Precalculus

Dr. Dhanasin Namphaisaal

Department of Mathematics
Faculty of Science
Kasetsart University

Summer 2022

Lecture Notes
Contents

3 Polynomial Division and Polynomial Fractions 3

3.1 Polynomial Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1.1 Division Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1.2 Polynomial Long Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.1.3 Polynomial Synthetic Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1.4 Remainder Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Polynomial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.1 Definition of Polynomial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.2 Sums and Differences of Polynomial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2.3 Products and Quotients of Polynomial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Chapter 3

Polynomial Division and

Polynomial Fractions

3.1 Polynomial Division

3.1.1 Division Algorithm

Let 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be polynomials in a single variable 𝑥. In this subsection, we would like to verify
whether 𝑓 (𝑥) is a “multiple” of 𝑔(𝑥). If it is not, then how much does 𝑓 (𝑥) “deviate” from a multiple
of 𝑔(𝑥). First, we shall start with the definition of divisibility between two polynomials.

Definition 3.1.1.1 Let 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be polynomials in a single variable 𝑥. We say that 𝑓 (𝑥) is
divisible by 𝑔(𝑥) if there exists a polynomial 𝑞(𝑥) such that

𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) · 𝑞(𝑥) . ‹3.1.1.2›

In this case, the polynomial 𝑞(𝑥) is known as the quotient of 𝑓 (𝑥) by 𝑔(𝑥). Furthermore, when
𝑓 (𝑥) is divisible by 𝑔(𝑥), we also say that 𝑓 (𝑥) is a multiple of 𝑔(𝑥), that 𝑔(𝑥) is a factor of 𝑓 (𝑥),
or that 𝑔(𝑥) divides 𝑓 (𝑥). On the other hand, if 𝑓 (𝑥) is not divisible by 𝑔(𝑥), then we may also say
that 𝑓 (𝑥) is indivisible by 𝑔(𝑥). 

Example 3.1.1.3

(a) The constant polynomial 1 divides every polynomial 𝑓 (𝑥).

(b) The zero polynomial 0 is divisible by every polynomial 𝑓 (𝑥).

(c) All polynomials 𝑓 (𝑥) that are divisible by the polynomial 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 are those with zero constant
terms.
3.1 Polynomial Division 4

(d) While 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 is divisible by 𝑥 + 1, it is not divisible by 𝑥 + 2.

(e) The polynomial 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 1 divides the polynomial 𝑥 6 − 1, and is divisible by 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1.



Exercise 3.1.1.4 Let 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be polynomials such that 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are both nonzero. If
𝑓 (𝑥) is divisible by 𝑔(𝑥), then explain why the degree of 𝑓 (𝑥) must be greater than or equal to the
degree of 𝑔(𝑥). 

As we have seen from above, there are polynomials 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) such that 𝑓 (𝑥) is not divisible
by 𝑔(𝑥). We can, however, make an attempt to divide the two polonomials in the same manner that
we do integers. Just like how we can divide 100 by 7 to get the quotient 14 leaving the remainder
2, we can perform the same kind of division with polynomials. Here is a theorem which states that
such a process can be done. We shall not prove nor use this theorem directly.

Theorem 3.1.1.5 (Division Algorithm for Polynomials) Let 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be polynomials such
that 𝑔(𝑥) is nonzero. Then, there are unique polynomials 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) such that

𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) · 𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥) ‹3.1.1.6›

and either one of the two conditions below are satisfied:

(i) 𝑟(𝑥) = 0, or

(ii) 𝑟(𝑥) ≠ 0 with deg 𝑟(𝑥) < deg 𝑔(𝑥).

The polynomial 𝑞(𝑥) is known as the quotient of 𝑓 (𝑥) by 𝑔(𝑥), whereas the polynomial 𝑟(𝑥) is
known as the remainder when 𝑓 (𝑥) is divided by 𝑔(𝑥). The polynomial 𝑓 (𝑥) itself is sometimes
called the dividend, while 𝑔(𝑥) is called the divisor. 

Example 3.1.1.7 Let 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1. What are the quotient 𝑞(𝑥) and the
remainder 𝑟(𝑥) obtained when 𝑓 (𝑥) is divided by 𝑔(𝑥)? 

Answer 𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑥 and 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 ♦

Solution Recall from the division algorithm (Theorem 3.1.1.5) that either 𝑟(𝑥) = 0 or 𝑟(𝑥) is
nonzero polynomial of degree less than deg 𝑔(𝑥) = 2. Therefore, 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑣 for some constants 𝑢
and 𝑣. Furthermore, we have that 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) · 𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥).
Substituting 1 for 𝑥 in the equation 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) · 𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥), we get

𝑓 (1) = 𝑔(1) · 𝑞(1) + 𝑟(1) . ‹3.1.1.8›

However, 𝑓 (1) = 13 + 1 = 2, 𝑔(1) = 12 − 1 = 0, and 𝑟(1) = 𝑢 · 1 + 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑣. Therefore,

2 = 0 · 𝑞(1) + (𝑢 + 𝑣) = 0 + (𝑢 + 𝑣) = 𝑢 + 𝑣 . ‹3.1.1.9›

Hence, 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 2.
Substituting −1 for 𝑥 in the equation 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) · 𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥), we get

𝑓 (−1) = 𝑔(−1) · 𝑞(−1) + 𝑟(−1) . ‹3.1.1.10›

CHAPTER 3. POLYNOMIAL DIVISION AND POLYNOMIAL FRACTIONS 5

However, 𝑓 (−1) = (−1)3 + 1 = 0, 𝑔(−1) = (−1)2 − 1 = 0, and 𝑟(−1) = 𝑢 · (−1) + 𝑣 = 𝑣 − 𝑢. Therefore,

0 = 0 · 𝑞(−1) + (𝑣 − 𝑢) = 0 + (𝑣 − 𝑢) = 𝑣 − 𝑢 . ‹3.1.1.11›

Hence, 𝑣 − 𝑢 = 0, which means 𝑢 = 𝑣.

Since 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 2 and 𝑢 = 𝑣, we obtain

2𝑢 = 𝑢 + 𝑢 = 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 2 . ‹3.1.1.12›

Ergo, 𝑢 = 1, and so 𝑣 = 𝑢 = 1. This means

𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑣 = 1 · 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑥 + 1 . ‹3.1.1.13›

Finally, from 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) · 𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥), we get

𝑥 3 + 1 = 𝑥 2 − 1 · 𝑞(𝑥) + (𝑥 + 1) . ‹3.1.1.14›

Hence,

𝑥 2 − 1 · 𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 1 − (𝑥 + 1) = 𝑥 3 + 1 − 𝑥 − 1 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 1 · 𝑥 . ‹3.1.1.15›

Consequently, 𝑥 2 − 1 · 𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1 · 𝑥. After dividing by 𝑥 2 − 1 on both sides of the equation,

we conclude that

𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑥 . ‹3.1.1.16›

Exercise 3.1.1.17 Let 𝑓1 (𝑥), 𝑓2 (𝑥), and 𝑔(𝑥) be polynomials such that 𝑔(𝑥) is nonzero. Assume that
𝑟1 (𝑥) and 𝑟2 (𝑥) are the remainders obtained when 𝑓1 (𝑥) and 𝑓2 (𝑥) are divided by 𝑔(𝑥), respectively.
Determine (with explanation) which of the following statements are always true.

