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Design considerations for piezoelectric energy harvesting systems

Conference Paper · October 2012

DOI: 10.1109/ICEngTechnol.2012.6396115

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 Design Considerations for Piezoelectric Energy
Harvesting Systems
Wahied G. Ali Gihan Nagib
Electrical Engineering Department, College of Information Technology Department, College of
Engineering, King Saud University, P.O. Box 800, Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud
Riyadh 11421, KSA University, Riyadh, KSA
Wahied@ksu.edu.sa Gihan@ksu.edu.sa

Abstract—Ultra low power microelectronic devices such as In general, there are three mechanisms to harvest the electrical
wireless sensor nodes can be self powered using piezoelectric energy from the vibration energy: electrostatic,
energy harvesting systems. Piezoelectric energy harvesting is the electromagnetic, and piezoelectric [2]. The most of the
technology to convert wasted vibration energy to an electrical experimental research on all transduction mechanisms are
energy output. This paper highlights the design considerations
for piezoelectric energy harvesting (PEH) systems such as:
published in [3-4]. Table 1 shows the increasing attention in
material selection, resonant frequency, geometrical shape, research field of piezoelectric energy harvesting during the last
loading factor, electrical connections, AC-DC converters, DC-DC five years [4].
converters, and energy storage media. Morphological analysis is
Piezoelectric materials are perfectly used for energy
developed to investigate the best alternative solution for each
design parameter. The evaluation criterion is the maximum harvesting from ambient vibration sources, because they can
power transfer from input vibration energy to the electrical efficiently convert mechanical strain to an electrical charge
output waveform. The standards for PEH are also presented to without any additional power and have a simple mechanical
enhance the system performance. The published results in the structure [4]. They also have many advantages over other
literature are discussed to affirm the concluding remarks in this alternative techniques such as: large power density, ease of
paper. applications, and capability to be fabricated at different scales:
Keywords—piezoelectric materials, energy harvesting, macro, micro, and nano-scale. The basic components in a
vibration, morphological analysis, design. generic piezoelectric energy harvesting system are shown in
Figure 1 [5]. The functional description of basic blocks in this
diagram is given as follows:
I. INTRODUCTION Vibration Source: Variable frequency and amplitude
The recent development of ultra low power source of energy.
microelectronic devices had led to the design of self power Energy Harvesting Transducer: Exchanges energy with
devices using energy harvesting techniques. Energy harvesting the vibration source. Real power should be extracted from the
is a method to generate electrical power from natural (green) source and converted to an electrical form. Reactive power is
energy sources such as: exchanged between source and generator as energy passes
x Solar, wind, wave energy, and hydro-electricity for between the mass and spring. The frequency tuning may exist
high power generation in megawatts to allow the transducer to adapt its structure to maximize the
x Vibration, geothermal, light, and RF for low power harvested energy (optional for smart design).
generation in milliwatts Accelerometer: It may be necessary to have an
independent measurement of the vibration source so that the
Mechanical vibration is a wasted energy which presents target resonant frequency and damping can be calculated.
around most machines and the motion of biological systems.
The idea of vibration-to-electricity conversion was proposed
by Williams and Yates [1].
TABEL 1. Number of PEH publications
Year sciencedirect ieeexplore
2011 223 105
2010 128 104
2009 91 66
2008 78 58
2007 30 27

Figure 1. Piezoelectric energy harvesting system [5].

978-1-4673-4810-2/12/$31.00 ©2012 IEEE

 Frequency Tuning Actuator: This is an optional block as
it may be possible to tune the generator using reactive power
exchange with the interface circuit. This block aims to match
the resonant frequency of the harvester with the vibration
source to extract the maximum energy from mechanical to
electrical output.
Power Processing Interface: A circuit which connects to
the transducer to enable maximum energy extraction from the
transducer (i.e. maximum power point operation). The circuit
configuration is highly dependent on transducer type. Real
power will flow from transducer to the interface circuit.
