CHAPTER 4

PROPOSED SYSTEM

The block diagram shown in figure 4.1 represents the automated waste
material segregator where three types of materials are segregated namely
metals,wet waste and non metals. The controller used is Arduino .The method
consists of a conveyor belt .The belts starts moving only when the object is
identified and it must be dry object. If the object is identified as metal by the
metal detector then the servo motor rotates and dumps the object in metal bin. If
the object is wet waste then the servo motor rotates and dumps it into wet waste
bin. a the object is not identified by both then the servo motor rotates and
throws in other bin.

SERVO MOTOR
For metal waste

Fig.4.1.(a).BLOCK DAIGRAM

17
 Start

Waste placed in
conveyor belt

YES
If it is metal Metal Waste
waste? Bin

NO

YES
If it is wet Wet Waste Bin
waste?

NO

YES
Dry Waste BIn
If it is dry
waste?

NO

YES NO
If it still any
remains?

NO

Stop

Fig.4.1.(b).FLOW CHART

This work aims at the problem I am attempting to solve is to create an

autonomous robot that can identify objects when placed on the conveyor belt

18
based on sensing and then sort by relocating them to a specific location. Micro
controller allows dynamic and faster control. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
makes the system user-friendly. Micro controller is the heart of the circuit as it
controls all the functions.

4.2. HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

4.2.1. GAS SENSOR(MQ-2)

Fig.4.2.1. GAS SENSOR(MQ-2)

The Grove - Gas Sensor(MQ2) module is useful for gas leakage detection (in
home and industry). It is suitable for detecting H2, LPG, CH4, CO, Alcohol,
Smoke or Propane. Due to its high sensitivity and fast response time,
measurement can be taken as soon as possible. The sensitivity of the sensor can
be adjusted by potentiometer.

Features

Wide detecting scope

Stable and long life

Fast response and High sensitivity

19
Table 4.2.1 Gas Sensor Specifications

Item Parameter Min Typical Max Unit

VCC Working Voltage 4.9 5 5.1 V

Heating
PH 0.5 - 800 Mw
consumption

RL Load resistance adjustable

RH Heater resistance - 33 - Ω

Sensing
Rs 3 - 30 kΩ
Resistance

4.2.2. Conductivity sensor

The conductivity sensor is one kind of sensor used to gauge the

volumetric content of water within the surface. These sensors measure the
volumetric water content not directly with the help of some other rules of soil
like dielectric constant, electrical resistance, otherwise interaction with
neutrons, and replacement of the moisture content.

20
 Fig.4.2.2.soil-moisture-sensor-device

These sensors normally used to check volumetric water content, and another

group of sensors calculates a new property of moisture within surface named
water potential.
4.2.2.1. Conductivity Sensor Pin Configuration

The FC-28 sensor includes 4-pins

Fig.4.2.2.1.Conductivity sensor

 VCC pin is used for power

 A0 pin is an analog output
 D0 pin is a digital output
21
  GND pin is a Ground
This module also includes a potentiometer that will fix the threshold value, &
the value can be evaluated by the comparator-LM393. The LED will turn on/off
based on the threshold value.
4.2.2.2 Working Principle

This sensor mainly utilizes capacitance to gauge the water content of the soil
(dielectric permittivity). The working of this sensor can be done by inserting
this sensor into the earth and the status of the water content in the soil can be
reported in the form of a percent.

This sensor makes it perfect to execute experiments within science courses like
environmental science, agricultural science, biology, soil science, botany, and
horticulture.

