Ch3.

Functions,
Sequences, and Relations

School of Electronics Engineering

Prof. Jeongsik Choi
 Contents
3.1 Functions

3.2 Sequences and Strings

3.3 Relations

3.4 Equivalence Relations

3.5 Matrices of Relations

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 Functions
Example
Credit card number: 4690 3582 1375 4657

Lunn Algorithm (By Hans Peter Luhn)

✓ Use last digit to verify card number

✓ Double every other digit and add all the digits

(if there is two-digit numbers add each digit)

✓ Verify card number using final output

Prof. Jeongsik Choi 3

 Functions
Definition 3.1.1
A function from a set 𝑋 to a set 𝑌 is a subset of 𝑋 × 𝑌 such that
If 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, there is exactly one 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌 with 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑓

Also written as 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌

𝑋 is called the domain, 𝑌 is called the codomain of f

Range of function 𝑓 is the set 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑓

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 Functions
Example 3.1.3
The set 𝑓 = 1, 𝑎 , 2, 𝑏 , 3, 𝑐 is a function from 𝑋 = 1, 2, 3 to
𝑌 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}

Example 3.1.4
The set 𝑓 = 1, 𝑎 , 2, 𝑏 , 3, 𝑐 is not a function from 𝑋 = {1, 2, 3, 4} to
𝑌 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐

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 Functions
Example 3.1.5
The set 𝑓 = 1, 𝑎 , 2, 𝑏 , 3, 𝑐 , (1, 𝑏) is not a function from 𝑋 = 1, 2, 3
to 𝑌 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}

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 Functions
Example 3.1.8
Let 𝑓 be the function defined by the rule 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2

𝑓= 𝑥, 𝑥 2 𝑥 is a real number}

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 Functions
Graph of a function
𝑓: subset of 𝐑 → subset of 𝐑 is visualized by plotting points in plane

Examples
✓ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 with domain 𝑹
✓ 𝑓 = { 0, 0 , 1, 1 , 2, 2 , 3, 0 , 1, 3 }

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 Functions
Definition 3.1.11
For an integer 𝑥 and positive integer 𝑦 is a positive integer, modulo
operation is defined as the remainder when 𝑥 is divided by 𝑦

Examples
✓ 6 mod 2 = 0
✓ 5 mod 1 = 1
✓ 8 mod 12 = 8
✓ 199673 mod 2 = 1

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 Functions
Example 3.1.14
What day of the week will it be 365 days from Wednesday?

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 Functions
Example 3.1.15
(Hash function) store number 𝑛 to memory with index ℎ 𝑛 =
𝑛 mod 11

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 Functions
Definition 3.1.17
Floor of 𝑥, 𝑥 is the greatest integer less than or equal to 𝑥
Ceiling of 𝑥, 𝑥 is the least integer greater than or equal to 𝑥

Examples
✓ 8.3 = 8
✓ −0.6 = −1
✓ 9.2 = 10
✓ −11.3 = −11

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 Functions
Definition 3.1.22
A function 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 is said to be one-to-one (injective)
if for ∀𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝑋, if 𝑓 𝑥1 = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) then 𝑥1 = 𝑥2

Examples
✓𝑓 = 1, 𝑏 , 3, 𝑎 , 2, 𝑐 from 𝑋 = {1, 2, 3} and 𝑌 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}

✓𝑓 = 1, 𝑎 , 2, 𝑏 , 3, 𝑐 from 𝑋 = {1, 2, 3} and 𝑌 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}

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 Functions
Example 3.1.27
Prove that 𝑓 𝑛 = 2𝑛 + 1 from 𝐍 to 𝐍 is one-to-one

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 Functions
Example 3.1.28
Prove that 𝑓 𝑛 = 2𝑛 − 𝑛2 from 𝐍 to 𝐙 it not one-to-one

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 Functions
Definition 3.1.29
A function 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 is said to be onto 𝑌 (surjective)
if for ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝑌, ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦

