CIV2102: ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Part I
By

Dr. Gilbert J. KASANGAKI

Room 254, CEDAT Old Building
School of Engineering,
College of Engineering, Design, Art and design,
Makerere University,
P.O Box 7062,
Kampala.

Mob.: 077 2 536 341

070 6 307 373
E-mail: gkas@cedat.mak.ac.ug

© 2014
 0.0 Subcourse Content
1. Introduction
2. Elements of Physical Geology
3. Dynamic Geology
4. Minerals and Geological Materials
5. Geo-hydrology
6. Geotechnical Investigations
7. Elements of Rock Mechanics
8. Rock Mass Quality (RMQ)
9. Geotechnical Classification of Rocks
10. Excavations
2.0 Physical Geology
Planet Earth
2.1 Introduction
The upper part of the earth is divided into a number
of spheres viz., (a) Atmosphere, (b) Hydrosphere
and (c) Lithosphere.
Atmosphere is the outermost sphere which consists
of several gases and vapours and envelopes the earth.
It is essentially a mixture of N2 and O2 with smaller
quantities of vapour, CO2 etc. Geologically, atmosphere
is important as the medium of climate and weather.
Hydrosphere includes the natural waters of the
earth i.e., oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams and
underground water.
Lithosphere is the outer part of the earth’s crust
consisting of rocks and minerals.
2.1 Introduction
The earth is not a static body but is constantly
subject to changes both at its surface and at
deeper levels.

Physical geology deals with processes that

bring about changes in the crust and upon the
surface of the earth. It also deals with the surface
features of the earth (land forms) and its
topography.
2.1 Introduction
Surface changes such as destruction of coastal
cliffs, reduction in height of continents and
transportation of material so removed to either
sea or to inland basins of deposition due to
erosion are easily observable.
However, changes that take place from below the
surface are NOT so easily observed and their
nature can only be postulated. Examples: those
that lead to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
2.1 Introduction
These changes result from energy transactions of which
the most important are listed in Table 1.1 (Smith, 1973).
2.2 The surface of the earths
2.2.1 Dimensions
The earth is not a perfect sphere: At the equator, the
radius of the earth is about 6370km the polar radius is
shorter by about 2.2km.

The surface area of the earth is about 510x106km2; about

one thirds is covered by land including shallow waters
of the shelf surrounding the continents while nearly
two-thirds is covered by the deep oceans. A
continental shelf is a continuation of the land
submerged and with a gentle slope of about 1 in 1000.
2.2 The surface of the earths
2.2.2 Surface relief

Surface relief is very varied; mountains rise to several

kilometres above the sea level with a maximum of 8.9km
at Everest. In Uganda, the highest is 5.109km at Rwenzori.

The average height above sea level is 0.86km and the

mean depth of the ocean floor is about 3.8km.

The ocean floor are much deeper in elongated trenches

with Marianas Trench in the N.W. Pacific being the
greatest known depth at 11.04km
2.2 The surface of the earths
2.2.2 Surface relief

The oceans, seas, lakes and rivers are collected termed

the hydrosphere while the whole is surrounded by the
gaseous envelope called the atmosphere.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.1 Introduction

The wide range of conditions found in different parts of

the globe at present reflect the variety of natural
processes that operate to shape the surface of the
earth.

Land areas are continuously being reduced and their

shape modified by weathering and erosion, and the
general term for this is denudation.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.2 Weathering

Rocks exposed to the atmosphere undergo weathering

due to atmospheric agents such as rain, and frost. It is
chemical, mechanical or biological.

Chemical weathering or decomposition is the

breakdown of minerals into new compounds by the
action of chemical agents; acids in the air, in rain and in
river water and though slow produce noticeable effects
especially in soluble rocks.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.2 Weathering

Mechanical weathering or disintegration breaks

rocks into smaller particles by the action of temperature,
by impact from raindrops and by abrasion from mineral
particles carried in the wind.

Biological weathering describes those mechanical and

chemical changes of the ground that are directly
associated with the activities of animals and plants.
The activity of micro-organisms influence the rate.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.2 Weathering

These processes lead to a cover of weathered rocks on a

land surface with the upper layers continually removed,
exposing the fresher material beneath it to the influence
of weathering agents.

