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CHAPTER 2

NIGHT VISION

SECTION 1 - OCULAR NIGHT VISION

GENERAL

201. Human beings are generally unaccustomed to functioning by night without the aid of
artificial light. The common individual soldier has to be trained to utilise and develop his ‘night
vision’ ability.

HUMAN EYE AND NIGHT VISION

202. The retina of the human eye has two sets of light detectors called the cones and rods,
from which nerve fibres radiate to the brain. The cones are the means of vision in bright light,
and the rods in darkness. In twilight, bright moonlight and artificial illumination, the functions
of the cones and rods overlap.

203. There are millions of cones packed together closely in the very centre of the retina of
each eye. That is why in daylight one has to look directly at an object in order to see it clearly.
The cones are sensitive to different degrees of intensity of light and can also distinguish
colours. They contribute to the acuity and fidelity of vision in daylight.

204. There are also millions of rods in each eye which assist us in seeing by night. They are
also sensitive to different degree of intensity of light, but cannot distinguish colours. For this
reason, if the night is dark, all objects appear in shade of grey. But, coloured lights and signal
flares are perceived in colour even at night because they are bright enough to activate the cones.
The rods are packed closely together at the outer edges of the retina; there are no rods at all in
the centre. The centre of the retina which is most sensitive in daylight is actually blind at night.
Therefore, in order to see an object in the dark, we should not look directly at it but from an
oblique angle. ‘Off-Centre Vision”. A faint object in the dark catches our attention if it moves
a little. It may disappear when we look at it intently, but is again seen when observed
obliquely. The image thus formed should be retained for a few seconds to enable the position of
the object to be noted and an appropriate action taken. From the centre of the retina towards its
outer edges, the cones gradually keep decreasing while the rods correspondingly keep
increasing. Midway between the centre of the retina and its outer edges, both cones and rods
come into play.

205. Both the rods and cones have different degrees of sensitivity to colours. The cones are
more sensitive to yellow light. This is why in daylight, yellow is seen brighter than red, green
and blue. The rods differ most from the cones in perceiving blue light. They are one thousand
times as sensitive as the cones in seeing blue light, but being colour blind, they do not see blue
light as blue but as a shade of grey. The red light cannot seen by the rods in the dark.
Therefore, to avoid being seen by the enemy, the use of red light is preferable.

206. In the dark, the rods lack the capability of vision in detail. The rods do not enable the
eye to read an instrument dial, or examine a map, a road signal or a watch. For this, the cones

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must be put to work by providing more light. But, the eyes at night are very sensitive to even
faint light. On a dark night an ordinary candle or a lighted match can be seen from a distance.

207. The Master Eye. One eye is always stronger than the other, and is called the master
eye. Left-handed men usually have the left eye as the master eye. To determine which is the
master eye, point a forefinger at a distant object with both eyes open. Close one eye at a time,
keeping the other open. When the master eye is open, the finger will be aligned to the object.
With the master eye closed, the finger will be displaced from the line of sight to the object.

208. The best way of scanning ground by night is use the ‘figure of eight’ method which
makes full use of the effect of ‘off-centre vision’. One should avoid staring at the area being
searched since this tires the eyes. If any single point of light or a prominent object is stared at
for too long, it will appear to move. This is why a night sentry may imagine he is being stalked
by an enemy. This illusion can be dispelled by comparing the suspect object against something
static, such as a finger held at an arm’s length. Another counter measure is to have sentries in
pairs. Two pairs of eyes are better than one pair at night.

209. Adaptation to Night Vision. The change-over from seeing in bright light to seeing in
the darkness is known as night adaptation. if one moves from a brightly lit area into the dark,
one is at first completely blind because neither the cones nor the rods work. Then, the pupils of
the eyes dilate, letting more light into the eyes; this assists vision. Next, the cones become
gradually sensitive and objects which earlier appeared black, gradually become dark grey and
then light grey. This process takes about five minutes. Lastly, the rods get adjusted, the shapes
and outline of the objects are seen in lace of vague shadows. The time taken for the rods to
commence functioning efficiently is about half an hour.

210. If the eye is exposed to light after having adapted itself to night vision, it will
immediately lose its ability to see. The brighter the light is, the longer will the eye take to
regain its night vision. If troops are required to operate by night, time should be allowed for
them to adapt to night vision which must not be nullified again by exposing them to bright light.
If it is necessary to use artificial light in the dark, it should be kept as faint and diffused as
possible, and one should not look directly at it. Gazing even at a luminous instrument dial may
reduce night vision capability by about fifty per cent.

