BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

IV ECE A, B AND C SECTIONS I SEM

UNIT-1
Bio-potential signals and Electrodes

1. a) Define pH electrodes.
• The hydrogen ion concentration or pH is a measure of the acidity or
alkalinity of a solution.

b) Explain about organization of cell.

• A cell consists of three parts: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and,
between the two, the cytoplasm.

• Within the cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements of fine fibers and

hundreds or even thousands of miniscule but distinct structures
called organelles.
 c) Explain about different types bio chemical transducers?
Refer question 6

2. a) Define Bioampliers.
• Generally, biological/bioelectric signals have low amplitude and low
frequency. Therefore, to increase the amplitude level of biosignals
amplifiers are designed.

• The outputs from these amplifiers are used for further analysis and they
appear as ECG, EMG, or any bioelectric waveforms. Such amplifiers are
defined as Bio Amplifiers or Biomedical Amplifiers.

b) Derive expression of nernest equation for membrane resting potential

generation.
 c) Explain the function of a cell with a neat structural diagram. Also explain its
Various constituents.
• A cell consists of three parts: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and,
between the two, the cytoplasm.

• Within the cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements of fine fibers and

hundreds or even thousands of miniscule but distinct structures
called organelles.

3. a) What is bio signals?

• Bio+Signal = “living object” + “function that carries information
about the behavior or state”. Biosignals are the key objects in
Biosystems

b) Explain different types of bio signals?

• Biosignal carries all information about the living object. We analyze
signals which are coming from the body (ECG, EEG etc.) or are connected
to the body (X- ray images, ultrasonic images).
Biosignal can be used to understand the underlying physiological
• A biosignal can be defined as a physiological phenomenom, a body
variable that can be measured and monitored.

• This can also be justified by the fact that there are many ways to classify
the biosignals:

• PERMANENT/INDUCED (INTRINSIC/EXTRINSIC TO BODY)

• Static/Dynamic

• Origin

• Permanent Biosignals
This kind of Biosignals exist without any excitation from outside
body and are always present in the Human Body because source is
inside the body. One example is the electrocardiographic signal
(ECG) induced by electrical heart & muscle excitation with the peaks
P-Q-R-T-S.
Static Biosignal
• Static biosignals carry information during their steady-state lever wich may
show slow changes over the time.

• For example the body temperature, which shows slightly changes during
the day, that's why we can consider it a static biosignal

Dynamic Biosignal

• Dynamic biosignals show big changes during time, for example the heart
rate.

• The course of the heart rate represents a highly dynamic biosignal.

Origin

• The last method is using the origin of the biosignal as a basis for their
classification, here are some examples:

• Electric Biosignals

• Magnetic Biosignals

• Mechanic Biosignals

• Optic Biosignals
 • Acoustic Biosignals

• Chemical Biosignals

• Thermal Biosignal

c) What is a bio-amplifier? Write requirements needed for bio amplifiers? Explain

different types of Bio amplifiers?

Refer bio amplifers ppt

4. a) What are resting and action potentials?

Refer pdf
b) Derivation of Nernst equation for membrane Resting potential.

Refeer pdf noted in drive

c) What are biopotentials electrodes. Explain about different types of electrodes.

• Bioelectrical potentials or bio potentials represent electrical potentials generated in
the tissues or individual cells of living organisms.
• The bio potentials play the most important role in the process of excitation and
inhibition of cells
• Sources of bio-potential
Nerve conduction
Brain activity
Heart Beat
Muscle activity
• Depends on dimensions
Anatomical
Bio electric generator
Biopotential: An electric potential that is measured between points in living cells, tissues, and
organisms, and which accompanies all biochemical processes.
• transfer of information between and within cells
• measurement of potentials
 Bio potential electrodes:

• Microelectrodes: Electrodes used to measure bioelectric potentials near or within a

single cell.
• Skin surface electrodes: Electrodes used to measure ECG,EEG and EMG potentials
from the surface of the skin.
• Needle electrodes: Electrodes used to penetrate the skin to record EEG potentials
from a local region of the brain or EMG potentials from a specific group of muscles.

