MAURYAN PERIOD: ADMINISTRATION

History Major 102

Submitted By
Raghavendra Krishnaprasad Nadgauda
UID: SM0122049
I Year, I Semester, B.A. LL. B. (Hons.)

Faculty-In-Charge
Dr. Moichingmayum Mustaque Alish Aijaja
Guest Professor of History

National Law University and Judicial Academy, Assam

November 30th 2022
 Contents

Index of Authorities................................................................................................................ii.

I. Introduction..........................................................................................................................1

1.1 Aims.....................................................................................................................................2

1.2 Objectives............................................................................................................................2

1.3 Scope and Limitations..........................................................................................................2

1.4 Review of Literature............................................................................................................4

1.5 Research Questions..............................................................................................................4

1.6 Hypothesis............................................................................................................................4

1.7 Research Methods................................................................................................................4

II. SOURCES OF HISTORY TO STUDY THE EARLY VEDIC CULTURE.................5

2.1 Literary Sources...................................................................................................................5

2.2 Archaeological Sources.......................................................................................................6

III. ARYAN INVASION OR ARYAN MIGRATION THEORY.......................................7

IV. SOCIAL STRUCTURE DURING THE EARLY VEDIC PERIOD............................8

4.1 Society .................................................................................................................................8

4.2 Religion................................................................................................................................9

V. POLITICAL SYSTEM OF THE EARLY VEDIC PERIOD.......................................11

5.1 Polity.................................................................................................................................11

5.2 Economy...........................................................................................................................12

VI. CONCLUSION................................................................................................................14

Bibliography...........................................................................................................................15
ii
 I. INTRODUCTION

The Vedic Age is also known as the “heroic age” of ancient Indian civilization. It was the
period when the basic foundations of Indian civilization were being laid down. These
included the emergence of early Hinduism as the foundational religion of India, and the
social/religious phenomenon known as caste. The Vedic Period or the Vedic Age refers to
that time period when the Vedic Sanskrit texts were composed in India. The society that
emerged during that time is known as the Vedic Period, or the Vedic Age (c. 1500 – c. 500
B.C.E.) is the period in the history of India during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of
Hinduism, were being composed. Based on literary evidence, the associated culture,
sometimes referred to as Vedic civilization, was centred in the northern and north-western
parts of the Indian subcontinent (Between the 1500 BC and 500 BC on the Indo- Gangetic
Plains of the Indian subcontinent).. Its early phase saw the formation of various kingdoms of
ancient India. Veda means "knowledge". The Vedas formed the earliest segment of Vedic
literature. The Vedic literature had been evolved in the course of many centuries and was
handed down from generation to generation by the word of mouth.
1.1 AIMS
The aim of this project is to examine the challenges that the people of the Early Vedic Period
faced. To do so, the researcher would refer to journals, websites and review the existing
literature by eminent scholars.

1.2 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the project are to:

i. Make an assessment of the society of the Early Vedic Period

ii. Gauge whether various theories regarding the origins of the people of the Vedic
Period hold substance
iii. Identify the challenges that arose due to the structure of political setting, if
any.

1.3 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

The researcher had to limit his research to the Early Vedic Period owing to varied opinions
regarding the Early and Later Vedic Periods. resources available to the researcher during the
pandemic, she had to limit the scope of her project. In addition, considering the Early Vedic
Period is a particularly unique setting which is the basis for some of the practices that people
follow today, the researcher has decided to limit the scope of his project to the Early Vedic
Period.

1.4 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The Anicent History of India: Vedic Period by K.C. Singhal and Roshan Gupta 1 attempts to
build a history of pre-Buddhistic India on the basis of the Vedas and the allied texts. Scattered
in the Vedic texts are allusions to a large number of places, personalities and incidents. The
authors have given them a historical shape and significance in a most systematic manner. The
outcome is a fascinating account of India’s remote past. It has, however, been made possible
as a result of the valuable insights gained over a long period of deep, intensive and profound

1
Singhal, K C, and Roshan Gupta. The Ancient History of India, Vedic Period : A New
Interpretation. New Delhi, Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, 2003.
2
study of these most ancient texts. The readers of Indian history will find the treatise very
informative and refreshing.

Ancient History of Vedic Culture: The Time Line of India's Vedic Civilization As Presented
by the Tradition by Stephen Knapp2 is not a typical review of the history of India, but
explains what the pre-historic traditional Vedic background is, its basis, and how it developed
and expanded through time. We also look at a number of artifacts that prove the ancient
existence of some of the most important aspects of the Vedic customs, and how the tradition
itself describes its developments. This book also helps show that the spiritual philosophy of
Vedic culture seeded many of the other civilizations in their beliefs that evolved in various
regions of the world. Some of the topics we view include: Descriptions in the Vedic texts on
the way the world was created. The prehistoric date of Vedic beginnings.

