INTRODUCTION

The name “Markhor” apparently was derived from Persian language meaning snake eater.
However, it is mostly considered to be derived from Pashto language word “Mar Akhkar” in
which “Mar” means snake and “Akhkar” means horn. The Markhor has horns twisting like a
snake; therefore it got its name as “Mar Akhkar”. With the passage of time, it changed to
Markhor (Ali, 2008).

Two subspecies of Markhor (Capra falconeri) are recognized: flare-horned Markhor (Capra
falconeri falconeri) which includes the Kashmir (Capra falconeri cashmiriensis) and Astore
(Capra falconeri falconeri) forms, and straight-horned Markhor (Capra falconeri megaceros)
which includes the Kabul (Capra falconeri megaceros) and Suleiman (Capra falconeri jerdoni)
forms. Markhor are typically associated with steppic mountain conditions and regions of meagre
erratic rainfall, occurring between altitudinal range of 600m to 3600m. They occur in Chitral,
northand east of Quetta, Torghar Range, Suleiman Hills, Dir and Swat Kohistan. The kashmir
Markhor (Capra falconeri cashmiriensis), occurs in Chitral town, southwards into Dir and
westwards into Swat kohistan. (Roberts, 1997).

Body length of Markhor varies from 132 to 186cm. Weights have been estimated as varying
from 100 to 109kg for an adult male and 32 to 50kg for an adult female. Horn length is 135 to
143cm in male and 25 to 30cm in female. Gestation period varies from 135 to 170 days. One or
two young per birth is usual, rarely three. Life span is 12 to 13 years. Males rarely survive
beyond 7th or 8th year (Ranjitsinh etal., 2007).

Markhor are diurnal animals with greatest activity in early morning and late evening but in mid
winter they have been observed in Chitral feeding intermittently during the day (Roberts, 1997).
Markhor are found at altitudes where they eat grass, leaves, and whatever other vegetative matter
they can find, often standing on their hind legs to reach the top leaves of trees (Stahl, 2007). An
intermediate forager, it consumes primarily grasses and forbs during (Ranjitsinh et al., 2007).
Chitral Gol National Park (CGNP) in Chitral and Palas valley in Kohistan support the largest
surviving populations of Kashmir Markhor (Capra falconeri cashmiriensis). Temperate
coniferous forests and adjoining alpine meadows provide habitat for this sub-species (Ali, 2008).
Malik (2002) estimated 800-1000 Markhor in Chitral Division. Survey reports indicated 1400
Markhor in Chitral, Dir Kohistan, and Swat Divisions (GoNWFP, 2005).

In Chitral area Pir Panjal or Kashmir subspecies occurs from about forty miles north of Chitral
town, southwards into Dir and westwards into Swat Kohistan (Roberts, 1997). Research studies
concluded that Markhor population in Chitral is the largest single concentration of this species in
the world and has been effectively protected by the NWFP Wildlife Department (IUCN, 2001).

Chitral Gol was declared as a National Park by the NWFP Government in1984. The park is
composed of an alpine river catchment in the Hindu Kush mountains (Aleem, 1978). The main
trees and shrubs are Quercus ilex, Pinus gerardiana, Juniperus macropoda, Salix spp., Abies
pindrow, Pistacia khinjuk, Rosa spp. and Viburnum (GoNWFP, 2006). Chitral Gol National
Park, encompass several valleys, and an intact vegetation cover which obstructs observation of
the animals, it is likely 4 that the annual counts in Chitral Gol have underestimated the
population present in the park (Aleem, 1977).

In Pakistan, Markhor (Capra falconeri) and Ibex (Capra ibex) are the two main wild relatives of
domestic goats (Capra hircus) (Roberts, 1997).