5. a) Define cell and mention its importance in bio signals.

• A cell consists of three parts: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and,
between the two, the cytoplasm.

b) Define resting potential.

c) Explain the organization of the cell with neat sketch

Refer 1b question
6. a) Explain about internal electrodes
No electrolyte-skin interface No electrolyte gel is required

b) Explain the following

i. Micro electrodes
ii. Body skin surface electrode.
iii. Needle electrode

• Microelectrodes: Electrodes used to measure bioelectric potentials near

 or within a single cell.

• Skin surface electrodes: Electrodes used to measure ECG,EEG and EMG

potentials from the surface of the skin.

• Needle electrodes: Electrodes used to penetrate the skin to record EEG

potentials from a local region of the brain or EMG potentials from a
specific group of muscles.

c) Explain the following

i. Reference electrode.

ii. PH electrodes.

• The hydrogen ion concentration or pH is a measure of the acidity or

alkalinity of a solution.

Ph=1/log 10 (H+)

• (H+) is the hydrogen ion concentration of the solution in moles per liter.

• In an aqueous solution, the product of hydrogen ion concentration and

hydroxyl ion concentration is constant.

• At a temperature of 22, this product conveniently happens to be exactly

10-14 (expressed in gramme-molrcules per liter).

• The pH of solution is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen

ion concentration, in an aqueous solution.

The value of using pH can be seen in the case of human blood which
has an extremely low hydrogen ion concentration.
 The value of using pH can be seen in the case of human blood which
has an extremely low hydrogen ion concentration.
iii. Blood gas electrodes.

 Two gas electrodes are widely used in biology

1. The oxygen electrode

2. The carbon dioxide electrode

 O2 electrode is used in many diverse branches of biology

 CO2 electrode is chiefly used to measure CO2 in the blood.

Oxygen electrode:

• It is used in many diverse branches of biology

• Different anode- cathode combinations for oxygen electrode are

available, the platinum with silver/silver chloride is the most used
cathode-anode combination.

• Arrangement of these electrodes is annular with the anode enclosing the

platinum cathode.

• Electrodes dip into an electrolyte soln. (usually buffered KCl soln.) which is
held inside an electrode by an oxygen permeable membrane.

• Membrane might be a very thin polypropylene.

• Polarization of electrodes at 0.6v is achieved with the help of a mercury

cell.

• The oxygen electrodes measure the partial pressure of a gas in solution

rather than its concentration.

• The partial pressure is often abbreviated to PX, where x stands for the gas
whose partial pressure is being indicated.

• Thus, the partial pressure of oxygen is indicated as pO 2 & that of carbon

dioxide as pCO2

Carbon dioxide electrode:

• It is used to measure carbon dioxide in the blood.

• Constituents of a carbon dioxide electrodes are

  A conventional glass PH electrode with a calomel reference electrode.

 A thin plastic or teflon membrane which is permeable to carbon dioxide

and not to other ions.

 A standard bicarbonate solution, usually 0.005M NaHCO3 between the

membrane and the glass electrode.

• When the electrode is dipped into a sample containing dissolved

CO2 , the CO2 is allowed to diffuse into the bicarbonate solution by
the permeable membrane.

7. a) What is Bio-potential signals

• Bioelectrical potentials or bio potentials represent electrical potentials
generated in the tissues or individual cells of living organisms.

• The bio potentials play the most important role in the process of
excitation and inhibition of cells

b) Write a short note on problems encountered with measurements in human

beings?
1. IN VIVO MEASURMENTS – In vivo measurements are made on or within
the living organism itself, e.g. a device inserted into the blood stream to
measure the pH of the blood directly.

2. IN VITRO MEASURMENTS – In vitro measurements are made outside the

body, even though it relates to the functions of the body,

e.g. measurements of pH of sample of blood that has been drawn from patients’
body.

c) Explain the characteristics of medical instruments.