(a) The remainder when 𝑓1 (𝑥) + 𝑓2 (𝑥) is divided by 𝑔(𝑥) is 𝑟1 (𝑥) + 𝑟2 (𝑥).

(b) The remainder when 𝑓1 (𝑥) − 𝑓2 (𝑥) is divided by 𝑔(𝑥) is 𝑟1 (𝑥) − 𝑟2 (𝑥).

(c) The remainder when 𝑓1 (𝑥) · 𝑓2 (𝑥) is divided by 𝑔(𝑥) is 𝑟1 (𝑥) · 𝑟2 (𝑥).

(d) If 𝑓1 (𝑥) is divisible by 𝑓2 (𝑥), then 𝑟1 (𝑥) is divisible by 𝑟2 (𝑥).

(e) If 𝑓1 (𝑥) is indivisible by 𝑓2 (𝑥), then 𝑟1 (𝑥) is indivisible by 𝑟2 (𝑥).


3.1 Polynomial Division 6

3.1.2 Polynomial Long Division

As we have seen from Example 3.1.1.7 in the previous subsection, the process of finding the
quotients and remainders when a polynomial 𝑓 (𝑥) is divided by a nonzero polynomial 𝑔(𝑥) involves
solving a system of linear equations (i.e., we have two equations in 𝑢 and 𝑣 to be solved). When the
divisor 𝑔(𝑥) is a polynomial of a large degree, this process leads to a large system of linear equations,
which can be cumbersome to solve. In this subsection, we shall introduce a more efficient method
for polynomial division. This method is known as polynomial long division. The proof of the
theorem below is now again omitted.

Theorem 3.1.2.1 (Polynomial Long Division) Let 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be polynomials such that 𝑔(𝑥) is
nonzero. For convenience, let

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏 𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 + 𝑏 𝑚−1 𝑥 𝑚−1 + . . . + 𝑏 1 𝑥 + 𝑏 0 ‹3.1.2.2›

where 𝑚 is a nonnegative integer, and 𝑏 0 , 𝑏 1 , 𝑏 2 , . . ., 𝑏 𝑚 are constants with 𝑏 𝑚 ≠ 0.

Then, the algorthm below can be used to determine the quotient 𝑞(𝑥) and the remainder 𝑟(𝑥)
when the dividend 𝑓 (𝑥) is divided by the divisor 𝑔(𝑥).

(1) Set 𝐹(𝑥) := 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) := 0.

(2) If 𝐹(𝑥) = 0, then take 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) to be 𝑄(𝑥) and 0, respectively. Exit the algorithm.

(3) If 𝐹(𝑥) ≠ 0 and deg 𝐹(𝑥) < deg 𝑔(𝑥), then set 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) to be 𝑄(𝑥) and 𝐹(𝑥), respectively.
Exit the algorithm.

(4) Suppose that 𝐹(𝑥) ≠ 0 with deg 𝐹(𝑥) ≥ deg 𝑔(𝑥). Write 𝑛 for the degree of 𝐹(𝑥). If 𝑎 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 is the
𝑎 𝑛 𝑛−𝑚
highest-degree term of 𝐹(𝑥), then replace 𝐹(𝑥) by 𝐹(𝑥) − 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥). Furthermore, 𝑄(𝑥) is
𝑏𝑚
𝑎 𝑛 𝑛−𝑚
then replaced by 𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑥 .
𝑏𝑚

(5) Repeat steps (2), (3), and (4).



Example 3.1.2.3 Find the quotient and the remainder when the polynomial

𝑓 (𝑥) = 6𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 − 16𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 2 ‹3.1.2.4›

is divided by the polynomial

𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 + 2 ‹3.1.2.5›


1 1 7 1
Answer The quotient is 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − , while the remainder is − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1. ♦
2 2 2 2
CHAPTER 3. POLYNOMIAL DIVISION AND POLYNOMIAL FRACTIONS 7

Solution We first write

𝑓 (𝑥) = 6𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 − 16𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 2 ‹3.1.2.6›
and
𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 ‹3.1.2.7›
so that all lower-order terms are accounted for. We start by writing the two polynomials as shown
below.

‹3.1.2.8›

2𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 6𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 − 16𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 2

Now, the leading term of 𝑓 (𝑥) is 6𝑥 5 while the leading term of 𝑔(𝑥) is 2𝑥 3 . In order to remove 6𝑥 5
6𝑥 5
from 𝑓 (𝑥), we subtract it by the product of 3 = 3𝑥 2 with 𝑔(𝑥). We now then write 3𝑥 2 above the
2𝑥
top bar in the equation above, and then we write
3𝑥 2 𝑔(𝑥) = 6𝑥 5 + 0𝑥 4 − 15𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 ‹3.1.2.9›
in a new bottom row, as illustrated below.
 3𝑥 2
2𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 6𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 − 16𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 2 ‹3.1.2.10›
5 4 3 2
6𝑥 + 0𝑥 − 15𝑥 + 6𝑥
We now subtract 𝑓 (𝑥) by 3𝑥 2 𝑔(𝑥), and write the result on the next line, as seen below.

 3𝑥 2
2𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 6𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 − 16𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 2
‹3.1.2.11›
6𝑥 5 + 0𝑥 4 − 15𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2
𝑥4 − 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2
Now, we can pull the next term (4𝑥) from 𝑓 (𝑥) to the bottom row, as below.

 3𝑥 2
2𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 6𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 − 16𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 2
‹3.1.2.12›
6𝑥 5 + 0𝑥 4 − 15𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2
𝑥4 − 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 4𝑥
The leading term of the polynomial in the bottom row in the equation above is 𝑥 4 . In order to
𝑥4 1
get rid of this term, we must subtract from this polynomial the product of 3
= 𝑥 with 𝑔(𝑥).
2𝑥 2
1
Thus, we now write 𝑥 above the top bar of the equation above, and then place
2
1 5
𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 0𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 ‹3.1.2.13›
2 2
on a new bottom line, as seen below.
1
3𝑥 2 + 𝑥
 2
2𝑥 + 0𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 2 6𝑥 + 𝑥 − 16𝑥 + 0𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 2
3 2 5 4 3 2

6𝑥 5 + 0𝑥 4 − 15𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 ‹3.1.2.14›
𝑥4 − 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 4𝑥
5
𝑥 4 + 0𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥
2
3.1 Polynomial Division 8

We again perform another instance of subtraction and write the result on a new bottom line, as
shown below.
1
3𝑥 2 + 𝑥
 2
2𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 6𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 − 16𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 2
6𝑥 5 + 0𝑥 4 − 15𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2
𝑥4 − 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 ‹3.1.2.15›
5
𝑥 4 + 0𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥
2
7
− 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥
2

After this, we pull the final term (the constant term) from 𝑓 (𝑥) to the current bottom row, as
illustrated below.
1
3𝑥 2 + 𝑥
 2
2𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 6𝑥 5 + 𝑥 4 − 16𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 2
6𝑥 5 + 0𝑥 4 − 15𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2
𝑥4 − 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 ‹3.1.2.16›
5
𝑥 4 + 0𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥
2
7
− 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2
2

The leading term of the polynomial in the current bottom row
is −𝑥 3 . In order to get rid of this
−𝑥 3 1
term, we must subtract from this polynomial the product of = − with 𝑔(𝑥). We then write
2𝑥 3 2
1
− above the top bar, and after that we put
2
1 5
− 𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 ‹3.1.2.17›
2 2

on a new bottom line, as shown below.

