FLUIDS

 Fluid - any substance that flows, typically liquid or a gas

 Hydrostatics - study of fluids rest, (pressure of a fluid at a particular depth, buoyant force acting on
an object in a fluid)
 Hydrodynamics - study of fluid motion
 Bernoulli’s equation relates static pressure of fluid to its dynamic (moving) pressure
 absolute pressure - the total static pressure at a certain depth in a fluid, including the pressure at
the surface of the fluid
 Archimedes principle - the buoyant force acting on an object in a fluid is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the object
 Bernoulli’s principle - the sum of the pressures exerted by a fluid in a closed system is constant
 Density - the ratio of the mass to the volume of a substance flow rate continuity the volume or mass
entering any point must also exit that point
 Gauge pressure - the difference between the static pressure at a certain depth in a fluid and the
pressure at the surface of the fluid
 Ideal fluid - a non-compressible, non-viscous fluid which exhibits steady flow, that is, the velocity of
the fluid particles is constant
 Liquid - substance which has a fixed volume, but retains the shape of its container
 Pressure force per unit area the SI unit for pressure equal to one Newton of force per square
meter of area

F
P=
A
m P = pressure
ρ= F = force perpendicular to a surface
V
A = area
Pdepth =P0 +ρ gh ρ = density
F B=W fluid=ρ gV fluid m = mass
ρ1 A1 v 1= ρ2 A 2 v 2 (mass flow rate ) V = volume
FB = buoyant force
A 1 v1 = A 2 v 2 ( volume flow rate) W = weight
1 1 g = acceleration due to gravity
P1 + ρv 2 + ρ gy 1 =P2 + ρv 2 + ρ gy 2
2 1 2 2 v = speed or velocity
y = height above some reference level

MASS DENSITY
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 o The mass density p of a substance of uniform composition is defined as its mass M divided by its
volume V. That is,
m
ρ=
V

Ideal fluid is assumed

 to be incompressible (so that its density does not change),
 to flow at a steady rate,
 to be nonviscous (no friction between the fluid and the container through which it is flowing),
and
 flows irrotationally (no swirls or eddies).

Substance Mass Density

(kg/m3)
Solids
 Aluminum 2, 700
 Brass 8, 470
 Concrete 2, 200
 Copper 8, 890
 Diamond 3, 520
 Gold 19, 300
 Ice 917
 Iron (steel) 7, 860
 Lead 11, 300
 Quartz 2, 660
 Silver 10, 500
 Wood (yellow pine) 550
Liquids
 Blood (whole, 37 °C) 1, 060
 Ethyl alcohol 806
 Mercury 13, 600
 Oil (hydraulic) 800
 Water (4 °C) 1 x 103
Gases
 Air 1.29
 Carbon dioxide 1.98
 Helium 0.179
 Hydrogen 0.0899
 Nitrogen 1.25
 Oxygen 1.43
*0 °C and 1 atm

 Example
o The body of a man whose weight is about 690 N contains about 5.2 x 10 -3 m3 of blood. (a)
Find the blood’s weight and (b) express it as a percentage of the body weight.
 (a) m = 5.5 kg; W = 54 N
 (b) 7.8 %

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  Density is a characteristic property of a substance. For example, a piece of aluminium may have
any volume or mass, but because it is aluminum, the ratio of mass to volume, that is, its density,
will always be the same. Density is measured in units of kg/m 3.
 The specific gravity of a material is defined to be the ratio of its density to the density of
water. Water has a density of 1.00 x 103 kg/m3. Thus aluminum, which has a density of 2.70 x 103
kg/m3, has a specific gravity of 2.70.

PRESSURE
 The normal stress within a fluid at rest leads to the definition of fluid pressure. A fluid exerts a
force on a body with which it is in contact and that force is ordinarily directed toward the body
on which it acts. That is, it is usually a push, not a pull. The pressure P at any point in a fluid is
defined with reference to a small surface area A centered at that point. This surface could be,
for example, a small section of the wall of a container holding a fluid (Fig. a and b), or it could be a
small surface area of an object submerged in a fluid (Fig. c).