How the Vedic knowledge was given to humanity. Early Indians: The Story of Our
Ancestors and Where We Came From by Tony Joseph 3 tries to answer the questions who are
Indians ? Where did Indians come from ? Many of us believe our ancestors have lived in
South Asia since 'time immemorial'. But, as it turns out, 'time immemorial' may not have been
all that long ago. To tell us the story of our ancestry, journalist Tony Joseph goes 65,000
years into the past—when a band of modern humans, or Homo sapiens, first made their way
from Africa into theIndiansubcontinent.
Citing recent DNA evidence, he traces the subsequent large migrations of modern humans
into India—of agriculturalists from Iran between 7000 and 3000 BCE and pastoralists from
the Central Asian Steppe between 2000 and 1000 BCE, among others.
As Joseph unravels our history using the results of genetic and other research, he takes head-
on some of the most controversial and uncomfortable questions of Indian history: Who were
the Harappans? Did the 'Aryans' really migrate to India? Are North Indians genetically
different from South Indians? And are the various castes genetically distinct groups?
This book relies heavily on path-breaking DNA research of recent years. But it also presents
earlier archaeological and linguistic evidence—all in an entertaining and highly readable
manner. A hugely significant book, Early Indians authoritatively and bravely puts to rest
several ugly debates on the ancestry of modern Indians. It not only shows us how the modern

2
Knapp, Stephen. Ancient History of Vedic Culture. Createspace Independent Publishing
Platform, 6 Sept. 2016.
3
Joseph, Tony. Early Indians : The Story of Our Ancestors and Where We Came From. New
Delhi, Juggernaut, 2018.
3
Indian population came to be composed as it is, but also reveals an undeniable and important
truth about who we are: we are all migrants. And we are all mixed.

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. Who were the people of the Indus Valley Civilization and what was their origin?

2. How was the society in the Early Vedic Period stratified?

3. What was the political setup in the Early Vedic Period?

1.6 HYPOTHESIS
The evidence suggests that the Early Vedic Period has various similarities to the modern
setup in India.

1.7 RESEARCH METHODS

. Approach to Research: The majority of the secondary sources used in this research project,
including reports, books, articles from the web and the internet, and research papers, were
properly cited, referred to, and mentioned throughout the study. The researcher's top priority
was to rely on qualitative rather than quantitative data. This study endeavours also made use of
a number of internet resources, including e-books, online journals, blogs, and so forth. Types
of Research: Explanatory type of research was used in this project, because the project topic
was not relatively new and unheard of and also because various concepts were needed to be
explained. Sources of Data Collection: Secondary source of data collection was used which
involves collection of data from books, articles, websites, etc

4
 II. SOURCES OF HISTORY TO STUDY THE EARLY VEDIC CULTURE

There are two sources from where the researcher has based his research from. Literary
sources and archaeological sources are the basis of the research.

2.1 Literary Sources

Among the literary sources, the four Vedas form the basis of most literary sources available to
study the Early Vedic Period. The word ‘Vedas’ is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Vid’
which means ‘to know’. The ‘Vedic Samhitas’ are essentially a compilation of prayers and
hymns offered by different families of poets and sages to various gods. There are 4 Vedas and
are also known as ‘Samhitas’, in the sense that they represent the oral tradition of the time.
Since the hymns were meant to be recited, learnt and transmitted orally, they were not written
when they when they were first composed. Due to this reason none of the ‘Samhitas’ can be
dated with absolute certainity. Infact, each Samhita represents a collection through a period
over a few centuries. Relative dating in terms of the context of these ‘Samhitas’ has led
scholars to believe that the period represented in the earliest Veda that is (i.e. from hereon)
‘Rig Veda’, can be placed between 1500 B.C. to 1000 B.C. The other Vedas are ‘Yajur
Veda’, ‘Sama Veda’, ‘Atharva Veda’ which are from the Later Vedic Period.

The ’Rig Veda’ comprises of 10 books or ‘Mandalas’ of which books II to VII are considered
to be the earliest. Books 1, VIII, IX and X are considered to be later additions to the
‘Samhita’.