1 1
𝑥− 3𝑥 2 +
 2 2
2𝑥 + 0𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 2 6𝑥 + 𝑥 − 16𝑥 + 0𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 2
3 2 5 4 3 2

6𝑥 5 + 0𝑥 4 − 15𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2
𝑥4 − 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 4𝑥
5 ‹3.1.2.18›
𝑥 4 + 0𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥
2
7
− 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2
2
5
− 𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1
2

We perform the final subtraction, and then write the result on a newly created bottom row, as seen
CHAPTER 3. POLYNOMIAL DIVISION AND POLYNOMIAL FRACTIONS 9

below.
1 1
𝑥− 3𝑥 2 +
 2 2
2𝑥 + 0𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 2 6𝑥 + 𝑥 − 16𝑥 + 0𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 2
3 2 5 4 3 2

6𝑥 5 + 0𝑥 4 − 15𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2
𝑥4 − 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 4𝑥
5
𝑥 4 + 0𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 ‹3.1.2.19›
2
7
− 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 2
2
5
− 𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1
2
7 1
− 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 1
2 2
We can now see that the polynomial at the bottommost row is now of degree 2, which is less
than the degree of 𝑔(𝑥) (which is 3). Thus, the remainder 𝑟(𝑥) obtained when 𝑓 (𝑥) is divided by
𝑔(𝑥) is the polynomial in the bottommost row:
7 1
𝑟(𝑥) = − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 . ‹3.1.2.20›
2 2
On the other hand, the polynomial
1 1
𝑞(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥− ‹3.1.2.21›
2 2
above the top bar is the quotient of 𝑓 (𝑥) by 𝑔(𝑥). 

Exercise 3.1.2.22 For the following polynomials 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥), determine the quotient 𝑞(𝑥) and
the remainder 𝑟(𝑥) when 𝑓 (𝑥) is divided by 𝑔(𝑥):
(a) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1;
(b) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 6𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 20 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 5;
(c) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 4 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3;
(d) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 − 42 and 𝑓 (𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)2 ;
(e) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 1;
(f) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 4𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2;
(g) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 4 and 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)2 + 22 ;
(h) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 6𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 4 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1;
(i) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 6 − 2𝑥 5 + 3𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2;
(j) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 6 + 2𝑥 5 + 3𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1.

3.1 Polynomial Division 10

3.1.3 Polynomial Synthetic Division

Frequently, we need to divide a polynomial by another polynomial of degree 1. Long division is a

possibility, but there is a more compact method for the computation. This method is known as
polynomial synthetic division. The proof of the theorem below is omitted.

Theorem 3.1.3.1 (Polynomial Synthetic Division) Let 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be polynomials such that
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants such that 𝑎 ≠ 0. Suppose that

𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑘 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑘 𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + . . . + 𝑘 1 𝑥 + 𝑘0 , ‹3.1.3.2›

𝑏
where 𝑘 0 , 𝑘 1 , 𝑘 2 , . . . , 𝑘 𝑛 are constant. Set 𝑐 := − . Consider the algorithm.
𝑎
(1) Take 𝑖 to be 𝑛.

(2) If 𝑖 = 𝑛, then set ℓ 𝑖 = 𝑘 𝑛 .

(3) If 𝑖 < 𝑛, then set ℓ 𝑖 = 𝑘 𝑖 + 𝑐 · 𝑘 𝑖+1 .

(4) If 𝑖 = 0, then the algorithm ends. For 𝑖 > 0, replace 𝑖 by 𝑖 − 1 and then repeat steps (2), (3),
and (4).

Then, the quotient 𝑞(𝑥) and the remainder 𝑟(𝑥) obtained when 𝑓 (𝑥) is divided by 𝑔(𝑥) are given by

ℓ 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ℓ 𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−2 + . . . + ℓ2 𝑥 + ℓ1

𝑞(𝑥) = ‹3.1.3.3›
𝑎
and

𝑟(𝑥) = ℓ0 , ‹3.1.3.4›

respectively. 

Example 3.1.3.5 Determine the quotient and the remainder when 𝑓 (𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 12 is
divided by 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 4. 
5 2 100
Answer The quotient is 𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + , while the remainder is . ♦
3 9 9
Solution First, we note that 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 with 𝑎 := 3 and 𝑏 := 4. Thus, we let

𝑏 4
𝑐 := − =− . ‹3.1.3.6›
𝑎 3
We now place 𝑐 on the left of a vertical bar, and then write the coefficients of 𝑓 (𝑥) in decreasing
order (without omitting any terms with zero coefficients) as shown below.

−
4
3 −1 −6 12 ‹3.1.3.7›
3
CHAPTER 3. POLYNOMIAL DIVISION AND POLYNOMIAL FRACTIONS 11

We create two more rows to fill in numbers, as follows.

4
− 3 −1 −6 12
3

‹3.1.3.8›

The leading coefficient of 𝑓 (𝑥) is pulled down to the bottom row.

4
− 3 −1 −6 12
3

‹3.1.3.9›

4
Thereafter, we multiply 𝑐 = − with the previous entry on the bottom row (which is 3). Write the
3
product
 4
− · 3 = −4 ‹3.1.3.10›
3
on middle row to the right of the previous entry.

4
− 3 −1 −6 12
3

−4 ‹3.1.3.11›

We now add the numbers on the top and the middle row that lie on the column on which we has
just written.

4
− 3 −1 −6 12
3

−4 ‹3.1.3.12›

3 −5

4
We then repeat the same process. First, we multiply 𝑐 = − with the new entry on the bottom
3
row (which is −5) to get
 4 20
− · (−5) = . ‹3.1.3.13›
3 3
3.1 Polynomial Division 12

20
Then, we place in the middle row to the right of the previously filled number.
3

4
− 3 −1 −6 12
3

−4
20 ‹3.1.3.14›
3

3 −5

Now, the sum of the two numbers on the top row and the middle row of the column of the previously
filled entry is written on the bottom row of the same column.

4
− 3 −1 −6 12
3

−4
20 ‹3.1.3.15›
3
2
3 −5
3

4
We repeat the same process for the last time. First, we multiply 𝑐 = − with the new entry on
3
2
the bottom row (which is ) to get
3
 4 2 8
− · =− . ‹3.1.3.16›
3 3 9
8
After that, we place − in the middle row of the rightmost column.
9

4
− 3 −1 −6 12
3

−4
20
−
8 ‹3.1.3.17›
3 9
2
3 −5
3

Finally, the sum of the two numbers on the top row and the middle row of the rightmost column is
written on the bottom row of the same column.

4
− 3 −1 −6 12
3

−4
20
−
8 ‹3.1.3.18›
3 9
2 100
3 −5
3 9
CHAPTER 3. POLYNOMIAL DIVISION AND POLYNOMIAL FRACTIONS 13

The very last step is to extract the information from the last row of the table above. The
rightmost entry is the remainder:
100
𝑟(𝑥) = , ‹3.1.3.19›
9
which is a constant polynomial. The remaining three entries from left to right, when divided by the
leading coefficient of the divisor 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 4 (note that the leading coefficient of 𝑔(𝑥) is 3) are the
coefficients of the quotient of the division:
2


3 (−5) 5 2
𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 3 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥 + . ‹3.1.3.20›
3 3 3 3 9
Note that the degree of the quotient polynomial 𝑞(𝑥) must be one less than that of the dividend
𝑓 (𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 12. 