Goats are the fastest growing ruminants in Pakistan. Pakistan is rich in goat genetic resources
and is the third largest goat producing country in the world after China and India. Preference for
goat meat is the major reason for its increased demand. There are 25 goat breeds in the country
and two wild relatives such as Markhor and Ibex (Khan et al., 2008). At present, there are 53.8
million domestic goats in Pakistan and their population is increasing at the rate of more than 3%
per annum (GOP, 2006). Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan and NWFP have 37, 23, 22 and 18 percent
goat population, respectively. The combined livestock population of Chitral in 1996 was
estimated at 173,262 head of cattle, 188,822 sheep and 335,782 goats. As goat population is
dominant over other ungulates in Chitral area so Markhor is likely to have close competition
with domestic goats for food resources in this area (GoNWFP and IUCN, 2004).
Domestic goats are ruminants; that is, they have a four-compartment stomach designed to digest
large quantities of forages. Ruminants eat quickly and swallow their food at first without much
chewing. Later, they regurgitate their food and thoroughly chew it and swallow. This
regurgitated food is called the cud, and healthy ruminants will spend as much time chewing their
cud as they do grazing or eating hay. This is thought to be a predator avoidance adaptation, as the
ruminant can find a sheltered place to peacefully chew its cud and be less vulnerable to predator
attack than while grazing (Coffey et al., 2004).

The hunting season for Markhor starts in November and goes on until March. The animals
sought by hunter are exclusively older males with the largest end of horns. It is the responsibility
of the game guards to identify the appropriate animals. However, the hunter is free to select the
animal to be hunted. The sustainability of Trophy hunting is dependent on the allocations quotas
for each subspecies and 7 ensuring rigorous enforcement of these quotas. Hence, the first
requirement to initiate such projects is to survey the animal population and assess the maximum
number of specimens that can be harvested without disrupting the reproduction cycle (Lightner,
2006).

However, certain conservation measures, such as community-based conservation or ex-situ

breeding, have been implemented in recent years and appear to have a positive effect on at least
some Markhor populations (Virk, 2000). Most Caprinae species face threats of extinction due to
genetic isolation, specialized habitat requirements, and low reproductive rates, in addition to
human causes. Humans are the primary predators on Markhor. Because Markhor inhabit very
steep and inaccessible mountainous habitat, several strongholds of Markhor populations have
been rarely approached by man. Golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) have been reported preying
upon young Markhor. Among the wild carnivores, Himalayan lynx (Felis lynx), leopard cats
(Felis bengalensis), snow leopards (Uncia uncia), wolves (Canis lupus), and black bears (Ursus
thibetanus) are the main predators of Markhor (Ali, 2008).

The present study was, therefore, designed to collect data on feeding aspects of Markhor and
domestic goat in Chitral area, in order to examine the extent of resource competition between
two species. The objectives of study were;

 To analyze the food composition of Markhor and domestic goat.

  To determine the degree of competition between Markhor and domestic goat in terms of
forage consumption.
 To provide recommendation for managing Markhor habitat and reducing competition
with domestic livestock.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

STUDY AREA

Geographical Location

The study was conducted in Chitral Gol National Park (CGNP) and Tushi Game Reserve (TGR).
Chitral Gol National Park is situated in the beautiful valley of Chitral, northwest in the Khyber-
Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan at 35o 56'N latitude to 71'40o E longitude (Fig 3.1). Total
area of the Chitral Gol National Park is 7750 hectares. It is accessible through a dirt road from
Chitral town; the Park is bordered by Rombor Valley to the southwest. Tushi Game Reserve has
an area of 1545 hectares. The Tushi Game Reserve lies in the foothills of the Hindukush
Mountain Range, at a distance of about a half an hour drive from the Chitral town. The important
buffer zones of the area are Kuju Gol and Gohtan Gol.

Climate :

The climate of Chitral Gol National Park and Tushi Game Reserve is dry temperate,
characterized by hot summers in the lower areas and cold summers in the upper elevations.
Precipitation ranges from 200 mm to 800 mm annually and is mostly received in winter and
spring, largely in the form of snow (Rasheed 2007). While mean annual precipitation is 445 mm,
principally in winter and spring (Ali, 2008). Frost and snow start from September on high peaks
and in November in the valley. Snow stays till March in valleys and June on mountains. Summer
and autumn are dry, receiving barely 10–25 mm of rain per month (GoNWFP and IUCN
Pakistan, 2004).