Scholars found similarities in the language used in the’Rig Veda’ and the Zorastrian text
‘Vend Avesta’. Based on these linguistic similarities, some scholars decided to infer the
origin of the Vedic people also called ‘Indo-Aryans’ or ‘Aryans’. Some scholars found that
people in both these texts represented a common linguistic group and concluded that they had
migrated from West Asia and Iran to the Indian subcontinent. The ‘Aryans’ or the ones who
had migrated from West Asia to India had a common original home from where different
groups migrated to Europe and the East. This view has been countered by different views
which makes the migration view less plausible.

5
2.2 Archaeological sources

Excavations conducted in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Northern Rajasthan along the Indus and
Ghaggar rivers over the last 40 years have unearthed many post- Harappan chalcolithic
settlements from these regions. These have been dated from 1700 B.C. to 600 B.C. Some of
the broad categories were Harappan OCP (Ochre Coloured Pottery), Painted Grey Ware,
Black and Red Ware cultures. However, the types of pottery do not reflect the entire culture
of the people. Different pottery types do not necessarily mean that people who used these pots
also differed. Pottery analysis may help in defining a specific trait of the cultural assemblage
but leaves little scope to infer other information about the people of the Early Vedic Culture.
Some scholars have made attempts to examine whether the evidence provided by some of
these cultures of north-western and northern India can be compared with the Vedic texts.

6
 III. ARYAN INVASION OR ARYAN MIGRATION THEORY

Archaeological evidence relating to the period between second millennium B.C. and first
millennium B.C. has thus helped us modify existing views regarding the Vedic 'Aryans' in
several ways. First, there is no substantial proof in archaeology that there was large-scale
migration of people from central or western Asia into the Indian subcontinent around 1500
B.C. Second archaeologically there is no proof that the Aryans destroyed the Harappan
civilization and laid the foundation of a new Indian civilization. In fact, although the Rigveda
repeatedly refers to hostilities and wars between different groups, the so-called clashes
between Aryan and non-Aryan communities and cultures are not documented in archaeology.
However, since the Rigvedal is the earliest collection of religious hymns available to us, its
importance as a document of history is immense. The hymns provide such insights into
various aspects of an early society as would not be available in archaeological evidence.
From them we get insights regarding the nature of economy, social organisation, kingship and
political organisation, religions and cosmological beliefs and so on. Much of this information
is relevant also for understanding the nature of Indian society at later stages. We now
therefore turn to what we learn from the Rigveda about the early Vedic society.

        As time goes on, more and more evidence will accumulate to show the truth of India’s
Vedic history. As the evidence mounts, the old theories will slip away and anyone still
clinging to such ideas as the Aryan invasion or the false history of India’s architectural
wonders will only look foolish. It is taking some time to reveal this truth, but out of all the
cultures of the world, it is India that has best withstood the tests of time and remains the
oldest living culture in the world. And this is not due to remaining dependent on the views of
outsiders who think they know India’s culture and history better than Indians, or those who
still are influenced by the stories of India from invaders and dominators who disliked or even
despised India and its people.

        Now is the time for those of us connected with, or who appreciate India’s historical and
Vedic culture to unite and work to reveal the true and advanced nature of India’s timeless
Dharmic tradition, and its advancements, which were already in existence before the credits
of its wonders were attempted to be taken by people who did not have complete
understanding on the topic.

7
 IV. SOCIAL STRUCTURE DURING THE EARLY VEDIC PERIOD

4.1 Society

The society in the Early Vedic Period was based on kinship. The society was not divided
based on caste, even the raja(king) and the purohita(priest) were part of the same clan
network. Tribes were referred to was janas and references of these janas caan be found in the
Rig Veda. Battles among the janas were common among the janas. Some of the janas were
the Bharathas, the Purus,The Druhyus, The Turuvas, etc. The battles were mostly related to
cows where cattle was stolen. The chief of the the jana was known as the gopati(protector of
the cows). The position of the gopati was not hereditary and the gopati was selected among
the people of the jana. The warriror clan was called rajanya. Many clans together formed a
tribe. The clans settled in villages or grama. The basic social unit was Kula or family. The
head of the Kula was Kulapati or the one who protects the family. Usually the Kulapati was
the eldest male member of the family. The society followed was patriarchial. The birth of a
male child was a common desire among the Kulas. The importance given to men is reflected
in hymns, where the desire for a son is evident. Even though the society was patriarchial,
women were given utmost importance in the social structure. Women were educated and held
major posts in the political setup. Women also composed hymns. However, were dependant
on their male guardians. They were independent to choose their life partner and could marry
later than the expected age. Education was imparted orally but the tradition of education was
not similar to the education practiced in other civilzations of the world. The composers of Rig
Veda were known as Dasas or Dasyus who were distinguished from other groups. They were
of dark complexion, with snubb- mosed, full-lipped people. They were the worshippers of the
phallus. They lived in strong fortified structures. Another group of people known as Pani
came to be assocsciated withmerchnats and had cattle. This shows that they were highly
respected in the society and were wealthy. These group fought and made alliances and one
cannot distinguish them solely based on racial features. For instance Sudasa, one of the most
important tribal chiefs mentioned in the Rig Veda. As the name ends with ‘dasa’, which is
suggestive of his links with the dasas. However, the presence of various groups might have
contributed to heterogeneity in the society.Various occupational groups such as weavers,
carpenters, priests etc. The chariot makers occupied a special social status. There are no