Exercise 3.1.3.21 Using polynomial synthetic division, determine the quotient 𝑞(𝑥) and the re-
mainder 𝑟(𝑥) when the polynomial 𝑓 (𝑥) is divided by the polynomial 𝑔(𝑥). The polynomials 𝑓 (𝑥)
and 𝑔(𝑥) are given below:

(a) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1;

(b) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 33 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2;

(c) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3;

(d) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2 + 5 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2;

(e) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 6 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3;

(f) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1;

(g) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 9𝑥 3 − 9𝑥 2 + 18𝑥 + 5 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 1;

(h) 𝑓 (𝑥) = −6𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 4 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 3;

(i) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 25𝑥 3 + 15𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 11 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 5𝑥 + 2;

(j) 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 − 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 5.



3.1.4 Remainder Theorem

Frequently, we only need to know the remainder when a polynomial 𝑓 (𝑥) is divided by a polynomial
𝑔(𝑥) of the form 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑐. The theorem below is, in fact, a direct consequence of polynomial
synthetic division (Theorem 3.1.3.1). The proof of this theorem is left as an exercise for an
interested reader.
3.1 Polynomial Division 14

Theorem 3.1.4.1 (Remainder Theorem) Let 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be polynomials such that 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑐
for some constant 𝑐. Then, the remainder when 𝑓 (𝑥) is divided by 𝑔(𝑥) is simply

𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑐) . ‹3.1.4.2›

Example 3.1.4.3 Suppose that 𝑓 (𝑥) is a polynomial whcih leaves the remainder of 4 when divided
by 𝑥 − 1, and which leaves the remainder of 15 when divided by 𝑥 − 2. What is the remainder
obtained when 𝑓 (𝑥) is divided by 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2? 
Answer The remainder is 11𝑥 − 7. ♦

Solution Note that 𝑔(𝑥) is a polynomial of degree 2 and that 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2). By the division
algorithm (Theorem 3.1.1.5),

𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥) ‹3.1.4.4›

for some polynomials 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) such that the degree of 𝑟(𝑥) is at most deg 𝑔(𝑥) − 1 = 2 − 1 = 1.
Assume that

𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑣 ‹3.1.4.5›

for some constants 𝑢 and 𝑣.

Observe that 𝑔(1) and 𝑔(2) are both 0. By the remainder theorem (Theorem 3.1.4.1), 𝑓 (1) is
the remainder when 𝑓 (𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 1. Thus, 𝑓 (1) = 4, so that

4 = 𝑓 (1) = 𝑔(1) 𝑞(1) + 𝑟(1) = 0 · 𝑞(1) + (𝑢 · 1 + 𝑣) = 0 + (𝑢 + 𝑣) = 𝑢 + 𝑣 . ‹3.1.4.6›

Likewise, 𝑓 (2) is the remainder when 𝑓 (𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 2. Thus, 𝑓 (2) = 15, so that

15 = 𝑓 (2) = 𝑔(2) 𝑞(2) + 𝑟(2) = 0 · 𝑞(2) + (𝑢 · 2 + 𝑣) = 0 + (2𝑢 + 𝑣) = 2𝑢 + 𝑣 . ‹3.1.4.7›

Therefore,

𝑢 = (2𝑢 + 𝑣) − (𝑢 + 𝑣) = 15 − 4 = 11 ‹3.1.4.8›

and

𝑣 = 2 (𝑢 + 𝑣) − (2𝑢 + 𝑣) = 2 · 4 − 15 = 8 − 15 = −7 . ‹3.1.4.9›

That is,

𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑣 = 11𝑥 − 7 . ‹3.1.4.10›

Exercise 3.1.4.11 Answer the following questions.

(a) What is the remainder when 2𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 5 is divided by 𝑥 − 3?

(b) What is the remainder when 𝑥 4 + 7𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 15 is divided by 𝑥 + 2?

(c) What is the remainder when 𝑥 2022 + 𝑥 2020 + 𝑥 2018 + . . . + 𝑥 2 + 1 is divided by 𝑥 2 − 1?

CHAPTER 3. POLYNOMIAL DIVISION AND POLYNOMIAL FRACTIONS 15

(d) What is the remainder when 6𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 2 is divided by 2𝑥 + 3?

(e) Let 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 𝑚𝑥 + 9 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3. If the remainder when 𝑓 (𝑥) is divided by 𝑔(𝑥)
equals 3, then what is the value of 𝑚?

(f) What is the remainder when 𝑥 2022 is divided by 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2?

(g) What is the remainder when (1 + 𝑥)2565 is divided by 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 − 6?

(h) If 𝑓 (𝑥) is a polynomial whose remainders when divided by 𝑥+3 and 𝑥−1 are 33 and 1, respectively,
then what is the remainder obtained when 𝑓 (𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3?

(i) If 𝑓 (𝑥) is a polynomial whose remainders when divided by 2𝑥 + 3 and 𝑥 − 5 are 20 and 72,
respectively, then what is the remainder obtained when 𝑓 (𝑥) is divided by 2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 15?

(j) If 𝑓 (𝑥) is a polynomial whose remainders when divided by 𝑥 + 5, 𝑥 − 2, and 𝑥 − 3 are 36, 1, and
4, respectively, then what is the remainder obtained when 𝑓 (𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 3 − 19𝑥 + 30?


The theorem below is a simple consequence of the remainder theorem (Theorem 3.1.4.1).
Readers already know this theorem when learning how to factorize polynomials. The proof of this
theorem is omitted as an exercise.

Theorem 3.1.4.12 (Factor Theorem) Let 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be polynomials such that 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑐 for
some constant 𝑐. Then, 𝑓 (𝑥) is divisibile by 𝑔(𝑥) if and only if

𝑓 (𝑐) = 0 . ‹3.1.4.13›

Example 3.1.4.14 Factorize the expression

𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = 𝑏𝑐(𝑏 − 𝑐) + 𝑐𝑎(𝑐 − 𝑎) + 𝑎𝑏(𝑎 − 𝑏) . ‹3.1.4.15›

Solution 𝑏𝑐(𝑏 − 𝑐) + 𝑐𝑎(𝑐 − 𝑎) + 𝑎𝑏(𝑎 − 𝑏) = −(𝑏 − 𝑐) (𝑐 − 𝑎) (𝑎 − 𝑏) 

Solution Treat 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) as a polynomial in the variable 𝑎 while treating 𝑏 and 𝑐 as constants.
Observe that

𝑃(𝑏, 𝑏, 𝑐) = 𝑏𝑐(𝑏 − 𝑐) + 𝑐𝑏(𝑐 − 𝑏) + 𝑏 2 (𝑏 − 𝑏) = 𝑏𝑐(𝑏 − 𝑐) − 𝑏𝑐(𝑏 − 𝑐) = 0 ‹3.1.4.16›

and that

𝑃(𝑐, 𝑏, 𝑐) = 𝑏𝑐(𝑏 − 𝑐) + 𝑐 2 (𝑐 − 𝑐) + 𝑐𝑏(𝑐 − 𝑏) = 𝑏𝑐(𝑏 − 𝑐) − 𝑏𝑐(𝑏 − 𝑐) = 0 . ‹3.1.4.17›