Topography:
The Chitral Gol National Park consists of mostly high, rugged, and steep mountains with slope
varying from 450 to 1200 . High mountain topography is the characteristic feature of the study
area. Therefore the entry into Chitral is limited to only few passes i.e., Lowari Pass and Shandoor
Pass, which are at an altitude of 3300m and 3800m, respectively. These passes are closed due to
heavy snowfall for almost six months in winter and the area is totally inaccessible (Ali & Qaiser,
2005). The topography varies consisting of alpine meadows leading to the permanent glaciers.
High mountain and rough topography of the area have given rise to lot of narrow side valleys.
Erosion and glacial drift have contributed to fan-deposits along both the main and side valleys,
which are the main areas of habitation by humans, hence villages and cultivated fields are found
on these alluvial deposits (Ali & Qaiser, 2006).

Flora:

The main trees and shrubs growing in Chitral Gol National Park and Tushi Game Reserve
include Quercus ilex, Pinus gerardiana, Juniperus macropoda, Salix spp., Abies pindrow, Pistacia
khinjuk, Viburnum and Rosa spp. (GoNWFP, 2006). At elevation up to 2,400 metres the
vegetation type is dry oak forest (Quercus ilex). At higher elevations the type grades into the dry
temperate coniferous forest with the inclusion of Cedrus deodara and Pinus gerardiana (Aleem,
N. D).

Fauna:

Fauna of Chitral Gol National Park and Tushi Game Reserve has affinities to Palearctic Faunal
Region with only a slight oriental mix from the south. Dry and arid temperate climate has been
compensated for its species richness by great altitudinal variation. Major wildlife includes; Snow
leopard (Uncia uncia), Himalayan lynx (Lynx lynx), Wolf (Canus lupus), Jackal (Canus aureus),
Common red fox (Vulpes vulpes), Himalayan ibex (Capra ibex sibirica), Hare (Lepus capensis),
Long-tailed or Kashmir marmot (Marmota caudata), snow cock (Tetraogallous himalayensis)
and Chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) (Din and Nawaz, 2010). Markhor (Capra falconeri) and
black bear (Ursus thibetanus) are also found in the Chitral area (GoNWFP, 2006).

Domestic Livestock:
The combined livestock population of Chitral was estimated at 173,262 head of cattle, 188,822
sheep and 335,782 goats. In addition, an unknown number of animals belonging to Afghan
refugees is also found in the area. Households keep livestock in small herds of 4 to 10,
depending on their capacity to store crop residues, fodder and hay to feed animals during the
winter and spring months. Chitrali cattle are not robust, weighing only 150 to 200 kg, and
generally frail owing to poor nutrition. Cows are kept for milk, calves for milk let-down and for
meat, milk and hides. Sheep are kept primarily for wool (GoNWFP and IUCN Pakistan, 2004).

SEASONAL VARIATION

Eight plant species were recorded in the faeces of Markhor and five in the faeces of domestic
goat from spring season samples (Table 4.3). Among those, four plant species were found
common in the diet of both Markhor and domestic goat, including Salix iliensis, Juniperus
excelsa, Prangos pabularia, Linum perenne. Hence, there was a considerable diet overlap among
the both animal species. Due to more or less complete digestion of some plant species
unidentified material consisted of 6.4% and 17.1% in the diet of Markhor and domestic goat
respectively .

In summer samples, nine plant species were identified in the faeces of both the Markhor and
domestic goat (Table 4.4). In summer, the overlap of diet of Markhor with domestic goat was
higher than spring season. As in summer, all nine plant species were found common in the diet
of both Markhor and domestic goat. Unidentified material consisted of 6.29 % and 6.31% in the
diet of Markhor and domestic goat, respectively. Current study indicated that the extent of
competition was likely to occur during this season. The results of earlier study conducted in the
Indian TransHimalayas by( Mishra et al 2004) are in line with the results of present study, who
reported that there was considerable diet overlap among the herbivore species in summer and
livestock grazing caused a significant reduction in the standing crop of forage. Similarly, Bagchi
et al. (2003) found that wild and domestic goats utilize the same habitat types and do not
differentiate in their diets. Wild and domestic goats are intermediate feeders with associated
opportunistic feeding behaviour, diet overlap seems to be inevitable. Hence, they are expected to
compete for the same forage when feeding on the same range (Mishra et al., 2004).
Paired chi-square tests showed that during spring season, consumption of all plants (Salix
iliensis, Origanum vulgare, Rumex lastatus, Astragalus psilocentros, Juniperus excelsa, Linum
perenne, Capparis spinosa, Rubus anatolicus) except Prangos pabularia was significantly
different (P 0.05, χ² =3.35, df =1).