4.2.3. Metal detector

(LJ12A3-4-Z/BY Inductive Proximity Sensor Switch PNP DC 6V-36V)

Metal detector work by transmitting an electromagnetic field from search

coil into the ground. Any metal objects within the electromagnetic field will
become energized and retransmit an electromagnetic field of their own. Here we
are using LC metal detector non-contact metal induction detection module as a
metal detector. When it approaches any metal, it makes a sound. This is a
module specifically designed to detect metal. The module operates by including
currents in metal objects and responding when it occurs. A nice onboard buzzer
signals when it detects something and an onboard potentiometer allow
adjustment of sensitivity. It is working with an operating voltage of 5V DC and
its sensing range of detection is 1cm

22
 Fig.4.2.3.Metel detector
1. Model: LJ12A3-4-Z/BY.
2. Wire Type: Cylindrical DC 3 Wire Type.
3. Diameter of Head :12 mm.
4. Detecting Distance: 4mm.
5. Supply Voltage: DC 6-36V.
6. Current Output: 300mA.
7. Response Frequency: 0.5 KHz.
8. Operating Temperature: -25°C to +55°C (Non-freezing Condition).
9. Size: 6.2 x 2cm/2.4” x 0.8” (L*Max. Dia)
10. Cable Length 110cm/43.3″.
11. External Material: Plastic, Alloy.
12. Net Weight: 46g.
4.2.4. Servo Motor
A servo motor is an electrical device which can push or rotate an object
with great precision. If you want to rotate and object at some specific angles or
distance, then you use servo motor. It is just made up of simple motor which run
through servo mechanism. If motor is used is DC powered then it is called DC
servo motor, and if it is AC powered motor then it is called AC servo motor. We

23
can get a very high torque servo motor in a small and light weight packages.
Doe to these features they are being used in many applications like toy car, RC
helicopters and planes, Robotics, Machine etc.

4.2.4.1. Servo Mechanism

It consists of three parts:

 Controlled device
 Output sensor
 Feedback system

It is a closed loop system where it uses positive feedback system to control

motion and final position of the shaft. Here the device is controlled by a
feedback signal generated by comparing output signal and reference input
signal.

4.2.4.2. Working principle of Servo Motors

A servo consists of a Motor (DC or AC), a potentiometer, gear assembly

and a controlling circuit. First of all we use gear assembly to reduce RPM and to
increase torque of motor. Say at initial position of servo motor shaft, the
position of the potentiometer knob is such that there is no electrical signal
generated at the output port of the potentiometer. Now an electrical signal is
given to another input terminal of the error detector amplifier. Now difference
between these two signals, one comes from potentiometer and another comes
from other source, will be processed in feedback mechanism and output will be
provided in term of error signal. This error signal acts as the input for motor and
motor starts rotating. Now motor shaft is connected with potentiometer and as
motor rotates so the potentiometer and it will generate a signal. So as the
potentiometer’s angular position changes, its output feedback signal changes.
After sometime the position of potentiometer reaches at a position that the

24
output of potentiometer is same as external signal provided. At this condition,
there will be no output signal from the amplifier to the motor input as there is no
difference between external applied signal and the signal generated at
potentiometer, and in this situation motor stops rotating.

4.2.4.3. Controlling Servo Motor:

All motors have three wires coming out of them. Out of which two will
be used for Supply (positive and negative) and one will be used for the signal
that is to be sent from the MCU.

Servo motor is controlled by PWM (Pulse with Modulation) which is

provided by the control wires. There is a minimum pulse, a maximum pulse and
a repetition rate. Servo motor can turn 90 degree from either direction from its
neutral position. The servo motor expects to see a pulse every 20 milliseconds
(ms) and the length of the pulse will determine how far the motor turns. For
example, a 1.5ms pulse will make the motor turn to the 90° position, such as if
pulse is shorter than 1.5ms shaft moves to 0° and if it is longer than 1.5ms than
it will turn the servo to 180°.

Servo motor works on PWM (Pulse width modulation) principle, means

its angle of rotation is controlled by the duration of applied pulse to its Control
PIN. Basically servo motor is made up of DC motor which is controlled by a
variable resistor (potentiometer) and some gears. High speed force of DC motor
is converted into torque by Gears. We know that WORK= FORCE X
DISTANCE, in DC motor Force is less and distance (speed) is high and in
Servo, force is High and distance is less. Potentiometer is connected to the
output shaft of the Servo, to calculate the angle and stop the DC motor on
required angle.

