FLUX-SWITCHING MACHINES
Hence, the online efficiency optimization and the
1. INTRODUCTION
At present, traditional rotor-permanent magnet (rotor-
PM) brushless machines, which have surface-mounted,
inset, or interior magnets located on the rotor and arma-
ture windings in the stator, are widely utilized in industry,
home appliances, aerospace, military, wind power, pure
electrical vehicles (EVs), and hybrid electrical vehicles
(HEVs), namely, Prius1 and Camry1 HEV systems (1).
The rotor-PM machines contain three traditional topolo-
gies, namely, surface-mounted topology, inset topology,
and interior-mounted topology. Usually, the surface-
mounted and inset magnets need to be protected from
the centrifugal force by employing a retaining sleeve,
which is made of either stainless steel or nonmetallic fiber.
However, the interior-PM rotor structure is more compli-
cated and exhibits lower mechanical strength. Meanwhile,
the rotor temperature rise may be a problem due to poor
thermal dissipation, which may cause irreversible
demagnetization of magnets and may ultimately limit
the power density of the rotor-PM machines. Therefore,
in the late twentieth century, in contrast, a new type of PM
machine having magnets on the stator, called the stator-
PM machine, has re-emerged and developed rapidly, which
can overcome the problems suffered by the rotor-PM
machines (2).
The idea of stator-PM machines can be traced back to
1955, when Rauch and Johnson proposed probably the first
topology of stator-PM machines as an alternator, as shown
in Figure 1, in which both the PMs and single-phase
armature coils are configured on the stator core, and the
rotor is a simple salient structure with two teeth (poles).
Basically, the stator-PM machines are of three types,
namely, doubly salient permanent magnet (DSPM)
machines, flux reversal permanent magnet (FRPM)
machines, and permanent magnet flux-switching
(PMFS) machines, as shown in Figure 2 (3). It should be
noted that the common features of the three machines are
doubly salient structures, stator-located magnets and
armature windings, and salient-pole iron lamination-
based rotors without magnets or windings, which are
similar to those of switched reluctance machines (SRMs).
Compared with the DSPM and FRPM machines, the
PMFS machines have attracted more attention due to the
benefits of highest torque output capability, largest power
(torque) density, and highest efficiency, which are more
suitable for aerospace and EV applications. According to
the excitation modes, the flux-switching machines can be
divided into three subtypes, namely, permanent magnet-
excited flux-switching (PMFS) machines, hybrid-excited
flux-switching (HEFS) machines, and wound-excited
flux-switching (WEFS) machines. Among the three flux-
switching machines, the air-gap flux density, and
consequently the phase PM flux (flux linkage), and electro-
motive force (EMF) of HEFS and WEFS machines can be
adjusted by utilizing the magnitudes and polarities of the
direct currents (DCs) injected into a set of field-excited
J. Webster (ed.), Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. Copyright # 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
DOI: 10.1002/047134608X.W8288
windings.
flux-weakening capacity in the constant-power region can
be improved, which is favorable for extension of the wide-
speed region.
2. PERMANENT MAGNET FLUX-SWITCHING MACHINES
The first PMFS machine was proposed probably by E.
Hoang in 1997 (5), which revealed that the PMFS
machines exhibit the advantages of high power (torque)
density and high efficiency, favorable for cooling and high-
speed operation. Therefore, the PMFS machines are per-
fectly suitable for EV and HEV applications and recently
have attracted considerable attention. In addition, based
on the typical “C”- or “U”-core topology, a novel “E”-core is
proposed and a modular stator concept is adopted, which
make the stator of PMFS machines more complicated than
conventional rotor-PM machines.
2.1. Topologies and Operation Principles
Topologies. The cross section of a classical three-phase
12-stator-slot/10-rotor-pole PMFS machine is shown in
Figure 2c, in which the stator contains 12 segments of
“U”-shaped iron cores, and 12 pieces of magnets are sand-
wiched and magnetized in circumferential directions. It
should be noted that all the PMs in PMFS machines are
magnetized in alternative opposite directions to produce
the “flux focus” effect. In addition, each stator pole includes
two adjacent stator teeth with a magnet sandwiched and a
concentrated armature coil wound around, called “all-
teeth-wound” windings. However, the stator poles can
also be wound by the concentrated armature winding coils
alternately, which means only half stator poles are wound
and the other half are unwound, which can be called “half-
teeth-wound” windings. It should be emphasized that the
characteristics of PMFS machines, such as fault-tolerant
capacity, are influenced significantly by “all-teeth-wound”
or “half-teeth-wound” windings. On the other hand, com-
pared with the conventional rotor-PM machines having
magnets in the rotor, the placement of both PMs and
armature windings in the stator is favorable for cooling
and desirable for aerospace and EV applications, where the
ambient temperature may be high. Finally, the end part of
the winding coils of the PMFS machines can be obviously
reduced with the concentrated armature coils, instead of
distributed ones.
Operation Principles. The so-called “flux-switching”
principle is illustrated in Figure 3. When the rotor moves
from the position in Figure 3a to that in Figure 3b, the PM
flux due to magnets only linked by the armature coil
changes the direction from “toward the rotor” to “toward
the stator,” that is, from positive peak value to negative
peak value as shown in Figure 3c, and realizes the “flux
switching.” Consequently, as the rotor moves continually,
the coil PM flux linkage in the coils of windings will change
periodically in both polarities and magnitudes; meanwhile,
the inducted EMF of each coil will change periodically as
well. Moreover, in terms of the operation principles,
2 Flux-Switching Machines

Armature Stator PM Rotor Winding

PM
winding
S S

N N

Rotor Stator

Figure 1. A single-phase stator-PM alternator in 1955.