Paired chi-square tests showed that during summer season, consumption of all plants (Artemisia
maritime, Pistacia integerrima, Origanum vulgare, Rheum emodi, Hypsicum perforatum,
Quercus baloot, Prangos pabularia, Linum perenne, Bergenia ciliate) were equal both in Markhor
and domestic goat (P > 0.05, χ² = 0.02-0.47, df =1), having non-significant difference in their
diets.

Relative importance values (RIVs) of plant species in the diet of markhor and domestic goat
during spring 2009

S. No. Markhor Domestic goat

Plants RIV SD RIV SD

1 Salix iliensis 13 11.46 22.69 9.92

2 Origanum vulgare 13.32 10.45 0.0 –

3 Rumex lastatus 15.89 11.29 0.0 –

4 Astragalus psilocentros 12.08 12.29 0.0 –

5 Juniperus excels 10.94 16.84 17.63 12.76

6 Prangos pabularia 12.89 7.78 18.4 7.90

7 Linum perenne 12.32 10.09 19.64 6.48

8 Rubus anatolicus 3.1 8.95 0.0 –

9 Capparis spinosa 0.0 - 4.49 1.0

10 Unidentified plants 6.4 2.84 17.11 4.40

Relative importance values (RIVs) of plant species in the diet of markhor and domestic goat
during summer 2009

S. No. Markhor Domestic goat

Plants RIV SD RIV SD

1 Artemisia maritime 9.29 7.62 9.82 7.63

2 Pistacia integerrima 8.94 6.86 9.41 6.67

3 Origanum vulgare 10.68 3.88 8.7 7.11

4 Rheum emodi 12.65 7.11 13.22 6.08

5 Hypsicum perforatum 13.1 7.80 11.9 7.91

6 Quercus baloot 10.28 9.44 9.51 6.71

7 Prangos pabularia 9.16 6.73 11.24 9.53

8 Linum perenne 12.52 4.33 13.37 4.46

9 Bergenia ciliate 7.03 9.62 6.47 12.34

10 Unidentified plants 6.29 2.44 6.31 2.61

DIET COMPARISON

Spring diet comparison

Rumex lastatus was the dominant plant species in the spring diet of Markhor with 15.89%
composition, followed by Origanum vulgare (13.32%), Salix iliensis (13%), Prangos pabularia
(12.89%), Linum perenne (12.32%), Astragalus psilocentros (12.08%), Juniperus excels
(10.94%,) and Rubus anatolicus (3.1%), and unidentified plants 6.4% (Fig 4.1). The dominant
plant in the diet of domestic goat was Salix iliensis (22.69%), followed by Linum perenne
(19.64%), Prangos pabularia (18.4%), Juniperus excelsa (17.63%), and Capparis spinosa
(4.49%). All these plant species were common with Markhor diet except Capparis spinosa
(4.49%). Capparis spinosa was present only in the diet of domestic goat. Unidentified plant
material was 17.11% in goat’s diet. Four plant species i.e. Origanum vulgare, Rumex lastatus,
Astragalus psilocentros and Rubus anatolicus were present only in the diet of Markhor. The
dominant plant in the diet of Markhor was Rumex lastatus during spring. This finding is
supported by earlier investigations by Aleem (1976), who reported that during spring season,
Markhor preferentially utilize Rumex lastatus. During the present investigation it was noted that
Capparis spinosa was present only in the diet of goat. Field observations of PAMP (2008) have
supported that the frequency of occurrence of Capparis spinosa is very low in Chitral Gol
National Park because local population collect this plant for fuel wood and herding livestock.

