝑦𝑟) (ℎ𝑟) (ℎ𝑟⁄𝑦𝑟)
Section
1 0.2 4 0.8 0.2 4 0.8
2 0.1 0.5 0.05 0.1 4 0.4
3 0.3 0.5 0.15 0.3 0.5 0.15
4 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.1
Distributor
a 0.2 2 0.4
b 0.6 2 1.2
c
d
Total 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.89 2.65
 The Higher Institute of Engineering Al-Shorouk City

Electrical Power and Machines Department

Load pt C Load pt D
Component 𝑟 U 𝑟 U
Failure (𝑓⁄𝑦𝑟) (ℎ𝑟) (ℎ𝑟⁄𝑦𝑟) (𝑓⁄𝑦𝑟) (ℎ𝑟) (ℎ𝑟⁄𝑦𝑟)
Section
1 0.2 4 0.8 0.2 4 0.8
2 0.1 4 0.4 0.1 4 0.4
3 0.3 4 1.2 0.3 4 1.2
4 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.2 4 0.8
Distributor
a
b
c 0.4 2 0.8
d 0.2 2 0.4
Total 1.2 2.75 3.3 1.0 3.6 3.6

In this case, the reliability indices of load points A, B, C are improved, the
amount of improvement being greater for those near to the supply point and less
for those further from it. The indices of load point D remain unchanged because
isolation cannot remove the effect of any failure on this load point. The additional
customer- and load-orientated indices for this configuration are:

 SAIFI = 1.153 (f/yr)

 SAIDI = 2.576238 (hr/yr)
 CAIDI = 2.235 (hr/f)
 ASUI = 0.000294
 ASAI = 0.99971
 EENS = 35.195 MWh/yr
 AENS = 11.7 kWh/cust.yr
The system reliability indices have been executed by NEPLAN Software as
shown in Figure (15).
 The Higher Institute of Engineering Al-Shorouk City

Electrical Power and Machines Department

Figure (15): System reliability indices using NEPLAN software