25
 Servo motor can be rotated from 0 to 180 degree, but it can go up to 210
degree, depending on the manufacturing. This degree of rotation can be
controlled by applying the Electrical Pulse of proper width, to its Control pin.
Servo checks the pulse in every 20 milliseconds. Pulse of 1 ms (1 millisecond)
width can rotate servo to 0 degree, 1.5ms can rotate to 90 degree (neutral
position) and 2 ms pulse can rotate it to 180 degree. 

All servo motors work directly with your +5V supply rails but we have to
be careful on the amount of current the motor would consume, if you are
planning to use more than two servo motors a proper servo shield should be
designed. 

4.2.5. CONVEYOR

Conveyor systems have become an inevitable part in an automated industry or

firm. Conveyor systems find their majority applications in manufacturing
industries, transportation sector, workshops, warehouses and many other similar
firms, where
transportation of bulk quantities is necessary. A belt conveyor system is one of
the conveyor systems implemented today. Belt conveyors are the most used
powered conveyors since they are highly versatile and less expensive. Conveyor
26
belt, pulleys and electric motors constitute the important parts of a conveyor
belt system. Basic schematic of a belt conveyor system is shown in figure 1.
Belt conveyor systems are necessary in industries which carry out the activities
like coal processing, transportation of agricultural products, chemical
segregation, powdering applications etc.

Fig.4.2.5. Basic schematic of conveyor belt

A proper control mechanism with accurate sensing is necessary for the flawless
functioning of a conveyor belt system. Start and stop control of belt conveyor
may not be feasible as most of the related industries are continuously running.
This paper presents the results of an automated conveyor belt prototype for the
stoppage of the belt. Here, study is done on the continuously running conveyor
belt.
The properties of belt material, its weathering, and other mechanical
deformations due to strain under different working conditions are considered.
All these require smooth start and stop characteristics. Also for a better
efficiency of the conveyor system, the belt that should not be having many
transient situations. Volume of material transferred is also crucial in the design
of the system, and also in the stop positioning of belt. This also needs the
knowledge of the density of the substance to be transferred and also of the
material of the belt, so that we can fix intensity and energy of the light beam
used in the sensing system.

27
4.2.5.1. TYPES OF CONVEYOR BELTS
A. Hinge metal belting
The belt is made of steel plates as components, connected together using hinge
joints. The applications of such types of belts are in high temperature operation,
machine tool chip removal, die-cast operations, packaging operation, stamping
operation, etc. These type belts are less expensive and find application in metal
working and material handling.
B. Woven wire belting
Steel wires are woven together to form belts which can withstand high
temperatures. The main applications are in glass to metal sealing, washing,
dewatering, pasteurizing, freezing, baking, blanching, glass enameling, ceramic
annealing, fiberglass curing, etc. They are perfect for heavy load applications.
C. Flat wire belting
These belts are made by combining flat wires, making them the most suitable
for handling food, i.e. for applications like canning, baking, sorting, etc.
Industrial ovens and furnaces, freezer tunnels etc. are the main areas where
these kind of conveyors belts are implemented.
D. PVC conveyor belting
These are smooth plastic (Poly Vinyl Chloride) belts, also known as solid
woven belts. Main applications include aggregate and fine material transport in
mines, and also in aboveground applications due to anti-corrosive properties.
E. Rubber belting
Using rubber conveyor belts have nowadays become more economical. Mostly
wide nylon belts are used as rubber conveyor belts. They are capable of
transmitting shocks and vibrations and hence they have a lower transmission
noise. There is no need of lubrication in this kind of conveyor belts and are
capable of meeting requirements of high speed engines.

28
F. Abrasion resistant belting
Specially designed and coated belts for heavy duty. These are used extensively
in construction industries, for conveying sand, cement concrete, RCC, etc. Also,
these find use in electricity generating stations for pre-blending, feeding to
hoppers, which is one among numerous applications. Super Abrasive material
such as Metal ores, Lime stone, Slag Iron, hard rock, glass etc. can be conveyed
using these type of conveyor belts.
4.2.6. ARDUINO

Arduino is an open-source computer hardware and software company,

project and user community that designs and manufactures microcontroller-
based kits for building digital devices and interactive objects that can sense and
control objects in the physical world.