(a) (b)

recently the magnetic gearing effect of PMFS machines ψPM

was discussed in Reference 6.
The distribution of the coil EMF vectors in electrical
0 θe
degrees is shown in Figure 3d. It should be noted that in
e
Armature
winding 0 θe
Rotor
i

0 θe

(c)

5, 11 6', 12'

Stator

60°
PM
4', 10' 1, 7
(a)

PM Rotor
S N 3, 9 2', 8'
N S (d)

2, 5, 8, 11

B
S N A
1, 4, 7, 10
N S Armature
Stator
winding
C
(b) 3, 6, 9, 12
Stator A2 Armature (e)
B2 C1 winding
Figure 3. The operation principle of a PMFS machine: (a) ue ¼ 0 ;
(b) ue ¼ 180 ; (c) ideal phase PM flux linkage cPM, phase EMF e,
C2 B1 and phase armature current i; (d) coil EMF vectors; and (e) phase
PM EMF vectors.

A3 A1

the PMFS machines, coils n and n0 are of opposite polarit-

C4 ies, accounting for alternate magnetization directions in
B3
the stator poles, for example, coils 2 and 20 , while coil n0 will
not appear in the coil EMF vectors (7). Obviously, from
Rotor C3 B4 Shaft Figure 3c, the EMF vectors of coils 1 and 7 are in the same
A4
direction; thus, coils 1 and 7 can be connected in series to
(c)
obtain a maximum EMF. Similarly, coils 4 and 10 are
Figure 2. Typical topologies of three stator-PM machines: connected in series. In order to obtain the highest winding
(a) DSPM machine; (b) FRPM machine (4); and (c) PMFS machine. factor, the coil vectors or their opposite vectors for the same
 Flux-Switching Machines 3

phase should be as close as possible. The EMF vectors of

Stator Armature
coils 1 and 7 are opposite to those of coils 40 and 100 , winding
respectively, whereas coils 40 and 100 are of opposite polar-
ity to coils 4 and 10, respectively; therefore, the EMF
vectors of coils 1 and 7 are in the same direction as those
of coils 4 and 10, so all four coils should be connected in PM
series. Consequently, the EMF vectors of coils 1, 4, 7, and
10 are superposed as shown in Figure 3e. Meanwhile, the
EMF magnitude of phase A can reach maximum and the
corresponding winding factor is 1. The winding principles
of phases B and C are the same as that of phase A. In
Rotor Shaft
addition, the EMF waveform of individual coil exhibits
even-order harmonics in the PMFS machines, which can
be cancelled in the resultant phase EMF waveform due to Figure 4. The cross section of the Prius1 IPM machine.
the compensation effect (8). Hence, the 10-rotor-pole PMFS
machine exhibits a symmetrical and sinusoidal phase EMF
waveform as shown in Figure 3c. Therefore, the proposed Table 1. Comparison of Prius#-IPM and PMFS machines (1)
PMFS machines are suitable for brushless AC (BLAC)
Parameter Prius#-IPM PMFS
operation even with concentrated armature windings
and a straight rotor. Thus, ideally, a smooth electromag- Mass of PM (kg) 1.239 2.837
netic torque can be produced without pulsation when Input peak current, Imax (A) 250 250
three-phase sinusoidal currents iabc are injected into the Rated speed (rpm) 1200 1200
corresponding three-phase windings in phase with the T_avg (Nm) 383.4 347
T_ripple (Nm) 79.52 21.15
back-EMF waveforms. In addition, since the flux due to
kripple ratio (%) 20.7 5.9
armature reaction in a PMFS machine does not pass T_cog (Nm) 3.7 5.14
through the magnets, the irreversible demagnetization T_avg/PM (Nm/kg) 309.45 122.33
withstand capability of the PMFS machines is high, which Copper loss (W) 6562.5 4593.8
makes it particularly suitable for flux-weakening Iron loss (W) 150 225
operation. Output power (W) 48155 43583
Ratedefficiency (%) 86 89

2.2. Comparison of PMFS Machines and Interior Permanent

Magnet Machines
Currently, PM brushless machines used in industry, auto-
motives, aerospace, and EVs are still dominated by sur-
face-mounted and interior permanent magnet (IPM)
machines. Especially for EVs and HEVs, IPM machines
are more common due to the additional reluctance torque
caused by the difference between d- and q-axis induc-
tances, which is favorable for constant-power wide-speed
operation. Therefore, a comparative study between the
PMFS and IPM machines should be performed to verify
the advantages and disadvantages of PMFS machines.
Since Toyota Prius1 is now the most famous HEV, the
IPM machine used as shown in Figure 4 is compared with a
PMFS machine. For a fair comparison, the two machines
are designed with the same phase current density, DC
linkage voltage, and key dimensions including the stator
outer diameter and effective stack length. The detailed
comparison results are shown in Table 1.
From the results shown in Table 1, the advantages of
PMFS machines are as follows:
1. The PMFS machine has a comparable torque density
with the IPM machine, and offers a smaller torque
ripple when operated in the BLAC mode.
2. Similar to a SRM, the PMFS machine has no PMs,
armature windings, or brushes on the rotor, thus
exhibiting a good mechanical integrity and high
reliability for high-speed operation.
3. Although the cogging torque of PMFS machines is
larger, the resultant rated torque ripple is smaller
due to the essentially sinusoidal phase back-EMF
waveform.
4. By employing concentrated armature winding, less
copper is consumed, and consequently the copper
loss in the PMFS machines is smaller, resulting in
a higher efficiency.
5. A torque density similar to those of the IPM
machines can be achieved by the PMFS machine,
which is 30% higher than that of the corresponding
doubly salient PM machines, since the flux linkage is
unipolar (9).
However, the main drawbacks of the PMFS machine
are also obvious:
1. More consumption of magnets is needed in the PMFS
machines, and a considerably smaller PM utilization
ratio.
2. The reluctance torque (generated by different d- and
q-axis inductances) of the PMFS machines is negli-
gible due to the slight difference between d- and q-
axis inductances, which degrades the torque and
flux-weakening capabilities in the constant-power
region.
3. The iron loss of the PMFS machine is larger than
that of the IPM machine due to the alternating
4 Flux-Switching Machines

PMFS A2
B2 C1 B1 C1
machine

C2 B1
Core type Stator-rotor Number of Armature
combination phases winding type
A3 A1 A2 A1
Alternate-teeth- All-teeth
E-core C-core Multi-tooth
wound wound
B3 C4
Figure 5. Recent developments of PMFS machines.
C3 B4 C2 B2
A4
(a) (b)
magnetization on the rotor, whereas in the rotor of
the IPM machine the polarity of the flux remains Figure 7. PMFS machines with different winding types: (a) all-
unchanged and only the magnitude varies. teeth-wound and (b) alternate-teeth-wound.