Summer diet comparison:

Hypsicum perforatum was the dominant plant species in the summer diet of Markhor with 13.1%
composition, followed by Rheum emodi (12.65%), Linum perenne (12.52%), Origanum vulgare
(10.68%), Quercus baloot (10.28%), Artemisia maritime (9.29%), Prangos pabularia (9.16%),
Pistacia integerrima (8.94%), Bergenia ciliate (7.03%) and unidentified plants 6.29% (Fig 4.2).
The dominant plant in the diet of domestic goat was Linum perenne (13.37%), followed by
Rheum emodi (13.22%), Prangos pabularia (11.24%), Artemisia maritime (9.82%), Quercus
baloot (9.51%), Pistacia integerrima (9.41%), Origanum vulgare (8.7%) and Bergenia ciliate
(6.47%). All these plant species were common with Markhor diet. Unidentified plant matters
were 6.31% in domestic goat’s diet. The present study revealed that during summer, Markhor
and domestic goat share their diets. This information is supported by field observations of PAMP
(2008), who reported that the households of Chitral send their livestock to different zones of
Chitral Gol National Park that are also utilized by Markhor during summer. The herders of
Thingshen, Jang Bazaar, Mughlandeh utilize Utras and Dooni areas for livestock grazing and
which share it with Markhor during summer. Therefore, the competition for forage between
Markhor and domestic goat is high in Chitral Gol National Park because both species mainly
occupy the steeper slopes with more browsing potentials.

DIET SELECTION :

Diet selection of Markhor and domestic goat during spring season:

During the spring season, Markhor strongly preferred Linum perenne (DSV= 2.64) and had a
neutral preference for Salix iliensis (DSV= 1.39), Rumex lastatus (DSV=1.25), Origanum
vulgare, (DSV= 1.18) and Juniperus excelsa (DSV=1.03). While Astragalus psilocentros
(DSV=0.62), Rubus anatolicus (DSV=0.55) and Prangos pabularia (DSV=0.30) was least
preferred forage of Markhor. Similarly, domestic goat strongly preferred Linum perenne (DSV=
4.22) and Salix iliensis (DSV= 2.42) and had a neutral preference for Juniperus excelsa (DSV=
1.66) and Capparis spinosa (DSV= 1.56). While Prangos pabularia (DSV= 0.43) was the least
preferred forage of domestic goat. During spring season, both Markhor and domestic goat
showed strong preference for Linum perenne .

Diet selection of Markhor and domestic goat during summer season

During summer season, Markhor strongly preferred Linum perenne (DSV= 2.69), and had a
neutral preference for Pistacia integerrima (DSV=1.19). While Origanum vulgare (DSV=0.95),
Rheum emodi (DSV= 0.81), Bergenia ciliate (DSV=0.64 ), Hypsicum perforatum (DSV=0.60),
Quercus baloot (DSV=0.23), Artemisia maritime (DSV=0.22) and Prangos pabularia
(DSV=0.21) were the least preferred forage of Markhor. Similarly, domestic goat strongly
preferred Linum perenne (DSV =2.87) and had a neutral preference for Pistacia integerrima
(DSV =1.25). While Rheum emodi (DSV=0.85), Origanum vulgare (DSV= 0.77), Bergenia
ciliate (DSV= 0.59), Hypsicum perforatum (DSV= 0.55), Prangos pabularia (DSV= 43 0.26),
Artemisia maritime (DSV=0.24) and Quercus baloot (DSV=0.21) were the non preferred plants
by domestic goat (Table 4.6). The present study revealed that Linum perenne was the most
important forage species and preferred food both for Markhor and domestic goat in Chitral area
during both the spring and summer seasons. The results of this study are in agreement with a
study conducted under PAMP (2008), which stated that both Markhor and domestic goat
preferentially utilize Linum perenne.

