Psychology in Administration

Human Factors

Psychology related to administration

Administrative psychology, also known as managerial psychology
which deals with an understanding of the psychological patterns
that are commonplace among groups and individuals in the
workplace.
This can be used to predict and prevent the growth of harmful
psychological patterns in the workplace. Administrative psychiatry
can also be used to control psychological patterns that will have
long-term benefits for organizations.
For instance, administrative psychology can be used to promote
cooperation and teamwork among co-workers.
 Framework for motivation
The concept of motivation
To motivate is to induce people to act in a desired manner. The
basic problem in motivation is creating a situation in which employees
can satisfy their individual needs while at the same time work towards
the goal of the organization.

It involves the following:

Understanding human needs.
Leading, directing and guiding.
Influencing, disciplining and rewarding
Compensating.

Motivating approaches

The history of effort to motivate his fellow men can be

summarized in four terms.

Coercion to compel by force (master-slave)

Conniving to be and accomplice, manipulating.
Cuddle and coddle to hug and pamper (parent children)
Compensation by providing material rewards (money, land)
 Principles connected with motivating

Motivation does not mean doing things for people. The task of the
manager is to channel already existing drives towards an integration
of organizational and individual satisfaction.
The most realistic and effective motivator is the job itself.
The workers want of satisfy a range of needs.
The manager may look for constants in the work force but must
realize that there are differences in human.
The manager should prudently test various techniques of
motivation to discover which are the most practical and effective
with each employee.
The best way to influence the behavior of subordinates is to be
open to their influence.

A widely adopted pluralistic framework of motivation developed

by psychologist Maslow, the theory express the following ideas:

Man is a wanting being - he always wants and he wants more.

needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance. when one level has
been satisfied of higher level need emerges and demands satisfaction.
Only need not yet satisfied can influence behavior.
 -X and theory Y

key concept is that every executive relates to subordinates

on the basis of a set of assumptions, which he shows by expounding
two distinct theories.

Theory-x includes the traditional assumptions regarding the typical

worker:
He is by nature indolent and averse to work.
He lacks ambition and avoids responsibility.
He is passive and prefers to be led.
He must be moulded to fit the needs of the organization.
He must be persuaded and pushed, punished and rewarded.
He must be tightly supervised and controlled

Theory Y is based on quite different assumptions:

Work is as natural as play; it can be satisfying or punishing

depending upon circumstances.
The greatest effort comes from willing co-operation which produces
self-direction toward accepted goals without coercion of closed
control.
The average worker seeks opportunity for personal improvement
and self-respect. Under proper condition he learns to seek
responsibility and will commit himself to objectives without
immediate rewards.
Abilities, creative imagination and intellectual potentiality are
widely distributed in the work force and often poorly utilized on the
job.
 McClellands Need Theory of Motivation

McClelland and Alkinson developed models of motivational

behavior which put considerable emphasis on environment
determinants of motivation. The theory assumes:

All individuals have certain basic motives or needs. These

motive represent behavior potentials.
Whether or not these motives are aroused depends upon the
situation or environment perceive by the individual.
Particular environmental properties serve to stimulated or
arouse-various motives.
Concept of Morale
Morale pertains to the general feeling of well-being, satisfaction and
happiness of people. It is the total satisfaction a person derives from his job, his
work group, his supervisor, his organization and his environment. It is also
affected by his personality structure and value system. The sprit and willingness
with which work is done constitute morale.

Morale and Theory X and Y

Any worker who feels that what he is doing is uninteresting,
unimportant an offers little personal satisfaction; will have low morale and
require different supervision than one who is highly motivated. Theory X is for
people with low morale and theory Y is for those with high morale.
 Importance of morale
There is common agreement that high morale is desirable because it
produces the following effects:
Willing co-operation toward organization objectives.
Loyalty to the organization and its leadership.
Good discipline or voluntary conformance to regulations.
A reasonable display of employee initiative and interest.
Strong organizational stamina, i.e. the ability of the organization to
during times of difficulty.
Conditions that foster voluntary co-operation
Satisfactions built in to job
Men well matched with jobs
Clear organization structure.
Effective communication networks
Sound objectives.
Workable policies, methods and procedures.
Balanced control system.