Controlling this real power will change the damping of the
generator, which is a key to adaptability of the generator. In
addition, a reactive power exchange between the interface
circuit and the transducer could allow the resonant frequency
of the generator to be modified.
Electrical Energy Storage: Required to cope with
intermittency of generation and consumption. Probably, a
super-capacitor or a rechargeable battery or combination of
both can be used.
Voltage Regulation: This is required for two reasons: the
voltage on the storage element may change depending on the
rate of power generation and usage (and may change a lot if
the storage element is a capacitor). In addition, the electronics
load may request a particular voltage to be supplied in order to
minimize its power consumption.
Computational Load: The part of the system powered by
the energy harvesting system. This is the part of the load that
does the work of the wireless sensor and has nothing to do
with power generation. It will be energy aware and efficient,
but it does not control the energy harvesting system at all. It
can send a demand signal back to the harvester control for
performance scheduling through output voltage of the voltage
regulator.
Harvester Control: Computational circuits responsible for
calculating the required damping and resonant frequency (or
converting this into reluctance, or real and reactive power) and
sending these demand signals to the frequency tuning
component and the power processing interface. This module
requires measurements of power/energy/voltage at different
parts of the system to achieve its tasks effectively.
In the literature, several recent books are published in this
research field [6-9]. Several review papers are also published
in all different aspects concerning energy harvesting
technologies [10-25]. In this paper, the selection of design
parameters will be highlighted. The paper is organized as
follows: Section II presents the morphological analysis for
PEH systems. Section III highlights the standards for the PEH
design parameters. While: section IV concludes the paper and
presents the future research directions.
II. MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
Morphological analysis is an effective creative thinking
technique in the design process. Its procedure involves
analyzing the problem to identify the primary parameters
which are involved and then to consider alternative solutions
to achieve the required results. The primary parameters and
alternative solutions may then be listed in a matrix to be
assessed and the best solution then will be picked up. The
assessment criterion for piezoelectric energy harvesting
system aims to maximize the energy conversion from
mechanical vibration to electrical output. In the literature, the
harvester resonant frequency has to match the frequency of the
applied vibration source signal. This necessary condition
increases the output electrical power to its maximum.
Furthermore, design primary parameters to be investigated
involve the following items:
x Material selection
x Geometry and Structure of different layers
x Loading modes d31 and d33
x Electrical connection, parallel and series
x Fixation of piezoelectric cantilever
x AC-DC Converters
x DC-DC Converters
x Storage media
A. Material Selection
Sodano et al. developed a model of the piezoelectric energy
harvesting device and estimated the electric charge output for
piezoelectric energy harvesting. In 2004, they reviewed
piezoelectric power harvesting from vibration and discussed
the future goals that must be achieved such as improving power
output and energy conversion efficiency. They compared
different cantilever piezoelectric energy harvesting devices,
including MIDE Quick Pack, PZT-5A, PZT-5H, and MFC. The
output power from either Quick Pack or MFC harvester was
lower than extracted from PZT. PZT material was more
effective to recharge capacitive loads. The low power outputs
of Quick Pack and MFC resulted from their low capacitance
characteristics [24].
In 2005, Sodano and Daniel compared between
piezoelectric energy harvesting devices for rechargeable
batteries. They compared the effectiveness of the MFC, Quick
Pack and PZT for the use as energy harvesting devices. This
was done by determining the efficiency of each device used in
the experiments. They proved that the Quick Pack had a very
high efficiency at resonance but not when excited at other
frequencies. However, all of the efficiencies were fairly low
because of the excitation method used. It was shown that as the
capacity of the battery increases the Quick Pack begins to
become less effective than the PZT. The PZT was proven to be
more effective in the random vibration. Whatever, the PZT is
brittle and can be easily broken in harsh vibration
environments. Therefore, some of researches prefer to use
Quick Pack for its robustness [26].
B. Geometry and Structure Selection
In the literature, the best geometry to increase the output
power was the tapered shape; while the most commercial
samples are rectangular in shape for ease of fabrication.