8
references of beggars, wages in socities.There is mention of rich people possessing cattle,
chariots etc. which shows that people were socially stratified in The Early Vedic Period.

4.2 Religion

The songs of the Rigveda represent the religious beliefs of the Vedic people.

They revered the outside natural forces they could not control, such as the wind, water, rain,
thunder, fire, etc., and imbued nature with a god formed in nature.

The majority of the human shapes were male. There were not many female deities
worshipped. Thus, the religion, which was a form of primordial animism, was a reflection of
the patriarchal society. The god of power, Indra, was called upon to destroy the adversaries.
As the thunder deity and rainmaker, he was frequently enlisted to let the rain fall. He was
insurmountable. thus, thunder and rain (natural phenomena) were associated with power,
which was symbolised by the deity Indra in a male form. The idea of a tribal leader who
simultaneously served as a warlord is also reflected in the persona of Indra. The deity of fire,
Agni, came in second place to Indra in significance. He was seen as a bridge between gods
and humans, or between heaven and earth. Marriages were solemnised in his presence, and he
mimicked the home hearth. Fire Agni was seen as being pure since he was free of dirt and
germs. The significance of Yajna, or sacrifice, in Early Vedic civilization can be compared to
that of Agni. According to legend, smoke was used to transport the oblations presented to
Agni to the gods. The protector of the universe's natural order, Varuna symbolised water. The
deity of death, Yama, had a significant role in Early Vedic religious belief. Numerous
additional deities existed, including Surya, Soma (also a beverage), Savitri, Rudra, etc.
Numerous celestial entities, such as Gandharvas, Apsaras, and Maruts, to whom the Rigveda
dedicated prayers and songs. Vedic religion involved animal sacrifice. The purpose of
sacrifices or yajnas was to ask the gods for blessings, such as success in combat or the
acquisition of animals, sons, etc.4 There were many other gods e.g. Surya, Soma (also a
drink), Savitri, Rudra etc., and hosts of celestial beings like Gandharvas, Apsaras, Maruts to
whom prayers and hymns were addressed in the Rigveda. The Vedic religion was sacrificial.
4
“Ashvamedha | Hinduism | Britannica.” Encyclopædia Britannica, 2020,
www.britannica.com/topic/ashvamedha.

9
Sacrifices or yajnas were performed: to invoke the gods in order to grant boons-either victory
in battles or for acquisition of cattle, sons etc. We find some hymns dedicated to the power
residing in the sacrificial implements, especially to the sacrificial altar, to the stones used for
pressing the Soma plant, to the weapons of war, dnuns, mortars etc. Hymns and prayers were
recited in these sacrifices and generally priests performed these yajnas. The growing
importance of sacrifices in the Vedic society resulted in the growing importance of priests as
well. The ritual of sacrifice also led to the growth and development in the knowledge of
mathematics and animal anatomy. Elementary mathematics was necessary to make the
calculations which were required to establish the positions of various objects in the sacrificial
area. Also, the frequent sacrifices of animals led to a knowledge of their anatomy. For the
Vedic people, the world grew out of a vast cosmic sacrifice and was not maintained by the
proper performance of sacrifice. Religion was not based on magico-ritual formulae, rather it
stressed direct communication with the gods through sacrifices, hymns etc. 5 Gods were not
worshipped for the spiritual upliftment of the people, nor for any other abstract philosophical
concept, but were invoked to grant material gains. Sacrificial religion is a religion of the
pastoral people. Animal sacrifice is rampant in the pastoral society, where the older animals
who can no longer produce milk or meat, or used for breeding purposes, i.e. those who are no
longer economically viable, are killed in order to lessen the burden on their owner. Hence
animal sacrifice was one way of destroying the old animals and thus had an important role in
the society. In the agrarian society however, older animals are employed in the fields, used
for traction purposes and hence the destruction of animals is frowned upon by a society which
primarily depends on agricultural activities. Thus the Vedic religion reflected the patriarchal
pastoral society and was materialistic in perspective

5
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Vedic Religion | Indian Religion.” Encyclopædia
Britannica, 2019, www.britannica.com/topic/Vedic-religion.