• The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided into
two categories:

i) Static characteristics

ii) Dynamic characteristics

• The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used to measure
 the quantities which are slowly varying with time or mostly constant, i.e.,
do not vary with time, is called ‘static characteristics’.

• The various static characteristics are:

i) Accuracy ii) Precision iii) Sensitivity iv) Linearity v)

Reproducibility vi) Repeatability

vii) Resolution viii) Threshold ix) Drift x) Stability xi) Tolerance xii) Range or span

• Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches

the true value of the quantity to be measured.

• Sensitivity: The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured

variable to which the instrument responds. It is defined as the ratio of the
changes in the output of an instrument to a change in the value of the
quantity to be measured.

• Reproducibility: It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may

be repeatedly measured. It is specified in terms of scale readings over a
given period of time.

• Repeatability: It is defined as the variation of scale reading & random in

nature

• Resolution: If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input

value, it will again be found that output does not change at all until a
certain increment is exceeded. This increment is called resolution.

• Threshold: If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero

there will be some minimum value below which no output change can be
detected. This minimum value defines the threshold of the instrument.

• Stability: It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance

 throughout is specified operating life.

• Tolerance: The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified

in terms of some value which is called tolerance.

• Range or span: The minimum & maximum values of a quantity for which
an instrument is designed to measure is called its range or span.

Dynamic characteristics:

• The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are changes rapidly
with time, is called ‘dynamic characteristics’.

• The various static characteristics are: i) Speed of response ii) Measuring

lag iii) Fidelity iv) Dynamic error

• Speed of response: It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement

system responds to changes in the measured quantity.

• Measuring lag: It is the retardation or delay in the response of a

measurement system to changes in the measured quantity. The measuring
lags are of two types:

• a) Retardation type: In this case the response of the measurement system

begins immediately after the change in measured quantity has occurred.

• b) Time delay lag: In this case the response of the measurement system
begins after a dead time after the application of the input.

• Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system

indicates changes in the measurand quantity without dynamic error.

• Dynamic error: It is the difference between the true value of the quantity
changing with time & the value indicated by the measurement system if no
static error is assumed. It is also called measurement error.

UNIT-2
Cardiovascular system

1. a) What is cardiovascular system ?

 The cardiovascular system consists of a network of vessels that
circulates blood throughout the body, motored by the action of the heart
b) Explain following terms
i. Electrocardiograph systems for stress testing
ii. Electrocardiographs for computer processing
iii. Continuous ECG recording(Holter recording)
i.Electrocardiograph systems for stress testing
• A stress test can estimate your risk of having heart disease. A doctor or
trained technician performs the test. They’ll learn how much
your heart can manage before an abnormal rhythm starts or blood flow to
your heart muscle drops.

• There are different types of stress tests. The exercise stress test -- also
known as an exercise electrocardiogram, treadmill test, graded exercise
test, or stress EKG -- is used most often. It lets your doctor know how
your heart responds to being pushed. You’ll walk on a treadmill or pedal a
stationary bike. It’ll get more difficult as you go.
Your electrocardiogram, heart rate, and blood pressure will be tracked
throughout.

• ii. The automatic analysis of ecg by computers is used increasingly .

• This technique requires that the ECG signal from the standard leads be
transmitted sequentially to the computer by some suitable means
together with additional information on the patient.

iii. Continuous ECG recording(Holter recording)

c) With the help of a neat sketch explain about the physiology of the heart ?

• Location:

– Under the sternum (slightly to the left) and between the lungs

• Function:

– to pump blood throughout the body

– Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the cells

– Blood carries carbon dioxide and waste products away from the
cells

• Blood vessels

– Elastic tubes
 – Carry blood

• Arteries

• Arterioles

• Capillaries

• Venules

• Veins

• Arteries

– Muscular, thick, elastic blood vessels

– Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to body cells, tissue
& organs

– Except for pulmonary artery

• Arterioles

– Small terminal branches of arteries

– Connect arteries to capillaries

• Capillaries

– Very small blood vessels

– Connect arterioles to venules

• Venules

– Small veins

– Connect capillaries to larger veins

• Veins

– Thin walled blood vessels

– Carry deoxygenated blood to the heart from body cells, tissue &
organs

– Except for pulmonary vein

2. a) What is ECG signal?
It is the procedure of recording the electrical activity of the heart.