Based on the above analysis, it can be concluded that

the PMFS machines have strong torque capability, small
torque ripple, large torque density, and good mechanical
integrity, which are suitable for the applications of EV and
HEV systems, among others.
2.3. New Developments of PMFS Machines
The topologies of the PMFS machines are not limited to the
three-phase 12/10 topology. The recent investigations on
the topologies of PMFS machines can be summarized into
four aspects, namely, (1) stator core type, (2) combination
of stator slots (poles) and rotor poles, (3) number of phases,
and (4) armature winding type, as concluded in Figure 5.
First, the static characteristics of the PMFS machines
with three different core types, namely, E-core, C-core, and
multi-tooth structure, are investigated, as shown in
Figure 6 (10, 11).
Then, the influence of armature winding type on the
electromagnetic performance of PMFS machines was
explored, as shown in Figure 7 (12). It is found that the
fault-tolerant ability with alternate windings can be
C1
B1
A2 A1 A2
C2 B2
(a)
B1 C1
A2
C2 B2
(c)
Figure 6. PMFS machines with different stator core types: (a) E-
core; (b) C-core; and (c) multi-tooth.
improved since the mutual inductances between phases
are approximately equal to zero, and the magnetic circuit
and thermal circuit between adjacent armature windings
are isolated due to the fault-tolerant teeth unwound
between the adjacent teeth wound by concentrated coils.
However, the overload capacity of this kind of PMFS
machines is lower due to the severe magnetic saturation
in stator teeth with narrower stator tooth width.
In spite of the three-phase topologies, the single-phase
and two-phase PMFS machines with different combina-
tions of stator slots and rotor poles are proposed, for
example, the two-phase 8-stator-slot/6-rotor-pole topology
(Figure 8a) (13) and single-phase 4-stator-slot/2-rotor-pole
topology for high-speed operation (Figure 8b) (14).
On the other hand, multiphase PMFS machines with
large phase numbers have also attracted considerable
attention due to the improved fault-tolerant capacity,
stronger reliability, lower torque ripple, and consequently
vibration and noise, namely, the five-phase 20-stator-slot/
18-rotor-pole PMFS machine (Figure 8c) (15). Also, a dual-
three-phase 24/22 topology (Figure 8d) is proposed as a six-
phase PMFS machine to improve the fault-tolerant capa-
bility in case a set of three-phase windings is completely
C1
under failure. However, for wind power generation sys-
B1
tems, a 9-phase 36/34 machine and a 12-phase 24/20
machine are proposed, as shown in Figure 8e and f, respec-
tively. In addition, Zhu and Chen pointed out that the
A1 torque density of conventional PMFS machines can be
further improved by the proposed E-core, C-core, and
multi-tooth topologies (16).
Figure 9 shows a new Halbach PMFS machine, which
C2 B2 achieves an electromagnetic torque 20% higher than the
(b) conventional C-core PMFS machine, while maintaining
the same machine volume and constant phase current
as well as using no more magnet material (19). However,
the stator structure of the Halbach PMFS machine is more
complex, and the fixation of surface-mounted PMs, which
A1 are mounted out of the stator core, is more difficult than
the conventional C-core PMFS machines.
While the stator-PMFS machines may achieve torque
densities comparable to conventional brushless rotor-PM
machines, the magnetic circuit, even with no electrical
loading, suffers from saturation, particularly in the stator
teeth and back iron. Meanwhile, for the conventional
stator-PMFS machines, the slot areas of the armature
 Flux-Switching Machines 5

U2 Armature Stator Armature Halbach Armature

Stator
V1 winding winding
V2 PM winding

U3 U1

V3 V4
Rotor PM Rotor PM
U4

(a) (b)
PM
Stator E1 D1 Armature
winding
(a)
B2 B1

C1 A1

E2 D2

Rotor PM
A2 C2

(c)
(b)
Stator core PM
Figure 9. A Halbach PMFS machine: (a) topology and (b) opera-
tion principle.

windings are significantly reduced and saturation degree

in stator teeth is more severe due to the presence of
Rotor core Armature magnets on the stator, which further leads to an increased
windings
copper loss, a compromised efficiency, and torque capabil-
(d) ity under overload conditions. In addition, the thermal
dissipation of the armature windings with a piece of mag-
Stator Armature
winding net sandwiched between two “U”- or “E”-shaped iron cells
is also a challenge particularly when used in EVs and
HEVs, where the phase current is relatively large due to
the limited DC link voltage supplied by batteries. For
example, the typical current density level of armature
windings in Toyota Prius1 2004 is in excess of 20 A/mm2
at the peak power operation status.
Hence, to address the above issues of stator-PMFS
Rotor PM machines and to inherit the high air-gap flux density
due to the flux-switching principle, a partitioned stator
(e) switched flux machine and a rotor-PM flux-switching
machine are proposed, as shown in Figures 10 and 11,
Stator 8 7 6 Armature
9 5 winding
respectively (7, 20). However, for the partitioned stator
switched flux machine and the rotor-PM flux-switching
10

machine, due to the presence of several rotor modular cells,

11

3
13 12

Stator Armature
1

winding
24
14
15

23
16

22

17 21
20
Rotor 91 18 PM

(f)