Examples
✓𝑓 = 1, 𝑏 , 2, 𝑐 , 3, 𝑏 from 𝑋 = {1, 2, 3} and 𝑌 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}

✓𝑓 = 1, 𝑏 , 3, 𝑎 , 2, 𝑐 from 𝑋 = {1, 2, 3} and 𝑌 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}

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 Functions
Example 3.1.33
Prove that 𝑓 𝑥 = 1/𝑥 2 from the set of non-zero real numbers to the
set of positive real numbers is onto 𝑌

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 Functions
Example 3.1.34
Prove that 𝑓 𝑛 = 2𝑛 − 1 from 𝐍 to 𝐍 is not onto 𝑌

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 Functions
Definition 3.1.15
A function that is both one-to-one and onto is called a bijection

Properties:
✓ If 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 is a bijection and 𝑋, 𝑌 are finite, then, 𝑋 = |𝑌|

✓ For a bijection 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌, 𝑦, 𝑥 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑓} is a function 𝑓 −1 : 𝑌 → 𝑋

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 Functions
Definition 3.1.41
For 𝑔: 𝑋 → 𝑌 and 𝑓: 𝑌 → 𝑍, the composition of 𝑓 with 𝑔 is defined as

𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑔 𝑥 ) from 𝑋 to 𝑍

Examples
✓ 𝑔 = { 1, 𝑎 , 2, 𝑏 , 3, 𝑐 } from 𝑋 = 1, 2, 3 to 𝑌 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}, and
𝑓 = { 𝑎, 𝑦 , 𝑏, 𝑥 , 𝑐, 𝑧 } from 𝑌 to 𝑍 = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}

✓ 𝑓 𝑥 = log 3 𝑥 and 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑥 4

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 Functions
Binary and unary operators
Binary operator
𝑓: 𝑋 × 𝑋 → 𝑋

Unary operator
𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑋

Examples: ∨, ∧, ¬, →, ⟷

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 Sequences and Strings
Example
Blue Taxi Inc. charges $1 for the first mile and 50 cents for each
additional mile

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 Sequences and Strings
Definition 3.2.1
A sequence 𝑠 is a function whose domain 𝐷 is a subset of integers

Denoted as 𝑠𝑛 or 𝑆(𝑛), where 𝑛 is called the index

Types of sequences
✓ Finite sequences
✓ Infinite sequences

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 Sequences and Strings
Notation for sequences

𝑛=𝑖 : finite sequence from index 𝑖 to 𝑗 (𝑠𝑖 , 𝑠𝑖+1 , … , 𝑠𝑗 )

𝑗
𝑠𝑛

𝑛=𝑘 : infinite sequence from index 𝑘 to infinity (𝑠𝑘 , 𝑠𝑘+1 , 𝑠𝑘+2 , …)

∞
𝑠𝑛

Examples
✓ 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛2 − 1 for all 𝑛 ≥ 0
∞
✓ 𝑢𝑛 𝑛=0

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 Sequences and Strings
Example 3.2.5
Define a sequence 𝑏 by the rule 𝑏𝑛 is the 𝑛-th letter in ‘digital’’

Example 3.2.6
1
𝑥 is the sequence defined by 𝑥𝑛 = , −1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 4
2𝑛

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 Sequences and Strings
Increasing/decreasing sequences
Sequence 𝑠 is increasing if for all 𝑖 < 𝑗, 𝑠𝑖 < 𝑠𝑗

Sequence 𝑠 is decreasing if for all 𝑖 < 𝑗, 𝑠𝑖 > 𝑠𝑗

Sequence 𝑠 is nonincreasing if for all 𝑖 < 𝑗, 𝑠𝑖 ≥ 𝑠𝑗

Sequence 𝑠 is nondecreasing if for all 𝑖 < 𝑗, 𝑠𝑖 ≤ 𝑠𝑗

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 Sequences and Strings
Definition 3.2.12
For a sequence 𝑠, a subsequence is obtained from 𝑠 by choosing
certain terms in the order in which they appear in 𝑠