 The magnitude of the force F exerted by the fluid on the surface, divided by the surface
area A, is defined to be the pressure at that point:
F
o P=
A
o Units
 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
 1 torr = 133 Pa
 1 atm = 1.01 x 105 Pa = 14.7 lb/in2
o Example:
 Suppose the pressure acting on the back of a swimmer’s hand is 1.2 x 10 5 Pa, a
realistic value near the bottom of the diving end of a pool. The surface are of the
back of the hand is 8.4 x 10-3 m2. Determine the magnitude of the force that acts
on it.
 F = 1.0 x 103 N

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PRESSURE AND DEPTH IN A STATIC FLUID

o Since the column is in equilibrium, we can set the sum of the vertical forces equal to zero
o ∑Fy = P2A – P1A – mg = 0
o P2A = P1A + mg
o P2 = P1 = ρgh

o Example
o The figure shows the cross section of a swimming hole. Points A and B are both located at
a distance of h=5.50 m below the surface of the water. Find the pressure at each of these
two points.

o P2 = P1 + ρgh
o P = 1.55 x 105 Pa

o Example
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 o Blood in the arteries is flowing, but as a first approximation, the effects of this flow can
be ignored and the blood can be treated as a static fluid. Estimate, the amount by which
the blood pressure P2 in the anterior tibial artery at the foot exceeds the blood pressure
P1 in the aorta at the heart when the body is (a) reclining horizontally and (b) standing.
The distance from the aorta to the anterior tibial artery is 1.35 m.
 (a) P2 – P1 = ρgh = 0 Pa
 (b) P2 – P1 = ρgh = 1.40 x 104 Pa

PRESSURE GAUGES
o Mercury Barometer
o one of the simplest pressure gauges
o measuring atmospheric pressure
o Torricelli

o Except for a negligible amount of mercury vapor, the space above the mercury in the tube
is empty, and the pressure P1 is nearly zero there. The pressure P2 at point A at the
bottom of the mercury column is the same as that at point B, namely, atmospheric
pressure, for these two points are at the same level.
o With P1 = 0 Pa and P2 = ρgh, it follows that Patm = 0 Pa + ρgh
o Solve for h

o Open-tube manometer
o Another kind of pressure gauge

o P2 = Patm + ρgh
o Gauge Pressure
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 o Amount by which the container pressure differs from atmospheric pressure
o h is proportional to P2 - Patm
o actual value of P2 is called the absolute pressure

o sphygmomanometer
o measuring blood pressure

o Blood pressure is measured using a stethoscope and sphygmomanometer, and average

BP is 120/80 mmHg. 120 represents the systolic pressure and that is the highest
pressure in the arteries when the heart contracts. 80 represents the diastolic
pressure and it represents the highest pressure in the arteries when the heart is at
rest.
o Blood pressure can be considered high if systolic pressure is greater than 140 mmHg
or if diastolic pressure is greater than 90 mmHg.
o Steps in taking BP:
o 1) attach the inflatable cuff of the sphygmomanometer to the upper arm and place the
stethoscope underneath the cuff at the brachial artery and then inflate the cuff to
170 mmHg.
o 2) the flow of blood in the brachial artery is now blocked. Release some of the
pressure by unscrewing the pressure valve. Not too quickly. As the blood begins to
flow through the constricted artery you should hear a "LUB DUB" sound. That is the
systolic pressure, look at the dial and take note of the pressure that it was heard at.
o 3) continue allowing the pressure to reduce until you cannot hear the beating heart.
There will be a drop off of sound and that is the height of the diastolic pressure.

PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE
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o Any change in the pressure applied to a completely enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to
all parts of the fluid and the enclosing walls

o F 2=F1
( )
A2
A1
o If area A2 is larger than A1, a large force F2 can be applied to the cap on the right chamber,
starting with a smaller force F1 on the left. Depending on the ratio of the areas A2/A1, the force
F2 can be large indeed, as in the familiar hydraulic car lift shown in the picture. In this device the
force F2 is not applied to a cap that seals the larger chamber, but, rather, to a movable plunger
that lifts a car.

o Example
o In a hydraulic car lift, the input piston has a radius of r1 = 0.0120 m and a negligible
weight. The output plunger has a radius of r2 = 0.150 m. The combined weight of the car
and the plunger is F2 = 20, 500 N. The lift uses hydraulic oil that has a density of 8.00 x
102 kg/m3. What input force F1 is needed to support the car and the output plunger when
the bottom surfaces of the piston and plunger are at (a) the same level and (b) the level
height is 1.10 m?

o (a) F 2=F1
( ) A2
A1
 131 N
F2 F1
o (b) 2= + ρgh
π r 2 π r 21
 127 N
o An enormous variety of clever devices use hydraulic fluids, just as the car lift does. In a backhoe,
for instance, the fluids multiply a small input force into the large output force required for
digging.