In some instances, the weathered rock material may

remain in place as a residual deposit or soil that retains
many characteristics of its parent rock and differs
significantly in its mechanical properties from soils
formed by deposition of sediment.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.2 Weathering
Except where the rock is exposed, the ground surface
constitute “top soil”. The soil ranges in depth from a few
centimetres to a metre or more depending on climate
and type of rock from which it is derived with particle
size and distribution as depicted in the figure below.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.3 Chemical weathering
The processes most commonly involved in chemical
weathering are listed in the table, next slide. Their rate of
operation depends on the presence of water and is
greater in wet climates than in dry climates.
The speed and severity of weathering in wet climates
depends on the activity of the root zone i.e. the rate of
growth of vegetation and production of CO2 in the root
zone, and the frequency with which percolating rainwater
can flush weathered constituents from the weathering
profile.
#
1
2.3
Process
The surface
Description
processes
Dissociation of minerals into ions, greatly aided by presence of
Solution CO in the soil, which forms carbonic acid (H2CO3) with
2.3.3 Chemical
2
weathering
percolating water.
2 The combination of oxygen with a mineral to form oxides and
Oxidation hydroxides or any other reaction in which the oxidation number
of the oxidized elements is increased.
3 The release of oxygen from a mineral to its surrounding: ions
Reduction leave the mineral structure as the oxidation number of the
reduced element is decreased.
4 Absorption of water molecules into the mineral structure. Note:
Hydration
This normally results in expansion of the material.
5 Hydrogen ions in percolating water replace mineral cations with
Hydrolysis
no occurrence of oxidation and reduction.
6 The migration of ions produced by the above processes. Note:
The mobility of ions depends on their ionic potential: Ca, Mg, Na,
Leaching
K are easily leached by moving water. Fe is more resistant. Si is
difficult to leach and Al is almost immobile.
7 Cation Absorption on to the surface of negatively charged clay of
Exchange positively charged cations in solution, especially Ca, H, K and Mg.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.3 Chemical weathering
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.3 Chemical weathering
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.3 Chemical weathering
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.3 Chemical weathering
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.3 Chemical weathering
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.3 Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering is not restricted to easily soluble
rocks but attacks all rock types. The most easily
weathered are limestones; of greater resistance are
sandstones and shales: igneous rocks (excluding certain
volcanic rocks that weather rapidly) and quartzites are
the most resistant.
The effect of chemical weathering on these more
resistant rocks can be clearly seen where deep
weathering has occurred and thick cover of rotted
material lies above the irregular surface which bounds
the solid rocks beneath the weathered zone.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.3 Chemical weathering
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.4 Mechanical weathering
The processes most commonly involved in mechanical
weathering indicated in table below (loading and
unloading, frost action, thermal effects, and exudation or
crystallisation).
.Unloading: One of the works of denudation is to
reduce the load on an area as the removal of rock cover
proceeds, leading to relief of stress in the rock below
followed by vertical expansion which gives rise to the
formation of ‘sheets’ of rock by opening of joints parallel
to the ground surface.
#
2.3 TheDescription
Process
surface processes
Vertical expansion due to the reduction of vertical load by
Mechanical erosion. This will open existing fractures and may permit the
12.3.3 Chemical weathering
unloading creation of new fractures.
Impact on rock, and abrasion, by sand and silt size windborne
Mechanical particles in deserts. Impact on soil and weak rocks by rain
2
loading drops during intense rainfall storms.
Expansion by the freezing of water pores and fractures in
Thermal
3 cold regions, or by the heating of rocks in hot regions.
loading Contraction by the cooling of rocks and soils in cold regions.
Expansion and contraction associated with the repeated
Wetting and absorption and loss of water molecules from mineral surfaces
4
drying
and structures (compare with hydration).
Expansion of pores and fissures by crystallization within them
Crystallisation of minerals that were originally in solution. Note: expansion is
5 only severe when crystallization occurs within a confined
(exudation)
space.