Therefore, 𝑎 − 𝑏 and 𝑎 − 𝑐 are factors of 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) due to the factor theorem (Theorem 3.1.4.12).
Thus, (𝑎 − 𝑏) (𝑎 − 𝑐) divides 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐).
Now, 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) and (𝑎 − 𝑏) (𝑎 − 𝑐) = 𝑎 2 − (𝑏 + 𝑐) 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑐 are both quadratic polynomials in 𝑎. Since
(𝑎 − 𝑏) (𝑎 − 𝑐) divides 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐), then there is a constant 𝑘 (which may depend on 𝑏 and 𝑐) such that

𝑘 (𝑎 − 𝑏) (𝑎 − 𝑐) = 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) . ‹3.1.4.18›
3.1 Polynomial Division 16

Note that the leading coefficient of (𝑎 − 𝑏) (𝑎 − 𝑐) = 𝑎 2 − (𝑏 + 𝑐) 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑐 is 1, while the leading coefficient

of

𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = 𝑏𝑐(𝑏 − 𝑐) + 𝑐𝑎(𝑐 − 𝑎) + 𝑎𝑏(𝑎 − 𝑏)

= (𝑏 − 𝑐) 𝑎 2 − 𝑏 2 − 𝑐 2 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑐(𝑏 − 𝑐) ‹3.1.4.19›

is (𝑏 − 𝑐). Therefore, we suspects that 𝑘 = 𝑏 − 𝑐. Now,

(𝑏 − 𝑐) (𝑎 − 𝑏) (𝑎 − 𝑐) = (𝑏 − 𝑐) 𝑎 2 − (𝑏 + 𝑐) 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑐

= (𝑏 − 𝑐) 𝑎 2 − (𝑏 − 𝑐)(𝑏 + 𝑐) 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑐(𝑏 − 𝑐)
= (𝑏 − 𝑐) 𝑎 2 − 𝑏 2 − 𝑐 2 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑐(𝑏 − 𝑐) = 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) , ‹3.1.4.20›

where we have used the identity (𝑏 − 𝑐)(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑏 2 − 𝑐 2 . Therefore, we indeed have

𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = (𝑏 − 𝑐) (𝑎 − 𝑏) (𝑎 − 𝑐) = −(𝑏 − 𝑐) (𝑐 − 𝑎) (𝑎 − 𝑏) . ‹3.1.4.21›

Exercise 3.1.4.22 Factorize the following polynomials into factors of degree 1 or 2:

(a) 2𝑥 2 + 13𝑥 + 11;

(b) 3𝑥 3 − 22𝑥 2 + 7𝑥;

(c) 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 6;

(d) 8𝑥 3 − 27;

(e) 𝑥 4 − 15𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 24;

(f) 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2 + 50𝑥 + 96;

(g) 𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 3;

(h) 81𝑥 4 + 64;

(i) 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1;

(j) 𝑥 6 − 64.

 CHAPTER 3. POLYNOMIAL DIVISION AND POLYNOMIAL FRACTIONS 17

3.2 Polynomial Fractions

3.2.1 Definition of Polynomial Fractions

Definition 3.2.1.1 A polynomial fraction or a rational function is a function of the form

𝑓 (𝑥)
𝜙(𝑥) = , where 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are polynomials such that 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0. The function 𝑓 (𝑥) is known
𝑔(𝑥)
as the numerator of 𝜙(𝑥), while 𝑔(𝑥) is the denominator of 𝜙(𝑥). We say that the polynomial
𝑓 (𝑥)
fraction is reduced to lowest terms or, simply, reduced if3.2.1.1 the polynomials 𝑓 (𝑥) and
𝑔(𝑥)
𝑔(𝑥) do not share a common factor (i.e., there does not exist a nonconstant polynomial ℎ(𝑥) which
divides both 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥)). 

Remark 3.2.1.2 Another frequently seen representation of a rational function 𝜙(𝑥) is due to the
𝑓 (𝑥)
division algorithm (Theorem 3.1.1.5). Suppose that 𝜙(𝑥) = , where 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are
𝑔(𝑥)
polynomials such that 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0. Recall that 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥), where 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) are
polynomials with 𝑟(𝑥) = 0 or 0 ≤ deg 𝑟(𝑥) < deg 𝑔(𝑥). Then, we may write

𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥)

𝜙(𝑥) = =
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑞(𝑥) 𝑟(𝑥) 𝑟(𝑥)
= + = 𝑞(𝑥) + . ‹3.2.1.3›
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)


Example 3.2.1.4 Consider the rational function

𝑥4 − 1
𝜙(𝑥) = . ‹3.2.1.5›
𝑥3 − 1
Is 𝜙(𝑥) in its reduced form? If not, determine its reduced form. State all restrictions. 

Answer The rational function 𝜙(𝑥) is not in its reduced form. A reduced form of 𝜙(𝑥) is

𝑥3 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1
𝜙(𝑥) = . ‹3.2.1.6›
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1
Note that 𝑥 can be any real number except 1. ♦

3.2.1.1 𝑓 (𝑥)
Often, we also require that, for a rational function in its reduced form, the leading coefficient of the denom-
𝑔(𝑥)
inator 𝑔(𝑥) should also be 1.
3.2 Polynomial Fractions 18

Solution We can factorize the numerator 𝑓 (𝑥) := 𝑥 4 − 1 of 𝜙(𝑥) as

2
𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 1 = 𝑥 2 − 12 = 𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥2 + 1

= 𝑥 2 − 12 𝑥 2 + 1 = (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 2 + 1 . ‹3.2.1.7›

For the denominator 𝑔(𝑥) := 𝑥 3 − 1, we note that

𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 1 = 𝑥 3 − 13 = (𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 . ‹3.2.1.8›

Therefore,

𝑓 (𝑥) (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 2 + 1


𝜙(𝑥) = =
𝑔(𝑥) (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1)
(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 2 + 1


𝑥3 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1
= = . ‹3.2.1.9›
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1
To avoid division by zero, 𝑥 ≠ 1 must be assumed.
Observe that 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 cannot share a common factor. For, if a nonconstant
polynomial ℎ(𝑥) divides both 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1, then

𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = ℎ(𝑥) 𝑝(𝑥) ‹3.2.1.10›

and

𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = ℎ(𝑥) 𝑞(𝑥) ‹3.2.1.11›

for some polynomials 𝑝(𝑥) and 𝑞(𝑥). Therefore,

1 = 𝑥3 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1

= ℎ(𝑥) 𝑝(𝑥) − 𝑥 ℎ(𝑥) 𝑞(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑥) 𝑝(𝑥) − 𝑥 𝑞(𝑥) . ‹3.2.1.12›

Thus, ℎ(𝑥) must divide 1, which contradicts the assumption that ℎ(𝑥) is a nonconstant polynomial.
𝑥3 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1
Consequently, 𝜙(𝑥) = is in its reduced form. Furthermore, it can be easily seen that
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1
the representation ‹3.2.1.3› of 𝜙(𝑥) is
1
𝜙(𝑥) = 𝑥 + . ‹3.2.1.13›
𝑥2 +𝑥+1


Nota Bene 3.2.1.14 Note that the reduced form of a rational function 𝜙(𝑥) may represent a
𝑥4 − 1
different function. In Example 3.2.1.4, the original function 3 is undefined when 𝑥 = 1 due
𝑥 −1
𝑥3 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1
to division by zero, while is defined when 𝑥 = 1. However, the two functions coincide
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1
at other values of 𝑥. 