b) Draw an ECG waveform and label it.

c) Explain standard 12-lead configurations,

A combination of electrodes for recording is called a LEAD
Leads that are routinely used for standard 12 lead ECG
Standard Limb Leads
Augmented Limb Leads
Precordial Leads
ECG consist of records from 12 leads.
 3 Standard bipolar Leads (I, II, III)
 3 unipolar Limb Leads(aVR, aVL, aVF)
 6 Precordial/unipolar chest Leads (V1-V6)
3 STANDARD BIPOLAR LEADS
LEAD I:- RIGHT ARM – LEFT ARM
(recorded the difference of electrical potential
between the right arm and left arm.)
LEAD II:- RIGHT ARM – LEFT LEG
(recorded the difference of electrical potential
between the right arm and left leg.)
LEAD III:- LEFT ARM TO LEFT LEG
(recorded the difference of electrical potential
between the left arm and left leg.)

• 3 UNIPOLAR LIMB LEAD

 aVR (AUGMENTED VOLTAGE RIGHT):-
Recorded the difference of electrical
potential between the right limb and the central terminal. The latter is also
called the indifferent electrode and is constructed within the ECG machine
by connecting all three extremities. It has practically zero potential.
  aVL (AUGMENTED VOLTAGE LEFT):-
Recorded the difference of electrical
potential between left arm and central terminal.
 aVF ( AUGMENTED VOLTAGE FOOT):-
Recorded the difference of electrical
potential between the left leg and central terminal.

• Precordial/unipolar chest Lead

 V1:
Lead V1 is to be placed 4th RICS of the sternum.
 V2 :
Lead V2 is to placed directly across from V1 in the 4th LICS, on the left side
of the sternum.
 V4 :
Lead V4 is placed in the 5th LICS, midclavicular.
 V3 :
Lead V3 is placed directly horizontally & equidistant in between leads V2
and V4.
 V6 :
Lead V6 is placed in the 5th LICS, midaxillary horizontally level with V4 .
 V5 :
Lead V5 is placed horizontally & equidistant in between leads V4 and V6
 (anterior axillary line )

3. a) Draw the diagram of Overview of cardiovascular system?

b) Explain specification of ECG machine.

• ECG consist of :-
 Waves (P, Q, R, S, T, U)
 complex (QRS)
 segments (P-Q, S-T, T-P)
 Intervals(P-R, Q-T, R-R)

c) Describe interpretation of ECG waveform with respect to electro mechanical

activity of heart.
Sinoatrial node

AV node

Bundle of His

Bundle Branches

Purkinje fibers

• P-wave – depolarization of atria

– Atria begin contracting about 25msec after the start of the p-

wave

• QRS-complex – ventricular depolarization

– Ventricles begin contracting shortly after the peak of the R

wave

• T-wave – ventricular repolarization

• Segments – extend from the end of one wave to the start of another

• P-R interval: start of atrial depolarization to start of QRS

• Q-T interval: time required for ventricles to undergo a single cycle of

 depolarization and repolarization; measured from end of P-R to end
of T

4. a) What is Lead?
A combination of electrodes for recording is called a LEAD

b) Explain blood pressure measurement devices.

 Blood Pressure is a measurement of the force against the walls of
the arteries as the heart pumps blood throughout the body

 Blood pressure is measured in mmHg (millimeters of

mercury)
1,000 Pa is about 7 mmHg
 The blood pressure reading is taken in 2 numbers:
systolic and diastolic
Measure of pressure as the heart is beating systolic
Measure of pressure while the heart is at rest between beating diastolic.

c) Explain about ECG recording with neat Block diagram.