Examples of piezoelectric structures are: unimorphs, bi-
morphs, multilayered stacks, rainbows, s-morphs, moonie and
cymbal [4]. A bimorph structure is the most commonly used in
PEH applications. A bimorph is a cantilever consists of a thin
metallic layer sandwiched between two thin piezoelectric
layers.
 a) Bimorph
b) Unimorph
Figure 2. Bimorph and unimorph energy harvesters.
A piezoelectric unimorph has one active (i.e. piezoelectric)
layer and one inactive (i.e. non-piezoelectric) layer (see Figure
2). Bimorph cantilever consists of a center shim laminated
between two piezoelectric layers. It can improve the
mechanical strength, although reducing motion, which
improves the safety. Bimorph cantilever produces more output
voltage than unimorph structure and is commonly used.
C. Loading Modes
The loading modes are illustrated in Figures 3-a and 3-b,
wherein x, y, and z are labeled 1, 2 and 3, respectively. In 33-
mode, the voltage and stress act in the same direction and in
31-mode the voltage acts in the 3 direction, while the
mechanical stress acts in the 1 direction. For structures with a
rectangular cross section and surface area, the poling direction
is denoted as the ‘3’ direction, and 33 loading refers to the
collection of charge on the electrode surface perpendicular to
the polarization direction when tensile or compressive
mechanical forces are applied along the polarization axis.
Figure 3. Loading modes of piezoelectric structures [4].
Figure 4. Bimorph cantilever electrical connections [4].
When a material experiences ‘31’ loading, the charge is
collected on the electrode surface perpendicular to the
polarization direction, when force is applied perpendicular to
the axis of polarization. Since the coupling factor of the 33-
mode is higher than 31-mode, the 33-mode can achieve higher
energy conversion. However, for a very low vibration source
and limited device size, the 31-mode conversion is more
suitable for energy harvesting, since larger strains can be
produced [4].
D. Electrical Connections
Depending on the polarization and wiring configuration of
the layers, there are two electrical connections, series and
parallel. Series connection refers to the case where voltage
source is required to increase the output voltage. A two-layer
device wired for series connection uses only two wires (one
attached to each outside electrode), as shown in Figure 4-a.
Parallel connection refers to the case where the current source
is required to increase the output current. A two-layer bending
element wired for parallel connection requires three wires (one
attached to each outside electrode and one attached to the
center shim), as shown in Figure 4-b. For the same motion, a
two-layer element poled for parallel operation needs only half
the voltage required for series operation. The two layers offer
the opportunity to reduce output current by half and to
increase output voltage twice when configured for series
operation, which is commonly used in most applications.
E. Mechanical Fixation
Figure 5 shows two methods of mechanical fixation: a)
cantilever beam and (b) simple beam. The case of cantilever
beam has a power input at one end and the other end is free to
move, this method provides maximum compliance.
a) Cantilever beam
b) Simple beam
Figure 5. Fixation methods for energy harvester.
 The case of simple beam has two clamped ends and one
input power at the centre. The cantilever case is more suitable
to get the maximum power from the piezoelectric harvester.
F. AC-DC Converters
Different types of rectifiers can be used to convert the AC
transducer voltage to DC voltage such as half wave bridge
rectifier, full wave bridge rectifier and voltage doublers, as
shown in Figure 6 respectively. Power efficiency is an
important factor while choosing the suitable rectifier. The full
wave diode bridge rectifier and the centre tap voltage doubler
have a relatively higher efficiency than the half wave rectifier,
if the load is resistive. The problems with the rectifier are the
minimum voltage requirements due to the forward voltage
drop of the two diodes in series and the leakage current when
the diodes are reverse biased. So, it is an important to choose
diodes with a low leakage and low turn-on voltage. Voltage
doubler is an electric circuit with an AC input and a DC output
of roughly twice the peak input voltage. A full-wave version
of the voltage doubler has the advantage of lower peak diode
currents, improved ripple and better load regulation but
requires a centre-tap to the transformer as well as more
components like center tap transformer. Full wave bridge
rectifier is commercially used due to its simplicity and
effective performance.