Exercise 3.2.1.15 For the following functions, determine which of them are rational functions.
Identify rational functions that are in their reduced forms. For rational functions that are not
yet reduced, determine their reduced forms. Write each rational function in the form according to
‹3.2.1.3›. State all restrictions.
CHAPTER 3. POLYNOMIAL DIVISION AND POLYNOMIAL FRACTIONS 19

(a) 𝑥 3
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4
(b)
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6
6𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 1
(c)
𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 4
𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6
(d)
2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 6
6𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
(e)
6𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 2
𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 2 + 17𝑥 + 10
(f)
𝑥 4 + 10𝑥 3 + 35𝑥 2 + 50𝑥 + 24
𝑥 2 22𝑥 + 3𝑥 4𝑥
(g)
2
(𝑥 6 − 1) 2𝑥

𝑥 sin2 𝑥 + 1 − cos2 𝑥
(h)
(1 − 𝑥) 1 − cos(2𝑥)

sin 𝑥
(i)
cos2 𝑥
2𝑥
(j)
3𝑥


3.2.2 Sums and Differences of Polynomial Fractions

Definition 3.2.2.1 Let 𝑓1 (𝑥), 𝑓2 (𝑥), 𝑔1 (𝑥), and 𝑔2 (𝑥) be polynomials such that 𝑔1 (𝑥) and 𝑔2 (𝑥) are
nonzero. Then,

𝑓1 (𝑥) def − 𝑓1 (𝑥)

 

− == , ‹3.2.2.2›
𝑔1 (𝑥) 𝑔1 (𝑥)

𝑓1 (𝑥) 𝑓2 (𝑥) def 𝑓1 (𝑥) 𝑔2 (𝑥) + 𝑓2 (𝑥) 𝑔1 (𝑥)

+ == , ‹3.2.2.3›
𝑔1 (𝑥) 𝑔2 (𝑥) 𝑔1 (𝑥) 𝑔2 (𝑥)
and
𝑓1 (𝑥) 𝑓2 (𝑥) def 𝑓1 (𝑥) 𝑔2 (𝑥) − 𝑓2 (𝑥) 𝑔1 (𝑥)
− == . ‹3.2.2.4›
𝑔1 (𝑥) 𝑔2 (𝑥) 𝑔1 (𝑥) 𝑔2 (𝑥)
In other words, for expressions 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, and 𝑑 such that 𝑏 and 𝑑 are nonzero, we have
𝑎 (−𝑎)
‹3.2.2.5›
def
− == ,
𝑏 𝑏
3.2 Polynomial Fractions 20

𝑎 𝑐 def 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐
+ == , ‹3.2.2.6›
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑
and
𝑎 𝑐 def 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐
− == . ‹3.2.2.7›
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑


Despite the definition above, when we add or subtract rational functions, we usually determine
a common denominator instead. That is, we find nonzero polynomials ℎ1 (𝑥) and ℎ2 (𝑥) such that

𝑔1 (𝑥) ℎ1 (𝑥) = 𝑔2 (𝑥) ℎ2 (𝑥) . ‹3.2.2.8›

Write 𝑄(𝑥) for 𝑔1 (𝑥) ℎ1 (𝑥) + 𝑔2 (𝑥) ℎ2 (𝑥). Then,

𝑓1 (𝑥) 𝑓1 (𝑥) ℎ1 (𝑥) 𝑓1 (𝑥) ℎ1 (𝑥) 𝑓1 (𝑥) ℎ 1 (𝑥)
   
= = = ‹3.2.2.9›
𝑔1 (𝑥) 𝑔1 (𝑥) ℎ1 (𝑥) 𝑔1 (𝑥) ℎ1 (𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥)
and
𝑓2 (𝑥) 𝑓2 (𝑥) ℎ2 (𝑥) 𝑓2 (𝑥) ℎ2 (𝑥) 𝑓2 (𝑥) ℎ 2 (𝑥)
   
= = = . ‹3.2.2.10›
𝑔2 (𝑥) 𝑔2 (𝑥) ℎ2 (𝑥) 𝑔2 (𝑥) ℎ2 (𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥)
Consequently,
𝑓1 (𝑥) 𝑓2 (𝑥) 𝑓1 (𝑥) ℎ1 (𝑥) 𝑓2 (𝑥) ℎ2 (𝑥) 𝑓1 (𝑥) ℎ 1 (𝑥) + 𝑓2 (𝑥) ℎ 2 (𝑥)
+ = + = ‹3.2.2.11›
𝑔1 (𝑥) 𝑔2 (𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥)
and
𝑓1 (𝑥) 𝑓2 (𝑥) 𝑓1 (𝑥) ℎ1 (𝑥) 𝑓2 (𝑥) ℎ2 (𝑥) 𝑓1 (𝑥) ℎ1 (𝑥) − 𝑓2 (𝑥) ℎ2 (𝑥)
− = − = . ‹3.2.2.12›
𝑔1 (𝑥) 𝑔2 (𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥)

Remark 3.2.2.13 Let 𝛼(𝑥), 𝛽(𝑥), and 𝛾(𝑥) be rational functions. Then,

𝛼(𝑥) + − 𝛼(𝑥) = 0 = − 𝛼(𝑥) + 𝛼(𝑥) , ‹3.2.2.14›

which means that −𝛼(𝑥) is the additive inverse of 𝛼(𝑥). We also have

𝛼(𝑥) + 𝛽(𝑥) = 𝛽(𝑥) + 𝛼(𝑥) , ‹3.2.2.15›

which means that addition of rational functions has the commutative property. Finally,

𝛼(𝑥) + 𝛽(𝑥) + 𝛾(𝑥) = 𝛼(𝑥) + 𝛽(𝑥) + 𝛾(𝑥) , ‹3.2.2.16›

which sayst that addition of rational functions has the associative property; due to this property,
we often write 𝛼(𝑥) + 𝛽(𝑥) + 𝛾(𝑥) without extra parentheses. 

Example 3.2.2.17 Let

2𝑥 2 − 1 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1
𝜙(𝑥) = and 𝜓(𝑥) = . ‹3.2.2.18›
𝑥2 + 𝑥 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2
Calculate 𝜙(𝑥) + 𝜓(𝑥) and 𝜙(𝑥) − 𝜓(𝑥). Write the answers in their reduced forms. State all the
restrictions. 
CHAPTER 3. POLYNOMIAL DIVISION AND POLYNOMIAL FRACTIONS 21

Answer We have
4𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 2 − 2 2
𝜙(𝑥) + 𝜓(𝑥) = and 𝜙(𝑥) − 𝜓(𝑥) = − 2 . ‹3.2.2.19›
𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 2𝑥
3 2 𝑥 + 2𝑥
These expressions are valid only when 𝑥 is not equal to 0, −1, or −2. ♦

Solution Observe that

2𝑥 2 − 1 2𝑥 2 − 1
𝜙(𝑥) = = ‹3.2.2.20›
𝑥2 + 𝑥 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1)
and that
2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1
𝜓(𝑥) = = . ‹3.2.2.21›
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2)
Ergo, we can take the common denominator to be 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2), since
𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) = 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) = 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) . ‹3.2.2.22›

Consequently,
2𝑥 2 − 1 (𝑥 + 2)


2𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥 + 2 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2
  
𝜙(𝑥) = = = ‹3.2.2.23›
𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥+2 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2)
and
𝑥 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1
 𝑥   2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 