Pneumatic The repeated loading by waves of air trapped at the head of

6 fractures exposed in the wave zone of a sea cliff.
loading
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.4 Mechanical weathering
This is frequently seen in igneous rocks such as granite
intrusion, where the sheet jointing is developed in the
upper part of the mass: the ‘sheets’ or slabs of rock are
commonly up to a metre or so in thickness.
The frequency of sheet-joints diminishes with depth
below the surface; but during deep quarrying in an
igneous rock, parting surfaces may open with a loud
cracking noise as stress in the rock is relieved. The
production of smaller platy fragments in a similar manner
is known as spalling.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.4 Mechanical weathering
Mechanical loading: .
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.4 Mechanical weathering
Frost action: In cold climates, freezing breaks off flakes
and angular fragments from exposed rock surfaces, a
process referred to as the “operation of the ice-wedge”;
it leads to the formation of screes on mountain slopes
and produces the serrated appearance of a high
mountain sky-line.
Water enters rocks by pores, cracks, and fissures; the ice
formed on freezing occupies nearly 10% greater volume,
and exerts a pressure of about 13.8MNm-2 if the freezing
occurs in a confined space.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.4 Mechanical weathering
This leads to disintegration of the outer layers of rock
and the loosened fragments fall and accumulate as heaps
of scree or talus at lower levels, material which may later
be consolidated into deposits known as breccia.
By the removal of the fragments the rock surface is
exposed to further frost action and the process
continues. The term permafrost (Muller, 1945) is used to
denote perennially frozen ground. Such areas remain
below 0oC for many years.
If the sediments remain below 0oC and contain no ice
then the condition is termed dry permafrost.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.4 Mechanical weathering
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.4 Mechanical weathering
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.4 Mechanical weathering
Exudation/Crystallisation: Similar to frost action only
that in this case disintegration takes place due to
formation of crystals of salts such as sodium chloride
within the cavities. This process occurs in rocks near sea
shores.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.4 Mechanical weathering
Insolation: In hot climates, when a rock surface is
exposed to a considerable daily range of temperature, as
in arid and semi-arid regions, the expansion that occurs
during the day and the contraction at night, constantly
repeated, weaken the structure of the rock.
The outer heated layers tend to pull away from the
cooler rock underneath and flakes and slabs split off, a
process known as exfoliation.
This weathering is known as insolation.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.4 Mechanical weathering
When a large range of temperature prevails on rock
surfaces such as in rocks with different mineral
constituents in deserts, strain is set up in the rock by
unequal expansion and contraction of the minerals
thereby loosening up the texture.
In other words, a more homogeneous rock made up
largely of minerals having similar thermal expansion
would not be affected so much as a rock containing
several kinds of minerals having different rates of
expansion.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.4 Mechanical weathering
An example of sheets of rocks spilt off by expansion and
contraction due to alternate heating and cooling.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.4 Mechanical weathering
From the foregoing, it is clear that mechanical weathering
is purely a physical process with NO change in chemical
composition rather disintegration into smaller particles.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.6 Biological weathering
Plants retain moisture and any rock surface on which
they grow is kept damp, thus promoting the solvent
action of the water.
The chemical decay of rock is also aided by the formation
of vegetable humus, i.e. organic products derived from
plants, and this is helped by the action of bacteria and
fungi.
Organic acids are thereby added to percolating rainwater
and increase its solvent power.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.6 Biological weathering
Bacteria species may live in the aerobic and anaerobic
pore spaces of the weathering zone, and mobilise C, N,
Fe, S and O, so assisting the process of weathering and
sometimes attacking concrete and steel.
Their mineral by-products can accumulate and cause
expansion of the ground if not washed away by
percolating water.
The mechanical break-up of rocks is hastened when the
roots of plants penetrate into cracks and wedge apart
the walls of the rock.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.6 Biological weathering
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.8 Process dominance
The processes described under the different types of
weathering proceed at the same time but at a given site
one type will be predominant.
As earlier stated, in their resistance to weathering, rocks
are not homogeneous. One may weather faster or slower
than another. Parts of the same rock may also weather at
different rates such . This process, known as differential
weathering, leads to many features such as arches and
honeycomb weathering.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.7 Global trends

Present distribution of the weathering described is

illustrated in Fig. 3.8 while the distribution of pedological
soils is shown in Fig. 3.9.

A comparison between Figs 3.8 and 3.9 indicates that a

basic relationship exists between soil type and
weathering type because both reflect climate.

Soils can be classified according to their climatic zone and

soil profiles usually reflect their latitude (Fig. 3.10).
2.3 The surface processes
2.3 The surface processes
2.3 The surface processes
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.7 Global trends: Climate and soil types

A special deposit called laterite (from Latin word later -

a brick) exists in certain areas of S. America, Australia,
East Indies, Central, South and East Africa including
Uganda. It is rich in oxides of aluminium and ion.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3.7 Global trends: Climate and soil types
2.3 The surface processes
2.4 Erosion and deposition

Erosion is term used to refer to the removal and the

subsequent transportation of ground surface material.