DIET OVERLAP BETWEEN MARKHOR AND DOMESTIC GOAT

During summer season, diet overlap factor was 0.99 ( =0.99), almost equa al to 1.0, which
indicates very high diet overlap between Markhor and domestic goat. During the spring season,
the value of diet overlap factor was 0.69 ( =0.69), indicating that the diets of Markhor and
domestic goat were not completely overlap. During summer season, a very high diet overlap
between Markhor and domestic goat in the study area revealed by the present investigation
indicates a substantial degree of niche overlap between Markhor and domestic goat. Because in
early summer, goat population move to high elevation for grazing and browsing. Where they
remains from August till the beginning of snowfall in early December. This high elevation area
is also utilized by Markhor during summer.

Diet selection values (DSV) of markhor and domestic goat during spring 2009

Plant species Availability of plants (%) Markhor Domestic goat

DSV DSV
Salix iliensis 9.35 1.39 2.42
Origanum vulgare 11.21 1.18 -
Rumex lastatus 12.68 1.25 -
Astragalus psilocentros 19.41 0.62 -
Juniperus excels 10.57 1.03 1.66
Prangos pabularia 42.58 0.30 0.43

Linum perenne 4.65 2.64 4.22

Rubus anatolicus 5.56 0.55 -

Capparis spinosa 2.86 - 1.56

Diet selection values (DSV) of markhor and domestic goat during summer 2009

Plant species Availability of plants (%) Markhor Domestic goat

DSV DSV

Artemisia maritime 40.59 0.22 0.24

Pistacia integerrima 7.5 1.19 1.25

Origanum vulgare 11.21 0.95 0.77

Rheum emodi 15.52 0.81 0.85

Hypsicum perforatum 21.55 0.60 0.55
Quercus baloot 43.77 0.23 0.21
Prangos pabularia 42.58 0.21 0.26
Linum perenne 4.65 2.69 2.87
Bergenia ciliate 10.89 0.64 0.59

The results of present study are similar as of earlier investigations by Aleem (N.D) reporting that
wild animal come in direct competition with livestock. The food taken by domestic goats is
almost the same which is relished by Markhor in Chitral area. In a study conducted in eastern
Ladakh by Bhatnagar and Mathur (2001), it was indicated that the potential impact of excessive
grazing by livestock include depletion of the scarce forage for wild animals.

Food habits studies of animals by microscopic analysis of faecal material rank the forage species
according to their importance in the diet. The quantification of diets from faecal analysis rests on
the assumption that species composition of epidermal fragments identified in the faeces
corresponds closely to the proportion of each species ingested. Although faecal analysis has been
reported to under-estimate the proportion of some species, especially herbs, in the diet, Alipayo
et al. (1992) suggested that this is in line with the poor methodology, and good correspondence
can be obtained if appropriate attention is given to the preparation and identification of epidermal
material.

The microphotographs of reference plants are given in Fig. 4.3 and plants found in the faeces of
Markhor and domestic goat are given in Fig. 4.4 and 4.5, respectively.

SUMMARY

Markhor is typically associated with steppic mountain conditions and regions of meagre rainfall,
occurring between altitudinal range of 600m to 3600m. Chitral Gol National Park (CGNP)
supports the largest surviving populations of Kashmir Markhor (Capra falconeri cashmiriensis)
in Pakistan. Markhor is classifieded as Endangered globally as per IUCN Red List of 2005. The
present study was designed to determine the extent of food overlap between Markhor and
domestic goat in Chitral area. For this purpose, microscopic analysis of faecal material of both
the species was done. A total of 120 pellet groups, 30 each of Markhor and domestic goat were
collected from Chitral Gol National Park and Tushi Game Reserve during the spring and summer
seasons. Different characteristics of plant cells were used to determine the plant species
consumed by Markhor and domestic goat. An herbarium containing 22 plant species and a
photomicrograph key of reference plants were prepared by collecting plant species from the
study area. Diets of Markhor and domestic goat were identified by matching the slides of faecal
sample with the reference photographic key of plant species. During spring season eight plant
species were recorded in the faeces of Markhor and five in the faeces of domestic goat. Among
those, four plant species were found common in the diet of both Markhor and domestic goat,
including Salix iliensis, Juniperus excelsa, Prangos pabularia and Linum perenne. Rumex
lastatus was the dominant plant species in the spring diet of Markhor. While the dominant plant
in the diet of domestic goat was Salix iliensis. In summer samples, nine plant species were
identified in the faeces of both the Markhor and domestic goat. Among those, all nine plant
species (Artemisia maritime, Pistacia integerrima, Origanum vulgare, Rheum emodi, Hypsicum
perforatum, Quercus baloot, Prangos pabularia, Linum perenne, Bergenia ciliate) were found
common in the diet of both Markhor and domestic goat. Hypsicum perforatum was the dominant
plant species in the summer diet of Markhor while the dominant plant in the summer diet of
domestic goat was Linum perenne. This study revealed that the competition between Markhor
and domestic goat for food resources was very high in the study area during the summer season.
As the diets of Markhor and domestic goat were almost same during summer.