Figure 8. PMFS machine topologies with different number of Rotor PM

phases: (a) 2-phase 8/6; (b) 1-phase 4/2; (c) 5-phase 20/18; (d) 6-
phase 24/22; (e) 9-phase 36/34 (17); and (f) 12-phase 24/20 (18). Figure 10. Topology of a partitioned stator switched flux machine.
6 Flux-Switching Machines

Stator A2
C2 9 8 7
B1
10
6 Armature
5
winding
B2 11 4

PM 12
C1
3

13 2 Shaft
A3 A1
14 1

15 24
Cell gap
C3 16 23 B4
17 22
18 21
Rotor teeth B3 19 20 C4 Rotor cell
A4

Figure 11. Topology of a rotor-PM flux-switching machine. Figure 14. Topology of a transverse-flux PMFS machine.

low-speed wind power applications was proposed as shown

in Figure 14, which offers a higher power density than the
conventional radial-field and axial-field machines (24).

2.5. Noise and Thermal/Heat Conditions

Figure 12. Topology of a linear PMFS machine.
the rotor structure is more complicated than conventional
PM-FS machines, and may not be suitable for high-speed
operation.
2.4. Linear, Axial-Flux, and Transverse-Flux PMFS Machines
The linear PMFS machines as shown in Figure 12 inherit
the merits of the rotary PMFS machines, and are particu-
larly attractive for long-stroke applications, for example,
wave energy extraction application (21) and urban rail
transit (22), because both magnets and coils are mounted
on the short mover so that the problems of excessive use of
permanent magnets or copper in the conventional long-
stroke linear PM machines can be eliminated. In addition
to the conventional radial-flux PMFS machines, the axial-
field PMFS machines are also proposed for the wind power
applications (23), as shown in Figure 13. Moreover,
recently a novel transverse-flux PMFS generator for
The cogging torque in the PMFS machines is relatively
high due to their unique structure and high air-gap flux
density, which contributes to vibration and noise in the
PMFS machines (25). So the teeth-notching (26) and rotor-
skewing (27) methods, as well as the harmonic analysis
(28), have been used to reduce the torque ripples. Along
with the noise, thermal/heat dissipation is another impor-
tant consideration during the design stage. Most of the
heat in the PMFS machines is generated by copper loss and
iron loss (29), and the temperature rise may, in turn,
increase the effective resistance per phase. However, since
both the magnets and armature windings are located on
the stator, the heat can be dissipated through the stator
housing by liquid.
3. HYBRID-EXCITED FLUX-SWITCHING MACHINES
The above analysis has indicated that the PMFS machines
exhibit the merits of large torque capability, high torque
(power) density, essentially sinusoidal phase EMF wave-
form, and compact and robust structure. However, for
solely permanent magnet-excited machines, although
the flux weakening can be realized by shifting the phase
angle of armature current with respect to the phase EMF,
that is, by vector control or field orientation control (FOC),
it is still more difficult and less effective compared with
wound-field machines. Therefore, the HEFS machines are
proposed and considerably attractive.

Figure 13. Topology of an axial-flux PMFS machine.
3.1. Topologies
Figure 15 shows several typical topologies of the HEFS
machines. The topology shown in Figure 15a is obtained by
reducing the permanent magnet volumes of an original
PMFS machine and introducing a set of field windings into
the saved space (30). So the resultant HEFS machine
shares the identical stator and rotor laminations with
the original PMFS machine without any modification,
which is the merit of this type of concept. For this topology,
 Flux-Switching Machines 7

Stator Field the DC excitation field is in series with the PM field excited
winding by magnets, which limits the flux-adjusting capability due
PM to low permeability of magnets. In addition, the magnet
and the adjacent field winding can exchange positions; that
is, the magnets can be located outside the field windings
(31). The iron bridges can be used to connect the separate
U-shaped laminations, which also contribute to better
flux regulation performance (32). Then, as shown in
Figure 15b, a new topology is proposed by employing non-
Armature
winding
Rotor overlapping field and armature windings (33, 34), as well
as outer rotor type (35). However, the outer diameter of the
(a)
machine is significantly enlarged for the field winding,
Stator Field
which consequently reduces torque density. The outer
winding ring provides a short-circuit path for PM flux and leads
PM to lower PM utilization. To solve this problem, an E-core
HEFS machine is proposed as shown in Figure 15c (36),
which employs an E-shaped stator iron segment and main-
tains the same outer diameter. Half of the slot area in the
E-core HEFS machine is employed for the armature wind-
ings, and the other half is accommodated by the DC field
Armature windings. The field coils in the E-core HEFS machine are
winding Rotor located on the middle teeth of the E-core stator. Hence, the
(b) field and armature windings are also nonoverlapping.
However, for the topologies in Figure 15a and c, the flux
Stator Field due to PMs at the outer radius of the stator acts as a
winding leakage flux and has no contribution toward the torque
production, which degrades the performances of machines.
In addition, the final machine design is also difficult to
PM
manufacture due to the presence of a segmented stator
core, whereas the stator lamination of the HEFS machines
with outside field windings is a whole piece instead of a
segmented structure, which is much easier to manufacture
when compared with the other design of HEFS machines.
Armature
winding Rotor Other rotating types along with the above three topologies
were also proposed, for example, as given in Reference 37.
(c)
Another simple method to realize hybrid excitation
function is to connect a PMFS machine with a WEFS
machine axially by only one set of armature windings
and only one rotor, called the parallel hybrid excitation
flux-switching machine, as shown in Figure 15d, or
employing separated armature windings and rotors (38).
As can be seen, the DC field excitation part and the PM
part are located in parallel planes and their armature coils
are connected in series to form the machine armature
winding. This parallel mode results in several advantages:

(d) 1. The wound-field excitation part and the PM excita-

tion part are located in parallel planes, which can
Mover PM Field winding
avoid demagnetization and magnetic short-circuit of
the PMs.
2. Increasing the iron flux bridge width in the wound-
field excitation part will improve the excitation cur-
rent utilization ratio and reduce excitation loss.
3. The axial length of the two parts can be designed
Stator Armature winding flexibly according to required torque output capabil-
(e) ity and flux adjustment capability.