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ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
o Any fluid applies a buoyant force to an object that is partially or completely immersed in it; the
magnitude of the buoyant force equals the weight of the fluid that the object displaces
o FB = Wfluid

o Examples
o Calculate the buoyant force on a helium-filled balloon having a volume of 14, 000 cm 3.
 FB = ρgV
 0.165 N
o A solid, square, pinewood raft measures 4.0 m on a side and is 0.30 m thick. (a) Determine
whether the raft floats in water, and (b) if so, how much of the raft is beneath the
surface?
 (a) W = ρgV
 26, 000 N (weight of the raft)
 FB = ρgV (using the density of water)
 47, 000 N
 Since the maximum possible buoyant force exceeds the 26, 000-N weight of the
raft, the raft will float only partially submerged at a distance beneath the water.
 (b) Wfluid = ρgV (where V of water is 4.0 m x 4.0 m x h)
 h = 0.17 m
o Normally a Goodyear airship, such as that in the figure, contains about 5.40 x 10 3 m3 of
helium (He) whose density is 0.179 kg/m3. Find the weight of the load WL that the airship
can carry in equilibrium at an altitude where the density of air is 1.20 kg/m 3.
 WHe + WL = FB
 WL = FB - WHe
 WL = ρair Vship g – ρHe Vship g
 WL = 5.40 x 104 N

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FLUIDS IN MOTION
 Fluids can be:
o Steady
 The velocity of the fluid particles at any point is constant as time passes
o Unsteady
 Exists whenever the velocity at a point in the fluid changes as time passes
 Turbulent flow – an extreme kind of unsteady flow and occurs when there are
sharp obstacles or bends in the path of a fast-moving fluid, as in rapids. The
velocity at any particular point changes erratically from moment to moment, both
in magnitude and direction.
 Fluids can be:
o Compressible
o Incompressible
 Fluids can be:
o Viscous - honey
o Nonviscous – water
 Ideal fluid – an incompressible, nonviscous fluid
 Streamlines
o Used to represent the trajectories of the fluid particles

 Streamline flow
o Steady flow

THE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

 Mass flow rate
o If a fluid enters one end of a pipe at a certain rate (e.g. 5 kg/s), then fluid must also leave
at the same rate
 The mass flow rate (ρAv) has the same value at every position along a tube that has a single entry
and a single exit point for fluid flow. For two positions along such a tube
o ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2
o where: ρ = fluid density (kg/m3)
A = cross-sectional area (m3)
v = fluid speed (m/s)
o SI unit of mass flow rate: kg/s
 The equation of continuity is an expression of the fact that mass is conserved as it flows along
the tube

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 Incompressible liquid
o ρ1 = ρ2
 volume flow rate (Q)
o Q = Av
o Q = V/s

 Examples
o A garden hose has an unobstructed opening with a cross-sectional area of 2.85 x 10 -4 m2,
from which water fills a bucket in 30.0 s. The volume of the bucket is 8.00 x 10 -3 m3
(about two gallons). Find the speed of the water that leaves the hose through (a) the
unobstructed opening and (b) an obstructed opening that has only half as much area.
 (a) v = Q/A
 [(8.00 x 10-3 m3)/30.0s] / 2.85 x 10-4 m2
 v = 0.936 m/s
 (b) A1v1 = A2v2
 Since A2 = ½ A1
 v2 = 1.87 m/s
o In the condition known as atherosclerosis, a deposit or atheroma forms on the arterial wall
and reduces the opening through which blood can flow. In the carotid artery in the neck,
blood flows three times faster through a partially blocked region than it does through an
unobstructed region. Determine the ratio of the effective radii of the artery at the two
holes.
 Unobstructed volume flow rate = Obstructed volume flow rate
 Auvu = Aovo
 (πru2) vu = (πro2) vo
 ru/ro = √ 3 = 1.7