Conclusions
The microhistological technique based on the frequency of occurrence of plant fragments on a
microscope field (presence or absence) has become one of the most popular methods of
determining food habits, although it faces several limitations as reported by the researchers
evaluating its accuracy (Sparks and Malechek, 1968). One of the limitations refers to the fact that
the relation between identifiable epidermal tissue and unidentifiable tissue is not similar for all
species, which could result in overestimation or under-estimation some items/species (Santosh et
al., 2005).

Markhor consumed eight plant species during the spring season including; Salix iliensis,
Origanum vulgare, Rumex lastatus, Astragalus psilocentros, Juniperus excelsa, Prangos
pabularia, Linum perenne and Rubus anatolicus while five plant species were recorded in the
faeces of domestic goat (Salix iliensis, Juniperus excelsa, Prangos pabularia, Linum perenne.
Capparis spinosa). In summer samples, nine plant 55 species were identified in the faeces of both
Markhor and domestic goat which were common in their diet. These included; Artemisia
maritime, Pistacia integerrima, Origanum vulgare, Rheum emodi, Hypsicum perforatum,
Quercus baloot, Prangos pabularia, Linum perenne and Bergenia ciliate.

During the spring season, Markhor strongly preferred Linum perenne while domestic goat
strongly preferred Linum perenne and Salix iliensis. During summer season, both Markhor and
domestic goat strongly preferred Linum perenne.

Diet overlap factor was 0.99 ( =0.99) during summer season which indicates very high diet
overlap between Markhor and domestic goat. During the spring season, the value of diet overlap
factor was 0.69 ( =0.69), indicating that the diets of Markhor and domestic goat were not
completely overlapped.

Tree species utilized both by Markhor and domestic goat included; Theli (Salix iliensis), Saroz
(Juniperus excelsa), Thoak (Pistacia integerrima) and Banj (Quercus baloot ). Among shrubs,
Ishpain (Origanum vulgare) and Shahtili (Linum perenne) and among grasses and forbs,
Moshain (Prangos pabularia), Dron (Artemisia maritime), Ishpar (Rheum emodi), Matali
(Hypsicum perforatum) and Zakhme Hayat (Bergenia ciliate) were the species utilized both by
Markhor and domestic goats. Shahtili (Linum perenne) was the key preferred species by
Markhor and domestic goat in both summer and spring seasons.

During the summer season, Markhor and domestic goat showed high overlapping in habitat use
as indicated by their diet composition in this season. The diet preferences of Markhor and
domestic goat were found to be quite similar during summer which lead to competition for food
between them.

Recommendations

 Livestock grazing in the core habitat of Markhor in Chitral Gol National Park should be
completely banned.
 Livestock grazing should be regulated in the way that Markhor habitats outside of the
national park are least affected or not depleted.
 Habitat areas of Markhor, especially the preferred plant species for forage in these areas
should be protected. Efforts should also be made for the plantation of these plants
species in the degraded habitat of Markhor.
 Awareness of public about importance of biodiversity in general and threatened species
in particular should be raised to win their support and cooperation in conservation
efforts.
 Local communities should be involved in conservation and protection of Markhor
habitat. Economic incentive including alternate income sources should be provided to
the people living around Chitral Gol National Park and Tushi Game Reserve.

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