Figure 15. Typical topologies of the HEFS machines: (a) HEFS However, the structure of parallel HEFS machines is
machine with top PM; (b) HEFS machine with outside field more complex, and requires a greater axial length.
winding; (c) E-core HEFS machine; (d) axially parallel HEFS Figure 15e shows a linear type of HEFS machine (39),
machine; and (e) linear HEFS machine.
8 Flux-Switching Machines

and more relevant studies can be found in References 40 PM flux Field flux
and 41.
It should be emphasized that for the HEFS machine, the
DC field winding coils are located on the stator, so it does
not require slip rings. The magnetic circuit associated with
Field winding
the DC excitation may be either in series or in parallel with
the magnetic circuit associated with the PM excitation.
The series excitation is simple and requires a higher (a)
excitation MMF due to the low recoil permeability of the
magnets. Meanwhile, the parallel excitation is more elec- PM flux Field flux
tromagnetically effective. Overall, the DC excitation wind-
ing enables the air-gap flux, and hence the torque
capability, to be enhanced at low speed, to be reduced at
high speed to facilitate extended speed operation, and to be Field winding
optimized over the entire speed range to improve the
efficiency. But HEFS machines also suffer the drawback
of reduced torque density compared with PMFS machines. (b)
It should be noted that the differences of the above hybrid Figure 16. Flux regulation principle of the HEFS machine:
excitation topologies have a great influence on the utiliza- (a) positive field current and (b) negative field current.
tion ratio of excitation current, torque density, efficiency,
and reliability.
9

Phase-A flux linkages (mWb)

6
3.2. Flux Regulation Principles
3
For conventional rotor-PM brushless machines, the maxi-
mum flux-weakening capability, which is normally defined 0
as the ratio of the maximum speed to the base speed, under -3 PM
a given supply inverter voltage and current limitation, can Pro-magnetization
-6
be achieved when the machine is designed to have 1.0 per- Demagnetization
unit d-axis inductance such that (42) -9
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
c Ld I r Rotor position (electrical degree)
Ld ¼ m or ¼1 (1)
Ir cm Figure 17. Regulation of the armature flux linkages.

where cm is the stator-PM field flux linkage due to the

magnets, Ld is the d-axis inductance, and Ir is the rated field current direction will realize the regulation of exci-
current. For the HEFS machines, the PM field flux linkage tation, and further armature fluxes and phase EMFs.
cm is constant, when the excited current is zero. From the Figure 17 shows the regulation of armature flux-linkage
foregoing analysis, the higher the LdIr/cm ratio, the higher waveforms under three different excitation conditions,
will be the flux-weakening capability. However, the higher namely, PM condition due to PMs only, pro-magnetization
the PM field flux linkage cm to achieve a high low-speed condition due to both PMs and positive field currents, and
torque capability, the more difficult it is to realize wide- demagnetization condition due to both PMs and negative
speed operation. Thus, the current phase angle has to be field currents. As a result, the control system of the HEFS
progressively advanced as the speed is increased above the machines is more complicated than the PMFS machines,
base speed, so that a demagnetizing d-axis current compo- due to the added field excitations. In addition, Figure 18
nent is produced, which reduces the PM field flux linkage shows the control scheme of HEFS machines including the
cm with the stator winding. At the same time, due to the fault-tolerant capability.
inverter voltage and current limits, the torque-producing
q-axis current component has to be reduced correspond-
ingly. Consequently, the torque and power capability are
limited. Hence, a compromise has to be made between the Load
Field excitation, ifield
low-speed torque capability and high-speed power capabil-
ity. However, the PM field flux linkage cm can be regulated ia*~i f* ia′*~i f′*
+ iq* dq0 Fault detection & + Voltage HEFS
by excited winding current, and the flux-weakening and nr* ∑ PI operating decision Σ source machine
- - inverter
flux-enhancing abilities and efficiency are improved. The nr abc
flux regulation principle is illustrated in Figure 16. Taking id*=0 θ ia~i f Current
the topology of Figure 15a as an example, when a positive sensors

DC field current is applied in field windings, the fluxes due Quadrature encoder pulse (QEP)
to field current are in the same direction as PM fluxes,
while a negative DC field current will generate fluxes in Figure 18. Control scheme of the HEFS machines, where PI
the opposite direction to PM fluxes. Hence, changing the refers to proportional integral controller.
 Flux-Switching Machines 9

Iq Ψ0 Stator Field
U0 winding
Rph iq
PM
Em (=ω eψ m)
E0
(=ω eψ 0) Lqiq FSPM
Ψ 0- Ψ0 Ψ0+
θ
φ
Lqiq Lqiq Lqiq HEFS
θ Id
O Ψ m- Ψm Ψm+ Ψm
Armature
Rotor
winding
Figure 19. Flux vectors under id ¼ 0 control strategy in the PMFS
and HEFS machines. (a)