Recently, synchronous rectifiers can be used instead
of Schottky diodes to improve the rectifier efficiency as shown
in Figure 7. Here, the body diode of a MOSFET is used
instead of a discrete pn junction diode. The transistor is turned
on when the body diode begins conduction. The voltage drop
across the body diode during conduction is negligible,
consequently yielding very low power loss and high
efficiency.
Figure 6. AC-DC Rectifier circuits.
Figure 7. Synchronous rectifier [8]
Figure 8. Buck, Boost and Buck-boost DC-DC Converters.
G. DC-DC Converters
There are different topologies of the DC-DC converters
such as: buck (step-down), boost (step-up) and buck-boost
(step-up/step-down) as shown in Figure 8. The boost converter
is the most suitable for low excitation levels and for high
efficiency, and it works at input voltage below the output
voltage. Assuming no power losses and continues mode of
operation as the duty ratio (D) is between zero and one (0 ≤ D
≤ 1), the boost converter will step up the voltage. The boost
converter is used to increase low level dc voltage output from
the bridge rectifier.
H. Energy Storage
Super-capacitors: capacitors are designed with varying
power levels and can be composed of any of a wide assortment
of materials, including glass, ceramics, metal film, and
aerogel. Super-capacitor is a capacitor with remarkably high
power and energy density, giving them much higher
efficiency. Super-capacitors can also be described as
mechanical batteries, due to their similarities to chemical
batteries, and are very small in size. Super-capacitors have a
high power- and energy-density, particularly compared with
traditional capacitors. Super-capacitors are compact in more
than just their size; they can store far more energy than
traditional capacitors and can release their stored energy either
slowly or quickly, depending upon the needs of the
application.
Rechargeable batteries: a rechargeable battery or storage
battery is a group of one or more electrochemical cells.
Rechargeable batteries come in many different shapes and
sizes, ranging anything from a button cell to megawatt systems
connected to stabilize an electrical distribution network.
Several different combinations of chemicals are commonly
used, including: lithium ion "Li-ion" (3.6V), lithium ion
Polymer "Li-Po" (3.7V), nickel Cadmium "NiCd" (1.2V), and
nickel Metal hybrid "Ni-MH" (1.2V). In comparing between
the rechargeable batteries and supercapacitors, the
rechargeable batteries have more advantage as they have
higher energy stored per unit weight and it has a slow
discharge response.
Table 2 highlights the best design selections among the
alternatives for PEH with italic and bolded characters.
 TABLE 2. Design parameters for PEH low (less than 10mg), mid (10–100mg), and high (above
100mg).
Alternative Solutions
Design x The median frequency for vibration source should be
parameters Option1 Option2 Option3 reported in unit of Hertz. Frequency can be categorized
as low (less than 10Hz), mid (10–120Hz), and high
PZT Quick pack MFC (above 120Hz).
Material The theoretical model to describe the vibration energy
Structure Uni-morph Bi-Morph Triple
Morph
harvesting can use Williams-Yates method or Erturk–Inman
Loading d31 d33 method [8]. The testing of the VEH should include following
Modes three measurements [7]:
Electrical Series Parallel - x RMS power as a function of vibration frequency at fixed
connection acceleration (1g) and matching load,
Fixation Cantilever Simple - x Power as a function of acceleration at fixed frequency
Beam beam
AC-DC Half wave Full wave Voltage
(60 Hz) and matching load,
Converter rectifier rectifier doubler x Power as a function of load at fixed acceleration (1g) and
(Synchronous frequency (60Hz).
rectifier) Characterization of the conditioning circuit [8]:
DC-DC Buck Boost Buck- x If the described system includes power conditioning, then
Converter Boost
the rate at which conditioned power can be delivered to a
Storage Super-capacitor Rechargeable -
Battery defined load should be specified, namely, DC voltage
level, load impedance, and current available to that load.