The project is based on microcontroller board designs, manufactured by several

vendors, using various microcontrollers. These systems provide sets of digital
and analog I/O pins that can be interfaced to various expansion boards
("shields") and other circuits. The boards feature serial communications
interfaces, including USB on some models, for loading programs from personal
computers. For programming the microcontrollers, the Arduino project provides
an integrated development environment (IDE) based on the Processing project,
which includes support for the C and C++ programming languages.

The first Arduino was introduced in 2005, aiming to provide an inexpensive

easy way for novices and professionals to create devices that interact with their
environment using sensors and actuators. Common examples of such devices
intended for beginner hobbyists include simple robots, thermostats, and motion
detectors.

29
Arduino boards are available commercially in preassembled form, or as do-it-
yourself kits. The hardware design specifications are openly available, allowing
the Arduino boards to be manufactured by anyone. Adafruit Industriesestimated
in mid-2011 that over 300,000 official Arduinos had been commercially
produced, and in 2013 that 700,000 official boards were in users' hands.

History

Arduino started in 2005 as a project for students at the Interaction Design

Institute Ivrea in Ivrea, Italy. At that time program students used a "BASIC
Stamp" at a cost of $100, considered expensive for students. Massimo Banzi,
one of the founders, taught at Ivrea. The name "Arduino" comes from a bar in
Ivrea, where some of the founders of the project used to meet. The bar, in turn,
has been named after Arduin of Ivrea, who was the margrave of Ivrea and King
of Italy from 1002 to 1014.

Colombian student Hernando Barragán created the Wiring development

platform which served as the basis for Arduino. Following the completion of the
Wiring platform, its lighter, less expensive versions were created and made
available to the open-source community; associated researchers, including
David Cuartielles, promoted the idea. The Arduino's initial core team consisted
of Massimo Banzi, David Cuartielles, Tom Igoe, Gianluca Martino, and David
Mellis.

Hardware

Fig.4.2.6.Arduino

30
An early Arduino board with anRS-232 serial interface (upper left) and an
Atmel ATmega8 microcontroller chip (black, lower right); the 14 digital I/O
pins are located at the top and the six analog input pins at the lower right.

An Arduino board historically consists of an Atmel 8-, 16- or 32-bit

AVR microcontroller (although since 2015 other makers' microcontrollers have
been used) with complementary components that facilitate programming and
incorporation into other circuits. An important aspect of the Arduino is its
standard connectors, which lets users connect the CPU board to a variety of
interchangeable add-on modules known as shields. Some shields communicate
with the Arduino board directly over various pins, but many shields are
individually addressable via an I²C serial bus—so many shields can be stacked
and used in parallel. Prior to 2015 Official Arduinos had used the
Atmel megaAVR seriesofchips,specificallythe ATmega8,ATmega168, ATmega
328, ATmega1280, and ATmega2560 and in 2015 units by other manufacturers
were added. A handful of other processors have also been used by Arduino
compatibles. Most boards include a 5 V linear regulator and a 16 MHz crystal
oscillator (or ceramic resonator in some variants), although some designs such
as the LilyPad run at 8 MHz and dispense with the onboard voltage regulator
due to specific form-factor restrictions. An Arduino's microcontroller is also
pre-programmed with a boot loader that simplifies uploading of programs to the
on-chip flash memory, compared with other devices that typically need an
external programmer. This makes using an Arduino more straightforward by
allowing the use of an ordinary computer as the programmer. Currently, opti
boot boot loader is the default boot loader installed on Arduino UNO.