Examples
✓ b, c is a subsequence of a, a, b, c, q
✓ 2, 4, 8, 16, …, 2𝑘 , … is a subsequence of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, …, 2𝑛, …

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 Sequences and Strings
Definition 3.2.17
For a sequence 𝑎𝑖 𝑛
𝑖=𝑚 ,

Sum of the sequence is defined as

𝑛

෍ 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎𝑚 + 𝑎𝑚+1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛
𝑖=𝑚

Product of the sequence is defined as

𝑛

ෑ 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎𝑚 ⋅ 𝑎𝑚+1 ⋅ … ⋅ 𝑎𝑛
𝑖=𝑚

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 Sequences and Strings
Example 3.2.20
Rewrite the sum σ𝑛𝑖=0 𝑖𝑟 𝑛−1 by replacing the index as 𝑖 = 𝑗 − 1

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 Sequences and Strings
Strings
A string over 𝑋 (𝑋 is a finite set) is a finite sequence of elements in 𝑋
✓ e.g., 𝑋 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 , the sequence b, a, a, c represents string ‘baac’

Repetition in a string can be specified by superscripts

✓ e.g., ‘b3a5qf2’

Null string: string with no element (𝜆 =‘ ‘)

✓ 𝑋 ∗ : set of all strings over 𝑋
✓ 𝑋 + : set of non-null strings over 𝑋

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 Sequences and Strings
String operations
Length of 𝛼, denoted as 𝛼
✓ Number of elements in 𝛼

Concatenation of 𝛼 and 𝛽, denoted as 𝛼𝛽

✓ String consisting of 𝛼 followed by 𝛽

Substring of 𝛼
✓ String obtained by selecting some or all consecutive elements of 𝛼
✓ 𝛽 is substring of 𝛼 if ∃𝛾, 𝛿 with 𝛼 = 𝛾𝛽𝛿

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 Sequences and Strings
Example 3.2.31
Let 𝑋 = {𝑎, 𝑏}. For 𝛼 ∈ 𝑋 ∗ , 𝛼 𝑅 denote 𝛼 in reverse. Prove that a
function 𝑓: 𝑋 ∗ → 𝑋 ∗ defined as 𝑓 𝛼 = 𝛼 𝑅 is bijection.

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 Sequences and Strings
Example 3.2.32
Let 𝑋 = {𝑎, 𝑏}. Determine if a function 𝑓: 𝑋 ∗ × 𝑋 ∗ → 𝑋 ∗ defined as
𝑓 𝛼, 𝛽 = 𝛼𝛽 is one-to-one or onto 𝑋 ∗

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 Relations
Definition 3.3.1
A (binary) relation 𝑅 from a set 𝑋 to a set 𝑌 is a subset of the
Cartesian product 𝑋 × 𝑌.

If 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅, we write 𝑥𝑅𝑦 and say that 𝑥 is related to y

If 𝑋 = 𝑌, we call R a (binary) relation on 𝑋

Note that a function is special form of a relation

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 Relations
Example 3.3.2
Relation of students to courses

𝑋={Bill, Mary, Beth, Dave}, 𝑌={CompSci, Math, Art, History}

𝑅={(Bill, CompSci), (Mary, Math), (Bill, Art), (Beth, History), (Beth,

CompSci), (Dave, Math)}

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 Relations
Example 3.3.3
For 𝑋 = 2, 3, 4 , 𝑌 = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, define a relation 𝑅 from 𝑋 to 𝑌 by
𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 if 𝑥 divides 𝑦

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 Relations
Graph for relations
A directional graph is used to illustrate the relation on a set

Main graph components

✓ Vertices: dots (nodes) of the graph
✓ Edges: lines that connect the vertices (directional or bi-directional)