Understanding human needs

Basic human needs:
Needs include both what a person must have and what he
merely wants. As long as a man wants something, he has a need for it
regardless of what someone else may think of the justification for this
desire.
Needs vary widely among individuals. This variation is largely a matter
of satisfying needs in different ways. However, there is enough
similarity in the basic needs of most people & these needs can be
classified in the following order

Physical or physiological needs.

Security or safety needs. (both economic and psychological)
Social needs (Sociability, affiliation, esteem)
Self-fulfillment needs. (self-actualization, power, autonomy)
Physiological needs
All human beings have needs that pertain to survival and
physiological maintenance of the body. The objects of these needs
include such things as food, shelter and rest.
Need for security
The desire for a predictable, structured and reliable environment.
The desire for fairness, non-threatening environment.
Social need
Social needs are satisfied through relations with other people and
the desire for sociability is strong in most of us.
Need for affiliation
The desire for association, for acceptance by ones fellows for giving
& receiving friendship.

Need for esteem

The desire for reputation, status, respects, recognition, attention,
importance or appreciation.
Need for self-actualization
The desire to realize own potential. The desire for personal
growth and self-development.
Need for power
The desire for gaining control and influence over others.
Need for autonomy
The desire for independence and freedom on the job. The desire for
achievement, competence and confidence.
 Potency of needs
The degree of motivation that can be achieved through need
satisfying is determined by the potency of a need which depends on-

Marginal value
How intensely a man wants more of a thing depends on how
much he already has.
Aspiration level
Whether a need continues to be potent, as a man derives degrees
of satisfaction, depends largely on his level of aspiration
Uncalculated Values
Rarely does one calculate marginal value and aspiration level. The
potency of a need is more often based on feelings.

Leading, directing and guiding

Leading:
It is a matter of dynamic relationship between a manager
and his subordinates. It is the process by which a supervisor
directly and personally influences the behavior of his
subordinates.
Leadership functions and activities
Guiding and motivating the behavior of the subordinates to fit the
jobs. This involves:
Directing
Disciplining
Satisfying needs
Understanding the feelings of the subordinate as they translate
plans in to actions.
To look at things from the subordinates point of view with empathy.
Influencing subordinates through own performance.
Fostering voluntary co-operation.
Qualities that most good leaders appear to exhibits.
The desire to excel.
A sense of responsibility.
A capacity of work.
A contagious enthusiasm

Guides for leaders behavior (leadership altitude)

Friendliness
Consistency & fairness in dealing
Support and confidence in subordinates.
Encouraging 2-way communication.
Explaining reasons for decisions and actions.
Respect for individuals.

Directing and guiding process

Directing is process issuing orders or giving instructions

to those who are committed to carry out the tasks of the
organization.

Guiding is the interpersonal aspect of managing by which

subordinates are led to understand and contribute
effectively to the attainment of objectives. Directing and
guiding are the mechanisms for leading. They seem to be
synonymous to some extent but they differ in this sense
that directing sounds like an autocratic way of leading
whereas guiding is a democratic way of leading.
What is order?

An order initiates, modifies or stops an activity. It is the impetus

by which an organization is activated or disbanded.

Necessary components of a good order:

Complete including all information necessary for
intelligent action.
Clear specific, concrete.
Doable feasible, attainable.

Influencing, Discipline and Rewarding

Methods for conditioning behavior:

Influencing Obtaining voluntary obedience.

Disciplining imposing penalties for undesirable behavior.
Rewarding bestowing approval for desirable behavior.
 Influencing
Human behavior is conditioned by environment. Therefore human
behavior can be conditioned creating appropriate environment.