At a conceptual level, when using the Arduino integrated development

environment, all boards are programmed over a serial connection. Its
implementation varies with the hardware version. Some serial Arduino boards
contain a level shifter circuit to convert between RS-232 logic levels and TTL-

31
level signals. Current Arduino boards are programmed via Universal Serial
Bus (USB), implemented using USB-to-serial adapter chips such as
the FTDI FT232. Some boards, such as later-model Uno boards, substitute the
FTDI chip with a separate AVR chip containing USB-to-serial firmware, which
is reprogrammable via its own ICSP header. Other variants, such as the Arduino
Mini and the unofficial Boarduino, use a detachable USB-to-serial adapter
board or cable, Bluetooth or other methods, when used with traditional
microcontroller tools instead of the Arduino IDE, standard
AVR ISP programming is used.

The Arduino board exposes most of the microcontroller's I/O pins for use
by other circuits. The Diecimila, Duemilanove, and current Uno provide 14
digital I/O pins, six of which can produce pulse-width modulated signals, and
six analog inputs, which can also be used as six digital I/O pins. These pins are
on the top of the board, via female 0.10-inch (2.5 mm) headers. Several plug-in
application shields are also commercially available. The Arduino Nano, and
Arduino-compatible Bare Bones Board and Boarduino boards may provide
male header pins on the underside of the board that can plug into solderless
breadboards.

There are many Arduino-compatible and Arduino-derived boards. Some

are functionally equivalent to an Arduino and can be used interchangeably.
Many enhance the basic Arduino by adding output drivers, often for use in
school-level education to simplify the construction of buggies and small robots.
Others are electrically equivalent but change the form factor, sometimes
retaining compatibility with shields, sometimes not. Some variants use
completely different processors, with varying levels of compatibility.

Official boards

Further information: List of Arduino boards and compatible systems

32
The original Arduino hardware was manufactured by the Italian company Smart
Projects.[11] Some Arduino-branded boards have been designed by the
American companies SparkFun Electronics and Adafruit Industries. Sixteen
versions of the Arduino hardware have been commercially produced to date.

 Software

Arduino Software IDE

A screenshot of the Arduino IDE

showing the "Blink" program, a simple
beginner program

Developer(s) Arduino Software

Stable release 1.6.7 / 17 December

2015; 49 days
ago[17]

Written in Java, C and C++

33
 Operating system Cross-platform

Type Integrated
development
environment

License LGPL or GPL license

Website arduino.cc

Arduino programs may be written in any programming language with a

compiler that produces binary machine code. Atmel provides a development
environment for their microcontrollers, AVR Studio and the newer Atmel
Studio.

The Arduino project provides the Arduino integrated development

environment (IDE), which is a cross-platformapplication written in Java. It
originated from the IDE for the Processing programming language project and
the Wiringproject. It is designed to introduce programming to artists and other
newcomers unfamiliar with software development. It includes a code editor
with features such as syntax highlighting, brace matching, and automatic
indentation, and provides simple one-click mechanism for compiling and
loading programs to an Arduino board. A program written with the IDE for
Arduino is called a "sketch".

The Arduino IDE supports the C and C++ programming languages using

special rules of code organization. The Arduino IDE supplies a software
library called "Wiring" from the Wiring project, which provides many common
input and output procedures. A typical Arduino C/C++ sketch consist of two
functions that are compiled and linked with a program stub main() into an
executable cyclic executive program:

34
setup(): a function that runs once at the start of a program and that can initialize
settings.

loop(): a function called repeatedly until the board powers off.

After compilation and linking with the GNU toolchain, also included with the
IDE distribution, the Arduino IDE employs the program avrdude to convert the
executable code into a text file in hexadecimal coding that is loaded into the
Arduino board by a loader program in the board's firmware.

4.2.7. POWER SUPPLY

Power supply gives supply to all components. It is used to convert AC

voltage into DC voltage. Transformer used to convert 230V into 12V AC.12V
AC is given to diode. Diode range is 1N4007, which is used to convert AC
voltage into DC voltage. AC capacitor used to charge AC components and
discharge on ground. LM 7805 regulator is used to maintain voltage as constant.
Then signal will be given to next capacitor, which is used to filter unwanted AC
component. Load will be LED and resister.LED voltage is 1.75V.if voltage is
above level beyond the limit, and then it will be dropped on resister.