x It should be mentioned that how much of the harvested
III. STANDARDS FOR PEH power is consumed by the power-conditioning circuit.
The International Society of Automation (ISA) is an x Describe the output on-time rating in X msec at Y mA.
organization that is setting standards for automation by IV. CONCLUSION
helping over 30,000 worldwide members and other
professionals solve difficult technical problems. This Piezoelectric energy harvesting systems provides an
organization is founded in 1945. The ISA 100.18 power elegant and infinitely renewable source of power to replace
sources group works to match the requirements of the wireless conventional batteries in wireless sensor nodes. The recent
sensor networks of third generation for active RFID, where development of low power wireless sensors had led to harvest
every tag is a reader [27]. In this case, the sensor is referred as energy from ambient environment for self powered devices.
node and the network is called WSN. The standards Wireless remote monitoring of mechanical structures, self
ISA100.11a are defined for industrial wireless sensors. The powered wireless sensors, and biomedical sensors are
ISA100.18 Working Group is preparing standards and candidate strongly for piezoelectric energy harvesting
information documents on power sources for WSNs. Key applications. Piezoelectric energy harvesting has the following
objectives are to define specifications for the advantages over other alternative techniques: large power
interchangeability of various power sources, including density and ease of applications and capability to fabricate the
batteries, energy harvesters, and other possible types, such as piezoelectric material to harvest the vibrating energy into
4-20mA loops, and to define performance specifications so different scales: macro, micro, and nano scale. The
users can compare different harvesters and choose the piezoelectric generator has a limited power and maximization
optimum power source for each application. The working is necessary to achieve the highest functionality per unit
group is cooperating with different organizations, including volume of the sensor node. The maximum power extraction
VDI and NAMUR on battery standards for WSNs and other (mechanical/electrical) depends on:
organizations using 802.15.4, such as WirelessHART and x The matching of resonance frequency between the
Zigbee as well as other low power wireless protocols [28]. harvester and the vibration source
The first draft of standard on vibration energy harvesting x The harvester’s mechanical and electrical properties
(VEH) is discussed in 2009; where the annual energy
x The matching of impedance between the piezoelectric
harvesting workshop was held in Virginia Tech
generator and the sensor load
(http://cpe.vt.edu/ehw). The committee was formed consisting
members from academia, industry, and federal labs. This x The maximum power point tracking MMPT in the DC-
committee was assigned the task of compiling current DC converter design
practices used to characterize the vibration energy harvesting Therefore, the adaption to the system changes should be at
devices and come up with a metric which can allow the all the levels of the supply and consumption interactions. A
comparison of all prototype harvesters [8]. The committee good energy characterization of loads is essential to help
stated the parameters to describe the vibration source as effectively in power adaptation problem. More research is
follows: needed to handle this problem in run time. The power
generated by piezoelectric materials is far too small to power
x The acceleration values for vibration source should be
most electronics. Therefore, methods of increasing the amount
reported as peak-to-peak g level. The preferred unit for
of energy generated by the power harvesting device or
acceleration is in m/s2 described in terms of “g” where 1
developing new and innovative methods of accumulating the
g = 9.8 m/s2. Acceleration can be further categorized as
energy are the key technologies that will allow energy
harvesting to become a power source for portable electronics
and wireless sensors.
Additionally, the continuous research to minimize the
circuit losses in power electronics is necessary to increase the
power flow from the piezoelectric generator to the load. Power
storage such as the use of rechargeable batteries or super-
capacitor or both has to be effectively developed to improve
the overall system efficiency before energy harvesting
technology will see widespread use.
The future research is directed towards the integration of
the piezoelectric transducer, its circuitry, power management,
energy storage, and the RF sensor into flexible thin film
substrates to develop smart active labels. Piezoelectric
MEMS-based transducer is recommended to develop micro
sensors for different applications. Recently, nano-based
materials are available to harvest energy from light sources.
The integration of this technology with piezoelectric
technology can increase the generator power output from
different sources like solar, RF, and vibration.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work is supported by NPST program by King Saud
University, Project Number 10-NAN1036-02.
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