In directional graphs, vertices are connected in certain directions

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 Relations
Example 3.3.4
Let 𝑅 be the relation on 𝑋 = 1, 2, 3, 4 defined by 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 if 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦

Example 3.3.5
The relation 𝑅 on 𝑋 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} is 𝑅 = { 𝑎, 𝑎 , 𝑏, 𝑐 , 𝑐, 𝑏 , 𝑑, 𝑑 }

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 Relations
Definition 3.3.6
A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝑋 is reflexive if 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 for ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑋

Examples
✓ Relation 𝑅 on 𝑋 = 1, 2, 3, 4 defined by 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 if 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦

✓ Relation 𝑅 = a, a , b, c , c, b , d, d on 𝑋 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}

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 Relations
Definition 3.3.9
A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝑋 is symmetric if 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅, then 𝑦, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

Examples
✓ 𝑅 = { 𝑎, 𝑎 , 𝑏, 𝑐 , 𝑐, 𝑏 , 𝑑, 𝑑 } on 𝑋 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}

✓ 𝑅 on 𝑋 = {1, 2, 3, 4} defined by 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 if 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦

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 Relations
Definition 3.3.12
A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝑋 is antisymmetric
if 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 and 𝑦, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, then 𝑥 = 𝑦
(or contrapositive) if 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦 then 𝑥, 𝑦 ∉ 𝑅 or 𝑦, 𝑥 ∉ 𝑅

Example
✓ 𝑅 on 𝑋 = {1, 2, 3, 4} defined by 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 if 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦

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 Relations
Definition 3.3.17
A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝑋 is a transitive if for ∀𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋, if 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅
and 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅, then 𝑥, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅

Example
✓ 𝑅 on 𝑋 = 1, 2, 3, 4 defined by 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 if 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦

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 Relations
Definition 3.3.20
A relation 𝑅 on a set 𝑋 is a partial order in case that 𝑅 is reflexive,
antisymmetric, and transitive

Examples
✓ 𝑅 on 𝐍, defined as 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 if 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦

✓ 𝑅 on 𝐍, defined as 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 if 𝑥 divides 𝑦

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 Relations
Properties of partial orders
If 𝑅 is a partial order on a set 𝑋, 𝑥 ≼ 𝑦 indicates that 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅

If 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋 and either 𝑥 ≼ 𝑦 or 𝑦 ≼ 𝑥, then 𝑥 and 𝑦 are comparable

If 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋 and 𝑥 ⋠ 𝑦 and 𝑦 ⋠ 𝑥, then 𝑥 and 𝑦 are incomparable

If every pair of 𝑋 is comparable, 𝑅 is called total order

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 Relations
Definition 3.3.23
Let 𝑅 be a relation from 𝑋 to 𝑌. The inverse of 𝑅 is the relation from
𝑌 to 𝑋 such as
𝑅 −1 = 𝑦, 𝑥 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅}

Example:
✓ 𝑋 = {2, 3, 4}, 𝑌 = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, and 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 if 𝑥 divides 𝑦

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 Relations
Definition 3.3.25
For relation 𝑅1 from 𝑋 to 𝑌 and relation 𝑅2 from 𝑌 to 𝑍, the
composition of 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 is the relation from 𝑋 to 𝑍 defined by

𝑅1 ∘ 𝑅2 = 𝑥, 𝑧 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅1 and 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅2 for some 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌}

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 Relations
Example 3.3.26
𝑅1 = 1, 2 , 1, 6 , 2, 4 , 3, 4 , 3, 6 , 3, 8
𝑅2 = 2, 𝑢 , 4, 𝑠 , 4, 𝑡 , 6, 𝑡 , 8, 𝑡

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 Equivalence Relations
Theorem 3.4.1
For a partition 𝒮 of a set 𝑋, 𝑥𝑅𝑦 is defined to mean that for some
𝑆 ∈ 𝒮, both 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆. Then, 𝑅 is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive

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 Equivalence Relations
Example 3.4.2
Consider 𝒮 = 1, 3, 5 , 2, 6 , 4 of 𝑋 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

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 Equivalence Relations
Definition 3.4.3
A relation that is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive on a set 𝑋 is
called an equivalence relation on 𝑋

Example
✓ 𝑅 = { 1, 1 , 1, 3 , 1, 5 , 2, 2 , 2, 4 , 3, 1 , 3, 3 , 3, 5 ,
4, 2 , 4, 4 , 5, 1 , 5, 3 , (5, 5)}

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 Equivalence Relations
Example 3.4.6
Relation 𝑅 on 𝑋 = {1, 2, 3, 4} defined by 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 if 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦

Example 3.4.7
𝑅= 𝑎, 𝑎 , 𝑏, 𝑐 , 𝑐, 𝑏 , 𝑑, 𝑑 on 𝑋 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}

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 Equivalence Relations
Theorem 3.4.8
For an equivalence relation 𝑅 on a set 𝑋, 𝑎 = 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 𝑥𝑅𝑎} is
defined for ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑋.
Then, 𝒮 = 𝑎 𝑎 ∈ 𝑋} is a partition of 𝑋

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 Equivalence Relations
Definition 3.4.9
For an equivalence relation relation 𝑅 on 𝑋, the sets [𝑎] are called
the equivalence classes of 𝑋 given by the relation 𝑅

Example:
✓ 𝑅 = { 1, 1 , 1, 3 , 1, 5 , 3, 1 , 3, 3 , 3, 5 , 5, 1 , 5, 3 , 5, 5 ,
2, 2 , 2, 6 , 6, 2 , 6, 6 , (4, 4)}

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 Equivalence Relations
Example 3.4.14
For 𝑋 = {1, 2, … , 10}, define 𝑥𝑅𝑦 to mean that 3 divides 𝑥 − 𝑦

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 Equivalence Relations
Theorem 3.4.16
Let 𝑅 be an equivalence relation on a finite set 𝑋. If each equivalence
class has 𝑟 elements, there are 𝑋 /𝑟 equivalence classes

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 Matrices of Relations
Matrix can be used to represent relations
Consider a relation 𝑅 from 𝑋 to 𝑌
✓ Row/column of a matrix can be labeled as elements of 𝑋 and 𝑌,
respectively
✓ Entities are set as 1 if 𝑥𝑅𝑦 and 0 otherwise

Example: 𝑅 = { 1, 𝑏 , 1, 𝑑 , 2, 𝑐 , 3, 𝑐 , 3, 𝑏 , 4, 𝑎 }

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 Matrices of Relations
Example 3.5.5
Let 𝑅1 be the relation from 𝑋 = {1, 2, 3} to 𝑌 = {𝑎, 𝑏} defined by

𝑅1 = 1, 𝑎 , 2, 𝑏 , 3, 𝑎 , 3, 𝑏

and 𝑅2 be the relation from 𝑌 to 𝑍 = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}

𝑅2 = 𝑎, 𝑥 , 𝑎, 𝑦 , 𝑏, 𝑦 , 𝑏, 𝑧

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 Matrices of Relations
Theorem 3.5.6
𝑅1 : relation from 𝑋 to 𝑌 which matrix is 𝐴1
𝑅2 : relation from 𝑌 to 𝑍 which matrix is 𝐴2
Then, the matrix for the relation 𝑅1 ∘ 𝑅2 can be constructed by
replacing non-zero elements in 𝐴1 𝐴2 by 1

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 Matrices of Relations
Example 3.5.7
𝑅 = { 𝑎, 𝑎 , 𝑏, 𝑏 , 𝑐, 𝑐 , 𝑑, 𝑑 , 𝑎, 𝑐 , 𝑐, 𝑏 }

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