35
 Fig.4.2.7.Power supply

Most electronic circuits require DC voltage sources or power supplies. If

the electronic device is to be portable, then one or more batteries are usually
needed to provide the DC voltage required by electronic circuits. But batteries
have a limited life span and cannot be recharged. The solution is to convert the
alternating current lose hold line voltage to a DC voltage source.

4.2.7.1BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR POWER SUPPLY

Fg.4.2.7.1.Block diagram of AC to DC power Supply consists,

1. Transformer: Steps the household line voltage up or down as required.

2. Rectifier: Converts ac voltage into dc voltage.

36
3. Filter: Smooth the pulsating DC voltage to a varying DC voltage.

4. Regulator: Fix the output voltage to constant value.

4.2.7.2. Transformer

A Transformer is an electrical device that takes electricity of one voltage and

changes it into another voltage. In AC circuits, AC voltage, current and
waveform can be transformed with the help of Transformers. Transformer plays
an important role in electronic equipment. AC and DC voltage in Power supply
equipment are almost achieved by transformer’s transformation and
commutation. Figure 1 shows the Transformer. Basically, a Transformer
changes electricity from high to low voltage or low to high voltage using two
properties of electricity. In an electric circuit, there is magnetism around it.
Second, whenever a magnetic field changes (by moving or by changing
strength) a voltage is made.

Fig.4.2.7.2.Transformer

A Transformer takes in electricity at a higher voltage and lets it run through lots
of coils wound around an iron core. “. A single-phase Transformer can operate
to either increase or decrease the voltage applied to the primary winding.

37
Because the current is alternating, the magnetism in the core is also alternating.
Also around the core is an output wire with fewer coils. The magnetism
changing back and forth makes a current in the wire. Having fewer coils means
less voltage. When it is used to “decrease” the voltage on the secondary winding
with respect to the primary it is called a Step-down Transformer. When a
Transformer is used to “increase” the voltage on its secondary winding with
respect to the primary, it is called a Step-up Transformer.

However, a third condition exists in which a transformer produces the same

voltage on its secondary as is applied to its primary winding. In other words, its
output is identical with respect to input. This type of Transformer is called an
“Impedance Transformer” and is mainly used for impedance matching or the
isolation of adjoining electrical circuits.

Working of a Transformer

The working principle of Transformer is very simple. It depends

upon Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Actually, mutual induction
between two or more winding is responsible for transformation action in an
Electrical Transformer.

According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction,

“Rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time is directly proportional to
the induced EMF in a conductor or coil“. When one winding which is supplied
by an alternating electrical source as shown in figure 2. The alternating current
through the winding produces a continually changing flux or alternating flux
that surrounds the winding. If any other winding is brought nearer to the
previous one, obviously some portion of this flux will link with the second. As
this flux is continually changing in its amplitude and direction, there must be a
change in flux linkage in the second winding or coil.

38
 According to Faraday’s law, there must be an EMF induced in the second.
If the circuit of the later winding is closed, there must be an electric current
flowing through it.

Now let us see the working of a Transformer in detail. The winding which
takes electrical power from the source, is generally known as Primary winding
of Transformer as shown in figure 2. The winding which gives the desired
output voltage due to mutual induction in the transformer, is commonly known
as Secondary winding of Transformer.

The difference in voltage between the Primary and the Secondary

windings is achieved by changing the number of coil turns in the Primary
winding compared to the number of coil turns on the Secondarywinding.As the
Transformer is a linear device, a ratio is done between the number of turns of
the primary coil divided by the number of turns of the secondary coil. This ratio,
called the ratio of transformation, more commonly known as a Transformers
“turns ratio”. This turn’s ratio value dictates the operation of the Transformer
and the corresponding voltage available on the secondary winding.

If the Transformer’s ratio is 10:1, then if there are 2200 volts on the
Primary winding there will be 220 volts on the Secondary winding. Then we
can see that if the ratio between the number of turns changes the resulting
voltages must also change by the same ratio.