Influencing is the ability to create the environment for voluntary

obedience and the sense of self determination among the
subordinates
Authority and Influence
Authority is a legal or rightful power to give direct orders to the
subordinates. A grant of permission to give instructions to
subordinates does not necessarily include an assurance that the
subordinates will obey the instructions. Effective authority over
people can only be achieved with influence.

Power and influence

Power is the ability to do something. Power has always been used to
maintain obedience by disciplining or rewarding. Power alone is not
effective for achieving desired result. Supervisor must blend power
and influence to support authority.
Factors for developing and enhancing influence-
The influence of an executive depends to a significant extent on the
man himself, his personal behavior.
Influence of executive is partly determined by his status, his
importance in the eyes of other people
i. Impressive title puts a considerable impact.
ii. Pay is a significant status symbol.
Executives who can provide pertinent and reliable information to
the subordinates are likely to be influential.
Senior executives can enhance influence on their subordinates by
paying attention to what they say.
 Disciplining
The purpose of discipline action is solely to improve future
behavior.

Guides/Factors for disciplining

i. Forewarning regarding the policies and
procedure.
ii. Impersonality stressing the offence rather than
person.
iii. Fairness and consistency.

Disciplining methods
i. Reprimand.
ii. Suspension.
iii. Demotion and
iv. Dismissal

Rewarding
Rewarding is a response to usually design behavior and is a way
of bestowing approval by reward we mean benefits like bonuses,
salary increase etc.

If rewards are to work, they have to meet the following

conditions.
They must be large enough to justify the additional effort.
They must be perceived as directly related the required
performance.
They must be perceived as equitable by majority of the
member.
 Compensating
Methods of employee payment
Many of the methods of employee payment may be included in one of
two major classes.
Those based upon satisfactory performance of duties during a
period of time.
Those based upon the satisfactory completion a unit of work.

Factors must be present for pay to motivate good performance

There must be an expectation that good performance will actually
yield high pay; pay must be tied to performance at least in the mind
of the individual.
There must also be an expectation that, it is possible through
own effort to achieve those goals which serve to define good
performance.

Wage incentive
Objective of wage incentives
For management
Lowered unit cost resulting from increased output.
Improved cost control leading to more consistent production cost
Improved utilization of facilities.
Increased worker morale due to earnings becoming proportionate
to efforts.
For employee
An opportunity to earn money in proportion to individual
performance.
An opportunity for recognition of individual performance.
An opportunity to control their standards of living by their own
initiative.
 Controlling Conflict
The concept of conflict
Origin of conflict
Conflict has its origins in differences in objective interests, efforts
approach, timing, attitudes and so forth.

Conditions for conflict

Theories of conflict focuses on four different areas
The parties involved individual, group, organizations.
The field within which conflict may occur The area of
disagreement.
The dynamics of the situation what the parties do.
The control of the conflict.

Positive and negative outcomes of conflict

Positive outcomes include the following:
Better ideas are produced
People are forced to search for new approaches
Long-standing problems are dealt with
People forced to clarify views.
Tension stimulate interest and creativity
Capabilities are tested.
Negative outcomes include the following:
Some people feel defeated
Distance between people increases
Climate of distrust and suspicion develops
Sub optimization results due to lack of co-operation.
People leave because of turmoil.
Resistance develops.
 Inevitability of conflict
Conflict exists all around us. It has the potential for both desirable and
undesirable results. Management must learn how to live with it, how
to use it constructive and how to minimize its destructive aspects.

Handling Conflict
The issues at stake:

Conflicting parties usually find themselves in one or more of four area

of disagreement:
Facts the present situation or problem
Goals how we would like things to be.
Methods the best way to achieve our goals
Values qualities we support

Conflict handling modes

Competing it involves going all out it win your objective at the

others expense.
Accommodating it means neglecting your concerns to let the
other party achieve what is important to him.
Avoiding Confrontation does not make sense, when there seems
little chance to resolve the conflict.
Compromising a loaf
risking an all-out.
Collaborating it is kind of mutual problem solving each party
accepts the others point of view.