211. A better way of adapting to darkness is to work in deep red light. Pure red light has
almost no effect on the rods and hence, on night vision. So, one can read or work with the aid
of red light and adapt to darkness in no time. If deep red bulbs are not available, red cellophane
covers may be used. But, red cellophane is a poor substitute because it allows some orange and
white rays of light to pass through which tend to desensitise the rods. A better alternative is to
use goggles worth red filters, so that only red light gets through and the rods are not adversely
affected at all. They should be put on about half an hour before one is required to operate at
night and taken off when completely in the dark.

212. Use of red light prevents us from distinguishing colours. Red and white signal lights
look alike. All red objects appear white or grey. When using red goggles, this effect should not
be lost sight of.

213. Once light adaptation has been achieved, it is not possible to stare at an object for longer
than 10 seconds before the vision becomes blurred. This is because the rod cells are weak and
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tire quickly. The angle of sight must be changed accordingly to allow the night vision cells to
rest and recover. Having adapted oneself to night vision, one should use it to the maximum
effect.

PECULIARITIES OF NIGHT VISION

214. Objects should be perceived at night through the corner of one’s eye. If the eyes are
irresistibly drawn to the object, one should desist from gazing steadily at the same spot because
the image would eventually dissolve. Instead, different ends or sides of the object can be
perceived in turn at an oblique ocular angle. At times, when the eyes shift from one object to
another, one may get a mistaken impression of surreptious movement which comes to a stand
still when the gaze is directed to that very spot. Skill acquired through practical training will
obviate such false alarms. However, an observer or sentry must test the validity of any fleeting
impression and not be lulled into complacence.

215. Some other known peculiarities of night vision are as follows:

a. The eyes tend to miss objects which are not bright or moving. A sector will have
to be scanned several times, without staring directly at a fixed spot.

b. In searching the sky or the ground for a dark object, the eye should rove in
spurts. When a suspect object is spotted, one should look first to one side of it and then
to the other, then above it and below it. The eye should never sweep the ground sky or
horizon, because one cannot observe clearly when the eyes are moving. The eye should
be directed for short intervals at different parts of the area under observation.

c. Objects look smaller in the dark. A tree looks smaller at night because the
twinges and the branches are not distinctly seen. A plane at night appears bigger when a
searchlight illuminates it, because the light brings out details not seen before. It is
difficult to recognise objects when seen in a dark, hazy silhouette.

d. Background contrast helps night vision. If the object is lighter or darker than its
background, it is more easily seen. Even at night, the colour of the sky is lighter than
that of the ground or of water. The chances of observing from the ground a plane
silhouetted against the sky are better than of detecting it from above against the
backdrop of the earth. However, contrasts aids vision only when the outline are clear.
While driving a vehicle at night, the windscreen must be clean and free of scratches
because these scatter the light, make contours hazy and reduce contrast.

e. Physical and mental fatigue affects night vision more than day vision. When a
person is fatigued he will need more light to perceive a faint object.

RULES OF NIGHT VISION

216. The following rules should be observed to ensure maximum efficiency of night vision:
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a. Protect your eyes from naked light before you step out into the darkness. Stay in
the dark before going out, or use red light or red goggles.

b. Never gaze directly at a source of light, nor at any illuminated object except in
red light. If you must break this rule, be quick with your scanning.

c. Use the corners of your eyes when you are out in the dark. Keep looking
alongside of, above and below what you think is there until you have made up your mind
about it.

d. Keep your eyes moving in spurts. Do not sweep large regions, and do not stare
continuously at one spot.

e. Keep your windscreen spotless, free of dirt, mist and scratches. Dim and diffuse
the light within the cabin of the vehicle.

f. Keep yourself wide-awake and alert.

g. Practice recognition of objects by night. Learn by experience to recognise

objects on the basis of available clues.

217. These rules of night vision should thoroughly be put into practice during training till
they are imbedded and become second nature individuals.

SECTION 2 - NIGHT VISION DEVICES

GENERAL

218. The main thrust of technological innovation and development in relation to night
operations has been directed at resolving the problems of night vision and surveillance. This
has taken shape in two parallel directions; namely Night Vision and surveillance devices as
explained below.

a. Night Vision Devices. These are based on the principles of infrared radiation
(IR), image intensification (II) and thermal imaging (TI). The devices extend human
night vision to comparatively longer ranges, facilitate driving of vehicles and firing of
weapons and weapon systems upto their battle-effective ranges. Passive devices are
preferable in order to evade detection and counter measures by the enemy.

b. Surveillance Devices. Radar, lasers, tactical surveillance drones and thermal

imaging (TI) systems provide the basis for modern surveillance devices. These devices
enable effective surveillance of large areas, detection and engagement of targets by day
and night and also in adverse weather conditions. Remote sensing, aerial (including
satellite) photography at night or in bad weather and electronic intelligence have
undergone sophisticated technological development.