39
4.2.7.3. Rectifiers

A rectifier circuit converts an AC voltage into a pulsating DC voltage.

This is accomplished by using one or more diodes because diodes conduct
current in only one direction.

Types Of Rectifiers:

 Half-wave Rectifier
 Full-wave Rectifier
 Full-wave bridge rectifier
Half-wave Rectifier

D1
DIODE
V1 V2 VL LOAD

T1
The transformer (T1) isolates the household voltage and also steps down
the household voltage to a more useful voltage level. The diode lets current flow
into the load in only one direction. The load current is unidirectional; therefore,
it has a significant dc component (or average value).When V2 is positive, diode
D1 conducts and VL=V2. When V2 is negative, diode D1 blocks the current
flow and VL=0volts. The load voltage consists of dc voltage along with ripple
voltage. In a half-wave rectifier circuit, the ripple component is lager than the
DC component, which is undesirable.

USEFUL FORMULAS:

VAVG (DC) = 0.637V2

40
VL (DC) = 0.318V2

VL (AC) = 0.386V2

%RIPPLE = VL (AC)/VL (DC) = 121%

RIPPLE FREQUENCY = SUPPLY FREQUENCY

Full-wave Rectifier

The full wave rectifier circuit requires a transformer with two secondary
windings. i.e. center-tapped secondary winding.

The secondary windings are 180 out of phase.

VL

D1 IL
LOAD
V2a
V1
V2b

D2

Diode D1 contacts when V2a is positive, producing a half-wave

rectified voltage across the load. Diode D1 does not conduct when V2a is
negative. Diode D2 contacts when V2b is positive and does not conduct when
V2b is negative. One of the two diodes is conducting at all times because V2a
and V2b are 180 out of phase and thus producing full-wave rectified voltage. In
the Full wave rectifier, Dc component is larger than ripple.

USEFUL FORMULAS:

VL (DC) = 0.637V2
41
VL (AC) = 0.307V2

RIPPLE = VL (AC)/VL (DC) = 48.2%

RIPPLE FREQUENCY = 2 x SUPPLY FREQUENCY

Full-wave bridge rectifier

The full-wave bridge rectifier circuit requires four diodes. The transformer has
only one secondary winding.

IL

D1 D2
T1
V1 V2 VL LOAD

D4 D3

When V2 is positive, diodes D1 & D3 conduct current through the load. Diodes
D2 and D4 block current flow. When V2 is negative, diodes D2 and D4 conduct
current through the load.Diodes D1 and D3 block current flow. The full-wave
bridge rectifier fully utilizes the transformer winding during both half cycles.

USEFUL FORMULAS

VL (DC) = 0.637V2

VL (AC) = 0.307V2

%RIPPLE = VL (AC)/VL (DC) = 48.2%

RIPPLE FREQUENCY = 2 x SUPPLY FREQUENCY

4.2.7.4. Filters
42
 The 121% ripple in the output of the half-wave rectifier and 48% in the
full-wave rectifier is more than can be normally tolerated. In the full wave
filtering, wherein the frequency of the ripple is 100Hz for a 50Hz ac line
voltage. This is an advantage where either an inductor is used to prevent the
passage of the ripple current(due to its high inductive reactance to ac but quite
low resistance to dc), or a capacitor is used to ‘short’ the ripple to ground but
leave the dc to appear at the output. Various combinations of L and C are also
used.

4.2.7.5. Regulators

The simplest regulator is a large capacitor in parallel with the load. The
capacitor stores DC voltage while the load voltage increases to its peak value.
The capacitor converts the pulsating DC voltage of a rectifier into a smooth Dc
load voltage.

Two important parameters of a capacitor regulator are its working voltage

and its capacitance. The working voltage must be at least equal to no-load
output voltage of power supply. The capacitance determines the amount of
ripple that appears on the Dc output when current is drawn from the circuit. The
amount of ripple decreases with increase in capacitance.

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