2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥
𝜓(𝑥) = = = . ‹3.2.2.24›
𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2)
That is,
2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥
𝜙(𝑥) + 𝜓(𝑥) = +
𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2)
2𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2 + 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥
3 2



=
𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2)
4𝑥 3
+ 8𝑥 2
−2 4𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 2 − 2
= = 3 . ‹3.2.2.25›
𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
Since the roots of the denominator 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 of 𝜙(𝑥) + 𝜓(𝑥) are 0, −1, and −2, which are not
4𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 2 − 2
roots of the numerator 4𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 2 − 2, it follows that the form 𝜙(𝑥) + 𝜓(𝑥) = 3 is already
𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
reduced. To avoid division by zero, 𝑥 must not be 0, −1, and −2.
Likewise,
2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥
𝜙(𝑥) − 𝜓(𝑥) = −
𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2)
2𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2 − 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥
3 2



=
𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2)
−2𝑥 − 2 2 (𝑥 + 1)
= =−
𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2)
2 2
=− =− 2 . ‹3.2.2.26›
𝑥 (𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 + 2𝑥
2
The form 𝜙(𝑥) − 𝜓(𝑥) = − 2 is clearly reduced. To avoid division by zero, 𝑥 must not be 0,
𝑥 + 2𝑥
−1, and −2. 
3.2 Polynomial Fractions 22

Exercise 3.2.2.27 Calculate the sums and the differences given below. Write the answers in their
reduced forms. State all restrictions.
𝑥 2
(a) +
𝑥−3 3−𝑥
4𝑥 3𝑥 + 8
(b) 2 − 2
𝑥 − 64 𝑥 − 64
5𝑥 2
(c) +
3𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 1
𝑥+3 𝑥+2
(d) −
𝑥+2 𝑥+3
4 1
(e) 2 + 2
𝑥 + 6𝑥 + 5 𝑥 + 8𝑥 + 15
3𝑥 4 − 14𝑥
(f) − 2
3𝑥 − 1 3𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 1
𝑥−3 1 1
(g) 2 + −
𝑥 −1 𝑥+1 1−𝑥
(−2𝑥) 3𝑥 18 (𝑥 − 2)
(h) − − 2
𝑥+6 6−𝑥 𝑥 − 36
𝑥+1 2 4
(i) 2 − 2 − 3
𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1
1 1 1 1
(j) + + +...+
(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 + 4) (𝑥 + 2021) (𝑥 + 2022)


3.2.3 Products and Quotients of Polynomial Fractions

Definition 3.2.3.1 Let 𝑓1 (𝑥), 𝑓2 (𝑥), 𝑔1 (𝑥), and 𝑔2 (𝑥) be polynomials such that 𝑔1 (𝑥) and 𝑔2 (𝑥) are
nonzero. Then,
𝑓1 (𝑥) 𝑓2 (𝑥) def 𝑓1 (𝑥) 𝑓2 (𝑥)
   
· == ‹3.2.3.2›
𝑔1 (𝑥) 𝑔2 (𝑥) 𝑔1 (𝑥) 𝑔2 (𝑥)
and, if 𝑓2 (𝑥) is nonzero, then
𝑓1 (𝑥)
 
𝑓1 (𝑥) 𝑓2 (𝑥) 𝑓1 (𝑥) 𝑔2 (𝑥) 𝑓1 (𝑥) 𝑔2 (𝑥)
 .     
𝑔1 (𝑥)
‹3.2.3.3›
def
=   == · = .
𝑔1 (𝑥) 𝑔2 (𝑥) 𝑓2 (𝑥) 𝑔1 (𝑥) 𝑓2 (𝑥) 𝑔1 (𝑥) 𝑓2 (𝑥)
𝑔2 (𝑥)

𝑓2 (𝑥)
Indeed, when 𝑓2 (𝑥) is nonzero, the multiplicative inverse of is
𝑔2 (𝑥)
 −1
𝑓2 (𝑥) 𝑔2 (𝑥)

1
‹3.2.3.4›
def
=   == .
𝑔2 (𝑥) 𝑓2 (𝑥) 𝑓2 (𝑥)
𝑔2 (𝑥)
CHAPTER 3. POLYNOMIAL DIVISION AND POLYNOMIAL FRACTIONS 23

In other words, for expressions 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, and 𝑑 such that 𝑏 and 𝑑 are nonzero, we have
𝑎 𝑐
def 𝑎𝑐
· == ‹3.2.3.5›
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑
and furthermore, if 𝑏 is nonzero, then
𝑎
𝑎 . 𝑐
𝑎 𝑑
𝑏 𝑎𝑑
‹3.2.3.6›
def
= 𝑐
= · == .
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏𝑐


𝑑
𝑏
Moreover, when 𝑏 is nonzero, the multiplicative inverse of is
𝑑
  −1
𝑏 1 def 𝑑
=   == . ‹3.2.3.7›
𝑑 𝑏 𝑏
𝑑

Remark 3.2.3.8 Let 𝛼(𝑥), 𝛽(𝑥), and 𝛾(𝑥) be rational functions. When 𝛼(𝑥) ≠ 0, we have

‹3.2.3.9›

−1
−1
𝛼(𝑥) · 𝛼(𝑥) = 1 = 𝛼(𝑥) · 𝛼(𝑥) ,

which means that 𝛼(𝑥) is the multiplicative inverse of 𝛼(𝑥). We also have

−1

𝛼(𝑥) · 𝛽(𝑥) = 𝛽(𝑥) · 𝛼(𝑥) , ‹3.2.3.10›

which means that multiplication of rational functions has the commutative property. Moreover,
𝛼(𝑥) · 𝛽(𝑥) · 𝛾(𝑥) = 𝛼(𝑥) · 𝛽(𝑥) · 𝛾(𝑥) , ‹3.2.3.11›

which sayst that multiplication of rational functions has the associative property; due to this
property, we often write 𝛼(𝑥) · 𝛽(𝑥) · 𝛾(𝑥) without extra parentheses.
Finally, there is a property relating addition and multiplication of rational functions. This
property is called the distributive property of multiplication over addition, which states that
𝛼(𝑥) · 𝛽(𝑥) + 𝛾(𝑥) = 𝛼(𝑥) · 𝛽(𝑥) + 𝛼(𝑥) · 𝛾(𝑥) ‹3.2.3.12›

and
𝛼(𝑥) + 𝛽(𝑥) · 𝛾(𝑥) = 𝛼(𝑥) · 𝛾(𝑥) + 𝛽(𝑥) · 𝛾(𝑥) . ‹3.2.3.13›

6𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 56 15𝑥 2 + 34𝑥 − 16
Example 3.2.3.14 Let 𝜙(𝑥) = and 𝜓(𝑥) = . Determine the product
35𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 2 14𝑥 2 − 47𝑥 − 7
𝜙(𝑥)
𝜙(𝑥) 𝜓(𝑥) and the quotient in their reduced forms. State all restrictions. 
𝜓(𝑥)
Answer We have
9𝑥 2 + 48𝑥 + 64
𝜙(𝑥) 𝜓(𝑥) = ‹3.2.3.15›
49𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 + 1
7 2 1
where 𝑥 must not be equal to , , and − . Similarly,
2 5 7
𝜙(𝑥) 4𝑥 2 − 28𝑥 + 49
= ‹3.2.3.16›
𝜓(𝑥) 25𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 4
7 8 2 1
where 𝑥 must not be equal to , − , , and − . ♦
2 3 5 7
3.2 Polynomial Fractions 24