Stator Field
Unfortunately, hybrid excitations will cause inevitable winding
torque density drop. When the same motor volume is
adopted, the magnitude of cm in the HEFS machines
decreases obviously compared with the PMFS machines, PM
due to the reduction of magnet volume (to save space for
the field windings), as shown in Figure 19. This conse-
quently requires a much lower Lqiq to maintain the same
power factor (cos u) and results in the drawback of signifi-
cantly reduced torque densities. On the other hand, when Armature
similar PM volume, thus comparable PM excitation, and winding Rotor
torque output are achieved, the HEFS machine requires (b)
more space for the added field windings, which also leads to
larger motor volume and lower torque density. Stator Field
winding
NdFeB
3.3. Memory PMFS Machine Topologies
Although the DC field windings in HEFS and WEFS
machines enable the controllable air-gap flux, the use of
DC field current inevitably causes additional losses and
degrades the efficiency. With the advent of the memory
motors, the magnetizations of PMs can be online tunable. Rotor
Hence, the concept of incorporating the online-tunable Armature
flux-memory PMs, for example, aluminum nickel cobalt winding LCF magnet
(AlNiCo) alloy, into the PMFS machines is proposed, (c)
resulting in the so-called flux-memory PMFS machines,
Figure 20. Topologies of memory PMFS machines: (a) tangentially
which can offer an effective and efficient air-gap flux
magnetized; (b) radially magnetized; and (c) hybrid magnets.
control (2). Particularly, the magnetic susceptibility of
AlNiCo PM provides the flexible online controllability of
air-gap flux by imposing a transient current pulse. Two HEFS machines by adopting both normal NdFeB and low
typical memory PMFS machine topologies are shown in coercive force (LCF) magnets, for example, AlNiCo, ferrite,
Figure 20. As can be seen from Figure 20a, the tangentially and LCF SmCo and NdFeB PMs, is proposed (45, 46). As
magnetized memory PMFS machine adopts the same lam- shown in Figure 20c, the LCF magnets are mounted
inations as a conventional PMFS machine, which is also behind every U-shaped stator lamination segment of a
similar to the HEFS machine shown in Figure 15a. Each conventional PMFS machine, while the extra ring yoke
field/magnetizing winding coil is accommodated around is placed outside them to offer a circulating flux path.
one piece of magnet. Due to the direct magnetization of Because of adopting LCF magnets, the magnetization
PMs by a temporary current pulse in the magnetizing states can be changed online with the help of field coils.
windings, the flux control is highly effective. On the other At the same time, this topology results in a more complex
hand, Figure 20b shows a radially magnetized PMFS stator structure, although it combines the advantages of
machine topology (43, 44), in which the radially magne- both memory PMFS and HEFS machines.
tized AlNiCo PMs are located on the stator and a compact
cylindrical rotor features segmental rotor embedded in the
nonmagnetic sleeve. The AlNiCo PMs radially magnetized 4. WOUND-EXCITED FLUX-SWITCHING MACHINES
augment the magnetization efficiency and flux regulation
capability due to the serial magnetic path relationship Although compared with permanent magnet-free (PM-free)
between the fluxes from the PM and the pulsating current. machines the above PMFS and HEFS machines have higher
Also, the concept of introducing hybrid magnets into the torque density and efficiency, the characteristics of these
10 Flux-Switching Machines
two kinds of flux-switching machines are still compromised
by the following reasons:
1. The price and supply uncertainties of permanent
magnets, particularly for NdFeB.
2. The irreversible demagnetization for PMs is still
possible at high temperature.
3. The mechanical strength is relatively weak for their
stators, which are divided into many segments by the
corresponding PMs.
4. The air-gap flux density is dominated by PM excited
field and the flux regulation capability is limited.
Hence, WEFS machines are proposed, where the mag-
nets are removed, for example, PM-free, and both the field
and armature windings are located on the stator. Obvi-
ously, the costs of the WEFS machines are greatly reduced
and the foregoing problems concerning PMs can be easily
solved in this way. Recently, several topologies of WEFS
machines have been put forward and are introduced in the
following.
4.1. Topologies and Operation Principles
A typical topology of WEFS machines, as shown in
Figure 21, is similar to a traditional PMFS machine, in
which both the armature windings and the field excitation
windings are located on the stator (47). The armature coils
in WEFS machines are wound in the same manner as in
PMFS machines, whereas the DC field windings function-
ing as PMs are placed in the radial direction. It should be
noted that the DC excitation fields due to field windings are
in alternative opposite directions as PMs in PMFS
machines.
The operation principles of WEFS machines are the
same as typical PMFS machines, as illustrated in
Figure 22. As the salient-pole rotor moves continuously,
the field flux (flux linkage) linked in an armature winding
coil will change periodically not only the amplitudes but
also the polarities. Consequently, the corresponding EMF
will be induced in each armature coil. As a result of the
coupling reaction between the field-excited flux and the
armature reaction flux, an electromagnetic torque can be
produced and drives the rotor to rotate. Since the topology
is similar to that of the PMFS machines, the WEFS
Armature
winding
Field
winding
Figure 21. Topology of a typical WEFS machine.
(a) (b)
Figure 22. Operation principle of WEFS machines: (a) rotor
position 1 and (b) rotor position 2.
machines possess the same operation principles as
PMFS machines. However, different from the PMFS
machines, the air-gap field can be easily weakened or
strengthened in the WEFS machines as it is generated
by controllable DC currents. Therefore, the WEFS
machines can be considered as a good compromise between
the requirements of high torque density and wide speed
regulation range as well as costs.
4.2. New Topologies of WEFS Machines
Obviously, the typical WEFS machine shown in Figure 21
is vulnerable to severe saturation in the iron bridge
between the two field-coil slots. Hence, alternative and
improved topologies have been proposed.
The cross section of a new topology of WEFS machines is
shown in Figure 23, which is called the wound-field rotor-
segment flux-switching machine (48). For this kind of
WEFS machine, the stator teeth are divided into two
groups evenly and alternately, and the concentrated coils
of field windings and armature windings occupy each half
of the stator teeth. To explain how a segmental rotor can
achieve “flux switching” with four stator teeth and one
rotor segment, a simplified linear arrangement of the
machine is illustrated in Figure 24, along with DC field
excitations only applied to the two coils F1 and F2 wound
on the corresponding stator teeth. For the different rotor
positions shown, the circulating paths of the fluxes due to
field coils vary according to the “minimal reluctance
F2 B1
C1 S3 F1
S4 S2
F3 A1
S5 S1
A2 F6
S6 S8
F4 S7 C2
B2 F5
Figure 23. Topology of the rotor-segment WEFS machine.