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219. Acquisition of such devices by potential adversaries has far reaching implications in
enhancing their capability of night operations. It is essential to analyse the characteristics and
tactical employment of these devices.

INFRARED RADIATION DEVICES

220. Infrared devices are being extensively used as weapon sights and driving aids. Infrared
devices can be classified in two categories, that is active or passive.

221. Active IR Devices. An active device consists of:

a. Source of Infrared Radiation. It operated off a power-source or a battery and

includes a special lamp fitted with a filter which cuts off the visible spectrum of light,
emitting an infrared beam to irradiate the intended object or area. The range of a device
is directly proportional to the power of radiation of the source.

b. Image Converter and Viewing Device. Since infrared radiation is not visible to
the human eye, the reflected image must be converted into a perceptible image. Infrared
rays reflected from the target are received and focused in the image converter tube which
is generally integrated in the viewing optical device. The IR image is converted into a
visible image for perception by the eyes. It is suitably magnified, if necessary.

222. Passive IR Devices. The central element in a passive device is an infrared detector
which is activated by infrared radiation. All objects of military interest like aircraft, tanks,
vehicles, guns and troops are emitters of infrared rays. The detector concentrates and converts
these rays into an active device. There should be sufficient infrared radiation to activate the
detector. These devices are, therefore, more useful detecting the enemy’s infrared devices and
other heat emitting objects like the exhaust of tanks and other vehicles, and weapon barrels.

223. Types of IR Devices. Some of the varieties of IR devices used in night operations are as
follows:

a. Sniperscope. It is used alongwith weapons for sniping or firing at night. It

consists of an optical telescope, an infrared lamp and a power pack battery, integrated as
a kit with the rifle. It has a range of approximately 300 metres.

b. Infrared Binoculars. These binoculars allow troops to drive vehicles, build

roads and bridges and perform tasks in complete darkness. Such battery-powered and
head-mounted binoculars provides a range of vision suited to diverse users like
commanders, patrols, gunners, drivers, signals linesmen and engineer parties.

c. Tank Equipment. Infrared systems are available for observation, driving and
shooting. A typical configuration of devices is as follows:

(1) Drive’s for Device. This normally consists of hull-mounted infrared

head lamps and a periscope on the driver’s hatch. This enables the driver to
observe and drive his tank by night. The visual range of the drivers is limited
and could be upto 70 meters. The range is enhanced to 500 - 700 meters if used

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in conjunction with the gunner’s and commander’s infrared lamps. The field of
view of the driver is restricted to below 46 degrees.

(2) Gunner’s Device. This normally consists of a search light mounted on

the barrel/mantle and a gunner’s periscope with all-round turret traverse and
elevation/ depression. Targets may be engaged with reasonable accuracy upto
800 meters. The field of view of the gunner is quite limited, making the
acquisition of dormant targets difficult.

(3) Commander’s Device. This device consists of a commander’s spot lamp

and a scanning periscope, with an independent range upto 350 meters. All the
devices can be used in conjunction, supplementing one another maximum range.

224. Limitations of Infrared Device. Infrared devices have the following limitations:

a. Fog, smoke, dust, haze and rain affect their performance adversely. Infrared rays
do not penetrate water.

b. Bright and diffussed moonlight considerably reduces the intensity of the image.
But, illumination of the target area enhances the clarity of the image and the effective
range.

c. White light beamed directly at an infrared vision device causes a blackout to the
viewer using infrared equipment, lasting for about 10-15 minutes.

d. The image as seen is in two dimensions, thus lacking depth which makes it
difficult to discern and distinguish various targets. When driving across country, a
shadow in front may get magnified and give a distorted impression of either a puddle of
water or a very steep cliff.

e. There is need for extensive training of operators before they can fully exploit
these devices. Also, infrared devices impose considerable strain on the viewer’s eye.
He has to rest his eyes periodically or close be relieved by receiver crew.

g. The shelf-life of the equipment is limited. Exposure to bright light and ageing
affect the performance of the equipment adversely. the lamp filament gets weaker with
use. The image converter tube loses its efficiency due to exposure to direct light and
also by prolonged use.

h. In cases the beam and scanner are mounted on the same axis, the dust particles in
the path of the beam start reflecting infrared radiations, thereby adversely affecting the
efficiency of the scanner. Objects can be seen at almost twice the range if the observer
is looking from a flank rather then straight down the beam. The linear separation need
to be on more than 20 meters. Because of these limitations, the emphasis has shifted to
device using image intensification or thermal imaging.