The agents of erosion include rivers, wind, raindrops,

moving ice and water waves. These loosen up, dislodge
and carrying particles of soil, sediments and lager pieces
of rock.
2.3 The surface processes
2.3 The surface processes
2.5 Factors affecting weathering
2.5 Factors affecting weathering
2.3.7 Time (Age)
2.5 Products of weathering
2.5 Products of weathering
2.5 Products of weathering
2.5 Soil profile
2.5 Soil profile – Four weathering zone
2.5 Soil profile – Four weathering zone
2.5 minerals and rock formation
2.5 Engineering consideration of weathering

Engineering projects are built either on soil or on rocks

Soil, as we know it, is the ultimate end product of
weathering.
As such, for a better understanding of the engineering
properties of soils:
◦ The engineer will benefit a great deal if he has an understanding of
the genetic background of soils.

Similarly, when foundations are to be carried down to the

bed rock:
◦ The depth of weathered cover,
◦ Degree of weathering and
◦ Trend of weathering, all influence the safety of the project
2.5 Engineering consideration of weathering

For the construction engineers;

◦ The extent of operational processes of weathering in
the area,
◦ Likely effect of weathering on construction material, all
help in the assessment of the durability of the
construction material.
It is now well established that weathering is the main
cause of instability of slopes in many areas.
Slope rocks lose shear strength and become prone to
failure. Therefore the engineers are tasked with the
responsibility of ensuring the slopes are protected.
Weathering therefore is an essential
part of the rock cycle (to be discussed
later) that plays an important role in
the formation of sediments, raw
materials for sedimentary rocks
rocks..
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Overview
Movement of ground surface material from one place to
another.Agents of erosion include:
◦ Wind
◦ Rivers and surface runoff
◦ Waves (sea, oceans and lakes)
These are pursued further in the next few slides.
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
Wind is air in motion. Air is the collection of the gases in
the atmosphere.
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Erosion
2.5.1 Wind
2.5 Land forms
2.5.1 Erosional land forms
Rivers, glaciers, wind and other agents slowly wear away
the land surface, at rates determined at any locality by
the balance between the intensity of the erosive forces
and the resistance to erosion of the rocks exposed to
this assault.
Accordingly, resistant rocks are left protruding and
forming high ground, and weaker rocks are etched out so
that their outcrops match depressions in the ground
surface.
2.5 Land forms
2.5.1 Erosional land forms
At a geological boundary where hard and soft rocks abut,
there is likely to be a break of slope called scarp and the
boundary may be traced by following the surface feature.
If erosive forces attacked the land surface everywhere
with uniform intensity, then a simple relationship between
erosional landforms and solid geology would be near-
universal where superficial deposits were thin or absent.
On the real earth, erosive agents are often concentrated
at certain locations and so the simple relationship does
not exist.
2.5 Land forms
2.5.1 Erosional land forms
Scarp and dip slope: indicates the presence of a relatively
resistant layer, such as a bed of sandstone in shales or a
dolerite sill in sediments, dipping at a low angle in the
direction of the dip slope. The scarp trends in the strike
direction.
Note that the controlling property is resistance to
erosion relative to adjacent beds, and not necessarily
hardness.
2.5 Land forms
2.5.1 Erosional land forms
Ridge is formed when a resistant layer dips steeply with
the dip slope as steep as the scarp itself. In an area of
gently sloping strata, a ridge may indicate the presence of
a dyke.
Read about step featuring, erosion hollows, collapse
structure and shallow holes.
2.5 Land forms
2.5.2 Depositional landforms
In many parts of the world, superficial deposits are
formed in-situ by weathering of rocks into soil. The
surface indicates the distribution of such soils only in so
far as it still reflects the distribution of parent rocks by
erosional landforms that are older than the soils.
Read more about depositional landforms including
drumlins:.
1.2 Further Reading
◦ Burt L. () Handbook of geotechnical investigation,
◦ Hunt R.E. (2007) Geotechnical investigation Methods: A field guide for
Geotechnical Engineers, CRC Press,Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton.
◦ Hunt R.E. (2005) Geotechnical engineering investigation handbook, 2nd Edition,
Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton.
◦ Lawrence D.W. () Geotechnical engineering investigation,
◦ National Highway Institute (1997) Training course in geotechnical and
foundation engineering: Subsurface exploration, NHI Course No. 13231 –
Module 1, Publication No. FHWA HI-97-021.
◦ Terzaghi K., Peck R.B. & Mesri G. (1996) Soil mechanics in engineering practice,
3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
◦ U.S Army Corps of Engineers (2001) Engineering and Design: Geotechnical
Investigations, Engineer Manual No. 1110-1-1801, Department of the Army US
Army Corps of Engineers,Washington, DC.