F1 A1 F2 A2
S1
(a)
F1 A1 F2 A2
S1
(b)
F1 A1 F2 A2
S1
(c)
F1 A1 F2 A2
S1
(d)
Figure 24. Flux distributions in stator teeth with field excitation
only of the rotor-segment WEFS machine: (a) segments at the
initial position; (b) segments at one-fourth of a cycle; (c) segments
at half of a cycle; and (d) segments at three-fourths of a cycle.
principle.” Hence, the motion of the rotor not only varies
the magnitudes of fluxes linking the armature coil A1, but
also changes the polarities. At the first position shown in
Figure 24a, the field flux due to the field coil F1 almost
completely flows into the armature coil A1 where the rotor
segment “S1” fully overlaps the stator tooth wound by coil
A1. However, when the rotor moves to the second position
(Figure 24b), the field fluxes due to the field coils F1 and F2
barely pass through the armature coil A1 since the rotor
segment “S1” partially overlaps the two stator teeth wound
by coils F1 and F2. At the third position (Figure 24c), the
field fluxes due to the field coil F2 all flow out of the
armature coil A1, which means the magnitude of the fluxes
of coil A1 is the same as that at the rotor position in
Figure 24a; however, the polarity of the fluxes is reversed.
Finally, at the fourth position (Figure 24d), the field fluxes
due to the field coils F1 and F2 again also barely pass
through the armature coil A1. The above periodic variation
results in a bipolar field flux (flux linkage) in armature coil
A1; consequently, a coil EMF can be induced. Further-
more, by optimization of the corresponding dimensions,
the linked field fluxes and the corresponding EMF wave-
forms of coils can be close to sinusoidal or trapezoidal, and
the WEFS machines can be operated in brushless DC
(BLDC) or BLAC modes with favorable flexibility.
Flux-Switching Machines 11
(a) (b)
Figure 25. Topologies of WEFS machines with different field
winding configurations.
In addition, it is true that for the WEFS machines, the
flux regulation capability can be significantly improved
compared with the PMFS machines, since the air-gap field
can be effectively weakened or strengthened by adjusting
the polarities and magnitudes of the DC excitation cur-
rents. However, considering the proposed WEFS machine
in Figure 23, the field coils are wound around every other
stator tooth; thus, the magnetic field is radially excited and
the flux-concentrating effect cannot be realized, resulting
in a relatively low air-gap flux density and poor torque
density. Moreover, this topology requires a segmental
rotor, which is more complicated compared with the typical
WEFS machine shown in Figure 21.
Hence, novel WEFS machine topologies are proposed,
as shown in Figure 25 (49, 50). A 12-stator-slot/5-rotor-pole
prototype is used as an example to illustrate the topology
and operation principles, which consists of a stator with 12
slots, a rotor with 5 teeth (poles), and two sets of windings,
namely, one set of three-phase armature windings and the
other set of DC field windings.
In addition, based on the different field winding config-
urations, there are two topologies of three-phase WEFS
machines with the same stator and rotor laminations. It
can be seen that the two WEFS machines all have 12 stator
slots, where 6 slots are placed with armature coils while
the other 6 slots are placed with DC field coils. Moreover,
the rotor with five salient poles is similar to that of a SRM,
that is, without PM no coils. Hence, the proposed machine
can be called a 6/5 WEFS machine. As shown in Figure 25a,
for the first winding configuration, the set of three-phase
armature windings is composed of six concentrated arma-
ture coils A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, and C2 and each armature
coil wounds around the two neighboring stator teeth, and
the set of DC excited field windings is composed of three
concentrated coils E1, E2, and E3 and each excitation/field
coil wounds around the two neighboring stator teeth,
called single-layer field windings. However, for the second
winding configuration shown in Figure 25b, the structure
of armature windings is the same, but the DC excited
windings are composed of six concentrated coils E1, E2,
E3, E4, E5, and E6, and called double-layer field windings.
It should be emphasized that the two sets of winding coils
are located in different stator slots as shown, and the
different excitation winding configurations have little
12 Flux-Switching Machines