Solution Observe that

(2𝑥 − 7) (3𝑥 + 8)
𝜙(𝑥) = ‹3.2.3.17›
(5𝑥 − 2) (7𝑥 + 1)

and that
(3𝑥 + 8) (5𝑥 − 2)
𝜓(𝑥) = . ‹3.2.3.18›
(2𝑥 − 7) (7𝑥 + 1)

Hence,
   
(2𝑥 − 7) (3𝑥 + 8) (3𝑥 + 8) (5𝑥 − 2)
𝜙(𝑥) 𝜓(𝑥) =
(5𝑥 − 2) (7𝑥 + 1) (2𝑥 − 7) (7𝑥 + 1)
2
(2𝑥 − 7) (3𝑥 + 8) (5𝑥 − 2)
=
(2𝑥 − 7) (5𝑥 − 2) (7𝑥 + 1)2
(3𝑥 + 8)2 9𝑥 2 + 48𝑥 + 64
= = . ‹3.2.3.19›
(7𝑥 + 1)2 49𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 + 1
7 2 1
To avoid division by zero, 𝑥 must not be equal to , , and − .
2 5 7
On the other hand,

𝜙(𝑥)
   
(2𝑥 − 7) (3𝑥 + 8) . (3𝑥 + 8) (5𝑥 − 2)
=
𝜓(𝑥) (5𝑥 − 2) (7𝑥 + 1) (2𝑥 − 7) (7𝑥 + 1)
   
(2𝑥 − 7) (3𝑥 + 8) (2𝑥 − 7) (7𝑥 + 1)
=
(5𝑥 − 2) (7𝑥 + 1) (3𝑥 + 8) (5𝑥 − 2)
(2𝑥 − 7)2 (3𝑥 + 8) (7𝑥 + 1)
=
(3𝑥 + 8) (5𝑥 − 2)2 (7𝑥 + 1)
(2𝑥 − 7)2 4𝑥 2 − 28𝑥 + 49
= = . ‹3.2.3.20›
(5𝑥 − 2)2 25𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 4
7 8 2 1
To avoid division by zero, 𝑥 must not be equal to , − , , and − . 
2 3 5 7

Exercise 3.2.3.21 Calculate the products and the quotients given below. Write the answers in
their reduced forms. State all restrictions.
𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 3
(a)
𝑥+3 𝑥+5
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 30
   
(b)
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 15 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 8

9 − 𝑥2 6𝑥 − 2𝑥 2
   
(c)
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9

𝑥2 𝑥2 + 𝑥
   
(d)
𝑥 2 + 13 𝑥 2 + 13

9 + 3𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 4𝑥 3 − 9𝑥
   
(e)
𝑥 2 − 16 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 12
CHAPTER 3. POLYNOMIAL DIVISION AND POLYNOMIAL FRACTIONS 25
 
𝑥 2 −14𝑥+48
𝑥 2 +10𝑥+16
(f)  
−24+11𝑥−𝑥 2
𝑥 2 −𝑥−72
 
𝑥 2 −6𝑥−16
𝑥 2 +𝑥−42
(g)  
𝑥 2 −64
𝑥 2 +12𝑥+35

 2𝑥 + 5   𝑥 2 − 9   25𝑥 5

(h)
𝑥−3 5𝑥 4 2𝑥 2 + 15𝑥 + 25

27𝑥 4 4𝑥 2 − 1 .  2𝑥 + 1 
   
(i)
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1
 
, 1−100𝑥 2
20𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 1

3𝑥 2 −𝑥−2
(j)
© ª
­ ®
6𝑥 2 + 13𝑥 + 6 ­ 10𝑥−1  ®
2
« 2𝑥 −3𝑥+1 ¬


Definition 3.2.3.22 Let 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be polynomials such that 𝑔(𝑥) is nonzero. For each positive
𝑓 (𝑥)
integer 𝑛, we define the 𝒏th power of 𝜙(𝑥) = to be
𝑔(𝑥)
(

𝒏 𝜙(𝑥) if 𝑛 = 1 ,
‹3.2.3.23›
def
𝝓(𝒙) ==
𝑛−1
𝜙(𝑥) · 𝜙(𝑥) for 𝑛 = 2, 3, 4, . . . .

In the case that 𝑓 (𝑥) is also nonzero, then

‹3.2.3.24›

0 def
𝝓(𝒙) == 1 ,

and for every positive integer 𝑛, we have

−𝒏 1
‹3.2.3.25›
def
𝝓(𝒙) ==
𝑛 .
𝜙(𝑥)


Remark 3.2.3.26 Let 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be polynomials such that 𝑔(𝑥) is nonzero. For each positive
integer 𝑛, observe that
𝑛
𝑛
𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑓 (𝑥)

=
𝑛 . ‹3.2.3.27›
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)

When 𝑓 (𝑥) is nonzero, then for every positive integer 𝑛, we have

 −𝑛
𝑛
𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)

=
𝑛 . ‹3.2.3.28›
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑓 (𝑥)
3.2 Polynomial Fractions 26

In general, let 𝜙(𝑥) and 𝜓(𝑥) be rational functions. For all integers 𝑚 and 𝑛, we have

𝑚
𝑛
𝑚+𝑛
𝜙(𝑥) 𝜙(𝑥) = 𝜙(𝑥) , ‹3.2.3.29›

𝑚
𝜙(𝑥)
𝑚−𝑛

𝑛 = 𝜙(𝑥) , ‹3.2.3.30›
𝜙(𝑥)


𝑚𝑛
𝑚𝑛
𝜙(𝑥) = 𝜙(𝑥) , ‹3.2.3.31›

𝑛
𝑛
𝑛
𝜙(𝑥) 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝜙(𝑥) 𝜓(𝑥) , ‹3.2.3.32›
and
𝑛
𝑛
𝜙(𝑥) 𝜙(𝑥)

=
𝑛 . ‹3.2.3.33›
𝜓(𝑥) 𝜓(𝑥)


Example 3.2.3.34 Let

2𝑥 𝑥2 − 1
𝜙(𝑥) = and 𝜓(𝑥) = . ‹3.2.3.35›
𝑥2 + 1 𝑥2 + 1
Verify that

‹3.2.3.36›

2
2
𝜙(𝑥) + 𝜓(𝑥) = 1.

Solution Note that
 2𝑥  2 (2𝑥)2 4𝑥 2
‹3.2.3.37›

2
𝜙(𝑥) = = =
𝑥2 + 1 (𝑥 2 + 1)𝑛 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 + 1
and
2
𝑥2 − 1 𝑥2 − 1 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 1

‹3.2.3.38›

2
𝜙(𝑥) = 2 = = .
𝑥 +1 (𝑥 2 + 1)𝑛 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 + 1
Thus,

2
2 4𝑥 2 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 + 1
𝜙(𝑥) + 𝜓(𝑥) = +
𝑥 4 +
2𝑥 2 + 1 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2

+1
4𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 1
2 4 2
𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 + 1
= = = 1. ‹3.2.3.39›
𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 + 1 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 + 1


Exercise 3.2.3.40 Verify that ‹3.2.3.29›, ‹3.2.3.30›, ‹3.2.3.31›, ‹3.2.3.32›, and ‹3.2.3.33› are true.