 • Defibrillator Protection Circuit: The one end of the electrode
leads are connected along RA, LA, chest and LL of the patient.
• The other end of electrode passes through defibrillator protection circuit. The
protection circuit has buffer amplifier and over-load voltage protection circuit.
• Lead Selection Logic :This block helps to select the type of electrode lead system.
We can choose either bipolar or augmented electrode system.
• Calibration Circuit: Calibration is a process that helps to eliminate errors in the
system. Here, any changes in the lead selection circuit results in artefacts in the ECG
output. Therefore, the calibration unit helps the technician to correct the error in
ECG output.
• Lead Selection Logic :This block helps to select the type of electrode lead system.
We can choose either bipolar or augmented electrode system.
• Calibration Circuit: Calibration is a process that helps to eliminate errors in the
system. Here, any changes in the lead selection circuit results in artefacts in the ECG
output. Therefore, the calibration unit helps the technician to correct the error in
ECG output.
• Feedback Network: Feedback network is used to provide damping to the pen
motor.
• Output Display Unit: Either a CRO or a pen chart recorder acts as the output device

5. a) What are Heart sounds?

 S1 – “lubb” caused by the closing of the AV valves
 S2 – “dupp” caused by the closing of semilunar valves
 S3 –associated with blood flowing into the ventricles
 S4 –associated with atrial contraction
Four heart sounds can be recorded by phonocardiography, but normally only the
first and the second heart sounds, are audible through a stethoscope

b) With neat sketch explain Blood flow measurement

Principle of Electromagnetic Blood Flow Meters
c) Explain about ECG amplifiers.

• Generally, biological/bioelectric signals have low amplitude and low frequency.

Therefore, to increase the amplitude level of biosignals amplifiers are designed.
• The outputs from these amplifiers are used for further analysis and they appear as
ECG, EMG, or any bioelectric waveforms. Such amplifiers are defined as Bio
Amplifiers or Biomedical Amplifiers.
Types of ECG Amplifiers

• Differential Amplifier
• Operational Amplifier
• Instrumentation Amplifier
• Chopper Amplifier
• Isolation Amplifier

• In biomedical applications, high gain and the high input impedance are attained
with an instrumentation amplifier. Usually, a 3-amplifier setup forms the
instrumentation amplifier circuit.
 • The output from the transducer is given as input to the instrumentation amplifier.
Before the signal goes to the next stage, a special amplifier is required with high
CMRR, high input impedance and to avoid loading effects. Such a special amplifier
is an instrumentation amplifier, which does all the required process.

• The electrical signals are obtained with electrodes. The signals received goes to the
amplifier block, where signals amplification occurs. After amplification, the signal
enters the modulation block. When either it goes to the isolation barrier, optical
cable or transformer can be used.
• If in case of optical cable, modulator output travels to LED. The LED converts
electrical signals into light energy. If the transformer acts an isolation barrier,
modulator output connects the primary winding of the transformer. Energy from
primary transfers to the secondary winding based on the mutual induction principle.
At the next stage, secondary output enters the demodulation block. Finally, the
amplified demodulated signal is obtained.

6. a) What are ECG recorder Principles.

b) With neat diagram explain functions of Heart?

c) Explain about Types of ECG recorders.

Types of ECG Recorders

• Single Channel Recorders

• Three channel recorders

• Vector electrocardiographs

• Electrocardiograph systems for stress testing

• Electrocardiographs for computer processing

• Continuous ECG recording(Holter recording)

• I. Single Channel Recorders

 ii. Three channel recorders

• Automated three channel ECG recorder with keyboard for entering patient
data and telephone coupler to send ECG and data to a remote computer
via telephone lines.

iii. Vectorcardiography (VCG)

• Vectorcardiography (VCG) is a method of recording the magnitude and

direction of the electrical forces that are generated by the heart by means
of a continuous series of vectors that form curving lines around a central
point

For remaining recorders refer question 1b

7. a) Draw the diagram of heart?

b) Explain following terms
i. Single channel recorder
ii.Three channel recorder
iii.Vector cardio graphy

refer question no.6c

c) Explain in detail the deferent waves, segments and intervals associated with
the ECG waveform. Also give their normal values.

For this refer question no 3c & Electrocardiography ppt