IMAGE INTENSIFICATION DEVICES

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225. These are passive devices which amplify ambient light. They use available light and
amplify it by as many as 80,000 times to produce intense outputs which enable use to see in the
dark. Their performance varies with the availability of ambient light. Technically, these will be
in operative on a totally dark night, but starlight or small-scale artificial illumination is
sufficient to activate them. The terrain also affects these as foliage absorbs and lowers the
general level of ambient light. These devices work better in desert, plains, snowbound and
coastal areas. Maximum ranges upto 1500-2000 meters or less depending on the weapons
systems may be achieved under favourable conditions. Modern battle tanks incorporate a single
unit day-cum-night sight as part of an integrated fire control system. Besides tank fire control
systems using an image intensification device for night operations, a variety of devices for
other uses has been developed. These include sights for anti tank guided missile systems, anti
tank guns, machine guns, rocket launchers and individual weapons. Night observation devices
such as short range goggles and medium range binoculars are also in use.

226. Limitations. The performance of image intensification devices varies drastically with
the available ambient light and atmospheric conditions, and is not consistently predictable.
These devices are susceptible to degradation in conditions of dust, smoke, fog, haze and rain.
White light beams directed by the enemy at the device can cause a severe blinding effect. A
safety mechanism for anti flare protection is generally incorporated into the devices.

THERMAL IMAGING DEVICES

227. These devices are entirely passive like the intensifiers. They can detect thermal radiation
and present an image based on the pattern of thermal radiation emanating from the target.
These sights are particularly useful in penetrating smoke, atmospheric haze, for snow or rain,
light foliage and camouflage. The devices are small, light-weight and can be used both at night
and during day in bad visibility conditions. The maximum range obtained with thermal imaging
devices is in the region of 3000 meters for detection and 2500 meters for identification and
engagement. The devices are very expensive.

228. Limitations. Thermal imaging devices can detect a target only if there is a distinct
temperature differential between the target and its environment. Preferably, the target should be
hotter than its environs. Thus, technically it is possible that en object visible to an unaided eye
may be invisible through a thermal image device. Another drawback is the unfamiliar nature of
the image. For instance, a tank may be depicted in terms of a long barrel, the region of its
engine exhaust and wheel if hot. The viewer has to intelligently interpret the image.

COMBINATION

229. Every genre of night vision devices has its own characteristic advantages and drawbacks.
When fielded in a judicious mix, they complete and make up for one another limitations. A
formation or unit employing a combination of infrared, image intensification and thermal
imaging devices can operate effectively, if the devices are designed to allow inter-changeability
of one type with another in a fire control system.

SECTION 3 - SURVEILLANCE DEVICES

BATTLEFIELD SURVEILLANCE RADAR

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230. Battlefield surveillance radar generally operate on the principle of ‘ Doppler effect’. For
this reason, they detect targets only if the latter move. The size of the system varies with the
range and power. The radar may be portable or mounted on a wheeled or tracked vehicles.

231. Limitations. Ground-based surveillance radars have the following limitations:

a. The radar functions by emitting electro magnetic energy. Therefore, it can be

detected, jammed or deceived. The propagation of radar waves is along the line of sight;
therefore, careful sitting is essential. Elevated remote aerials can also be used.

b. Heavy rain and snow in the target area may reduce the efficiency of the radar.

c. A number of radar operating in close proximity can create mutual interference.

d. Every radar has its limit of resolution or discrimination, below which two targets
close together will appear as one.

LASER

232. LASER is an acronym for ‘Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation’.

It is finding increased application in military equipment. It is particularly suitable for precise
measurement of range, target location, illumination and communications. A ground or air-based
observer may indicate a target by LASER illumination, facilitating a precision guided munitions
to home on to the designated target.

233. Limitation of Laser. Being a line of sight device, it suffers from the associated
disadvantages of all such devices. The equipment is extremely expensive other than as a range
finder.

SURVEILLANCE DRONES

234. The surveillance drone enhances the real time capability of the commander to read the
battle. It is programmed prior to launch and guided in its initial approach flight. After closing
with the target, the programmed automatic guidance system takes over. It is thus, relatively
immune to electronic counter measures. Its payload may consist of infrared sensors, cameras
and data transmission systems. For photographic missions, the return flight is automatically
guided and lands by means of a parachute at the pre-selected spot. It can be quickly reactivated
for repeated missions.

SATELLITE SURVEILLANCE

235. The Satellite is a revolutionary development in the acquisition of real-time information

by day and night. These satellites supplement and complement reconnaissance by aircraft,
drones and other means. They carry a range of cameras, radar and infrared equipment. They
can also be used for communications, early warning, navigation and selective surveillance.

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