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BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
 In steady flow of a nonviscous, incompressible fluid, the pressure, the fluid speed, and the
elevation at two points are related by:
o P1 + ½ ρv12 + ρgy1 = P2 + ½ ρv22 + ρgy2
 Bernoulli’s Equation comes about from conservation of mechanical energy for an incompressible
fluid
o E = ½ mv2 + mgy + PV
 Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
o A tarpaulin is a piece of canvas that is used to cover a cargo, like that pulled by the truck
in the figure. When the truck is stationary the tarpaulin lies flat, but it bulges outward
when the truck is speeding down the highway.

 In accord to Bernoulli’s equation, the moving air has a lower pressure than the
stationary air within the cargo area
 The greater inside pressure generates a greater force on the inner surface of the
canvas, and the tarpaulin bulges outward.
o Household plumbing
o Chimney
o Lifting force on airplane wings

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o Curve ball

o Examples
 An aneurysm is an abnormal enlargement of a blood vessel such as the aorta.
Suppose that, because of an aneurysm, the cross-sectional area A1 of the aorta
increases to a value A2 = 1.7A1. The speed of blood (ρ = 1060 kg/m3) through a
normal portion of the aorta is v1 = 0.40 m/s. Assuming that the aorta is horizontal
(the person is lying down), determine the amount by which the pressure P 2 in the
enlarged region exceeds the pressure P1 in the normal region.
 v2 = 0.24 m/s
 P2 – P1 = ½ ρ (v12 – v22)
o 54 Pa
 Water flows through a garden hose and out through a sprinkler. The hose has an
inner radius of 1.00 cm, and the sprinkler head has 20 holes, each with a radius of
0.500 mm. The water moves through the hose at a speed of 0.500 m/s. (a) Find the
speed at which the water leaves the sprinkler head. (b) Calculate the pressure in
the hose required to produce this flow.
 v2 = v1 (A1/A2)
o v2 = 10 m/s
 P1 – P2 = ½ ρ (v12 – v22) + ρg (y2 – y1)
o P1 – P2 = 0.49 atm
o P1 = 1 atm
o P2 = 1.49 atm

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VISCOUS FLOW

o In an ideal fluid there is no viscosity to hinder the fluid layers as they slide past one another.
Within a pipe of uniform cross section, every layer of an ideal fluid moves with the same velocity.
When viscosity is present, the fluid layers have different velocities. The fluid at the center of
the pipe has the greatest velocity. In contrast, the fluid layer next to the wall surface does not
move at all because it is held tightly by intermolecular forces.
o The tangential force F required to move a fluid layer at a constant speed v, when the layer has an
area A and is located a perpendicular distance y from an immobile surface:
o F = (ηAv)/y
o Where η is the coefficient of viscosity
o SI unit of viscosity: Pa·s
o Common unit of viscosity: poise (P)
 Jean Poiseuille (pwah-zoy)
o 1 poise (Pa) = 0.1 Pa·s
o Ideal fluid has η = 0 P
o Poiseuille’s Law
o A fluid whose viscosity is η, flowing through a pipe of radius R and length L, has a volume
flow rate Q given by
 Q = [ηR4(P2-P1)]/8ηL
 Where P1 and P2 are the pressures at the ends of the pipe
o Example:
 A hypodermic syringe is filled with a solution whose viscosity is 1.5 x 10 -3 Pa·s. The
plunger area of the syringe is 8.0 x 10-5 m2, and the length of the needle is 0.025
m. The internal radius of the needle is 4.0 x 10-4 m. The gauge pressure in a vein
is 1,900 Pa (14 mm of mercury). What force must be applied to the plunger, so
that 1.0 x 10-6 m3 of solution can be injected in 3.0 s?

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 Q = (1.0 x 10-6 m3)/3.0 s
o 3.3 x 10-7 m3/s
 P2 – P1 = 1,200 Pa
 P1 = 1,900 Pa
 P2 = 3,100 Pa
 F = P2 x plunger area
o F = 0.25 N

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