Armature Exciting Armature Exciting Armature

Stator Stator coil A1 coil
coil A1 coil winding

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Rotor Rotor

Moving direction Moving direction

(a) (b) Field
winding
Figure 26. Flux distributions at two rotor positions.
Figure 27. Topology of a 9-slot/5-pole WEFS machine.
Armature coil A1 Excitation/field coil
influence on performance; however, the single-layer con-
figuration results in a longer end part of excitation wind-
ings. Hence, the double-layer field winding is usually
employed.
The operation principle of this 6/5 WEFS machine is
also similar to a PMFS machine as illustrated in
Figure 26a and b, where the DC current applied in the
excitation coils produces a constant magnetic field in the (a)
air gap, similar to that generated by PMs. As the rotor Armature coil A1 Excitation/field coil
moves to the position shown in Figure 26a, the flux due to
excitation currents flows out of the armature coil A1, and
the polarity of flux is defined as negative, whereas the flux
linkage of armature coil A1 is of positive polarity at the
rotor position shown in Figure 26b. Consequently, as the
rotor rotates continuously, the three-phase field flux (flux
linkage) linked in the armature winding coils changes
periodically in both amplitude and polarity. Hence, the (b)
open-circuit EMF waveforms of three-phase armature
windings can be close to sinusoidal distributions by proper Figure 28. Flux distributions of the 9-slot/5-pole WEFS machine.
optimization of the dimensions, and the WEFS machines
can be suitable for BLAC control. It should be emphasized
5. EVALUATION OF FLUX-SWITCHING MACHINES
that the air-gap flux density can be easily strengthened or
weakened, since the open-circuit field distributions are
A comprehensive comparison between the three typical
only contributed by the DC field current. However, the
flux-switching machines, namely, PMFS, HEFS, and
copper loss of this kind of machines is relatively larger
WEFS machines, has led to a series of significant conclu-
because of the longer end of each winding coil wound
sions, which are summarized below.
around the two neighboring stator teeth.
A new topology of the WEFS machine is shown in
Similarities.
Figure 27 (51). Both the salient-pole stator and rotor are
employed in the 9-slot/5-pole machine. In addition, three
1. Doubly salient structures are employed.
short-pitched field coils having one slot pitch and three
long-pitched field coils having three slot pitches are 2. The magnets or field windings as well as the arma-
arranged on the stator. ture windings are located on the stator; conse-
Figure 28a and b shows the operation principle of the quently, the temperature rise of the magnets or
proposed 9-slot/5-pole machine. When the rotor pole aligns windings is much easier to control.
with the center of a field coil, the flux linkage in coil A1 goes 3. The rotor is identical to that of an SR machine,
from the stator side to the rotor side, as shown in namely, without windings or magnets, being mechan-
Figure 28a. When the rotor pole aligns with the center ically robust, and able to operate at high speed.
of another field coil, the direction of flux linkage in coil A1 is 4. The waveforms of the phase flux linkage and EMF
reversed, as shown in Figure 28b. The periodic variation of are essentially sinusoidal by proper optimization;
flux linkage versus rotor positions will induce EMFs in the thus, the machines are more suitable for the
coils. BLAC drive within a certain speed range. However,
However, the problem of this machine is that the copper the flux-switching machines can also be operated in
loss is relatively large due to the long end-part windings, as the BLDC mode according to the application require-
mentioned earlier. ments with favorable flexibility.

Differences.
1. The electromagnetic torques of PMFS and HEFS
machines are dominated by the PM excited torque,
and the reluctance torque is small, whereas for the
WEFS machines the reluctance torque is crucial.
2. The EMF per turn and the torque capability of a
PMFS machine are significantly higher than those of
the HEFS and WEFS machines due to the large
consumption of magnets with the same machine
volume.
3. In HEFS and WEFS machines, the PM flux linkages
can be regulated by adjusting field excitation wind-
ing currents. However, the HEFS and WEFS
machines have relatively lower efficiency due to
the large copper loss produced in field windings.
4. Among the three typical flux-switching machines,
the WEFS machines exhibit the largest copper loss
due to the longest end-part windings, because both
the armature windings and the field-excited wind-
ings are overlapping windings.
5. The flux regulation capacity of WEFS machines is
stronger than that of HEFS machines, because the
PMs of HEFS machines are embedded in the stator
and the magnetic saturation exists in stator teeth.
However, the PM materials with lower remanence,
such as ferrite and AlNiCo, can be utilized to
improve the field regulation capacity of the HEFS
machines.
6. In terms of speed regulation range of three flux-
switching machines, the HEFS and WEFS machines
exhibit a wider constant-power speed range because
the air-gap flux density can be adjusted by the
excited current in field windings.
7. The PMFS and HEFS machines can be used in
direct-driven low-speed large-torque applications,
such as electric vehicles, wind power generator,
and more electric aircrafts, among others, where
the torque (power) density, efficiency, and overload
capability are concerns instead of costs. However,
the WEFS machines can be used in cost-sensitive
and high-speed applications, such as home applian-
ces and flywheel systems, where the robust and
brushless rotor is favorable.
Table 2 summarizes the qualitative results for the key
issues of the three flux-switching machines.
Table 2. General Comparison of Flux-Switching Machines
Design issue PMFS HEFS WEFS
PM volume Maximum Medium None
Torque density Maximum Medium Minimum
Field regulation Minimum Medium Maximum
Overload ability Minimum Medium Maximum
Copper loss Minimum Medium Maximum
Efficiency Maximum Medium Minimum
Cogging torque Maximum Medium Minimum
Flux-Switching Machines 13
6. CONCLUSIONS
In this article, the topologies, operation principles, and
performances of three typical flux-switching machines,
namely, permanent magnet-excited flux-switching
machines, hybrid-excited flux-switching machines, and
wound-excited flux-switching machines, are reviewed
and summarized. Generally speaking, the flux-switching
machines offer the advantages of a brushless, simple, and
robust rotor, favorable thermal dissipation, high torque
(power) density, high efficiency, and flexible excitation
modes with the same iron laminations.
For flux-switching machine-based drive systems, the
technology progresses are mainly focused on excitation
modes, machine topologies, combinations of stator slots
and rotor poles, and multiple phases. Every effort applied
is to improve torque density, reduce torque ripple ratio,
and promote efficiency.
It should be emphasized that, although the principles of
the control strategies of flux-switching machines are simi-
lar to traditional rotor-PM machines, the control principles
of the flux-switching machines in regard to optimal effi-
ciency control are not mature, especially for the HEFS and
WEFS machines.
On the other hand, when the modular stator structure
is utilized, the manufacturing process of flux-switching
machines employing PMs is more complex than tradi-
tional rotor-PM machines, due to the significantly strong
magnetic forces between the modular parts. Thus, the
machine precisions are lower. Nevertheless, along with
the significant developments in machining technologies,
it can be expected that the flux-switching machines
will become more attractive and employed in practical
applications.
ABBREVIATIONS
BLAC Brushless alternating current
BLDC Brushless direct current
DC Direct current
DSPM Doubly salient permanent magnet
EMF Electromotive force
EV Electrical vehicle
FRPM Flux reversal permanent magnet
HEFS Hybrid-excited flux switching
HEV Hybrid electrical vehicle
IPM Interior permanent magnet
LCF Low coercive force
PM Permanent magnet
PMFS Permanent magnet flux switching
PMSM Permanent magnet synchronous machine
SRM Switched reluctance machine
WEFS Wound-excited flux switching
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WEI HUA
PENG SU
GAN ZHANG
GUISHU ZHAO
Southeast University, Nanjing, China