10
 V. POLITICAL SYSTEM OF THE EARLY VEDIC PERIOD

5.1 Polity

The tribal polity was not completely egalitarian. A division is found in the Rigveda itself,
which is seen in references of two groups-the Rajanyas, or those who fought the wars, and are
credited to be the senior lineage, and the rest of the clansmen or the vis, who formed the
junior lineage. Though none of the groups occupied a distinct social hierarchy, constant
conflicts and inter-tribal wars helped to create a division in the society. The owing needs for
more pasture lands, cattle for the protection of people and their settlement all probably
contributed to an increase in inter and intra-tribal conflicts and warfare. The clans held large
yajnas or rituals to help the warrior groups in the wars. In these yajnas the officiating priest or
the purohita acted as the mediator between his clansmen and the gods. He also invoked the
gods' blessings for the tribal chief, for his success in the wars. Initially, the whole clan
participated in these yajnas on an equal footing. Large scale distribution of wealth, food, etc.
was made during these sacrifices and members got an equal share. But with the growing
incidence of conflicts and fights, yajnas or sacrifices also became important and the purohita
assumed a special status in the society. In the later part of our period, they received a major
share of the gifts from the rajas, and assumed a superior position vis-a-vis the other clan
members. The office of the raja also assumed importance on account of wars, etc. and the
division between the senior and the junior lineages became sharper. 6 At what point of time
these political distinctions became apparent is difficult to state, but we must remember that
the 10th book of the Rigveda contains the "Purusha-Sukta" hymn, and in the Later Vedic
texts we find evidence of the superior rajnaya groups, assuming the status of the Kshatriya-a
separate varna by itself. These developments took place after 1000 B.C. This does not mean
that the society was stagnant during our period of study. In fact it was changing slowly but
surely leading to the development, in the Later Vedic phase, of a complex socio-political
structure . Tribal assemblies e.g. the Gana, Vidatha, Sabha and Samiti are mentioned in the
Rigveda. The Sabha may have been the council of select clan members and the Samiti
perhaps comprised the whole clan.7 These assemblies performed the functions of the
6
Binod, Bihari, and Satpathy. DDCE/History (M.A)/SLM/Paper-XII Socio-Political and
Administrative History of Ancient India (Early Time to 8 Th -12 Th Century C.E).
7
“Sabha and Samiti in Vedic Civilization - GKToday.” Www.gktoday.in,
www.gktoday.in/topic/sabha-and-samiti-in-vedic-civilization/. Accessed 21 Nov. 2022.
11
government and administration and were also involved in the selection of the raja from
amongst the clansmen. They thus kept the power of the warriors in check. However, as stated
before, though we do not find well defined political hierarchy in the Early Vedic set up, the
changes during the period gave rise to a socio-political hierarchy which manifested itself in
the origin of the Varna system during the "Later Vedic phase".

5.2 Economy

The Early Vedic society was pastoral, cattle rearing being the dominant occupational activity.
A pastoral society relies more on its animal wealth than agricultural produce. Pastoralism is a
subsistence strategy adopted by people who live in areas where large scale agriculture is not
feasible due to some environmental and to a certain extent, cultural constraints. Hymns of the
Rigveda yield extensive evidence of the importance of cattle in the Early Vedic society.
Many linguistic expressions in the Rigveda are associated with the cow (gau). Cattle was the
chief measure of wealth and a wealthy man who owned many cattle was called 'gomat'. The
terms used for conflicts and battles in this period were gavishti, gavesana, gavyat, etc. The
former literally means 'to search for cows'. The terms themselves suggest that possession of
cattle was the bone of contention betwee goups and led to occasional inter-tribal fights and
conflicts. The Panis, who. were the enemies of the Vedic people, are stated in the Rigveda to
have hidden their wealth, mostly cows, in the mountains and forests. The Vedic god Indra
was invoked to release these cattle. This reference suggests that cattle raids were common.
The raja or the chief is called the 'gopati' or one who protects cows. In the Rigveda, Godhuli
is used as a term for a measure of time. Distance is called gavyuti. A daughter is called duhitr
or one who milks the cows. Kinship units are labelled as gotra. All these terms are derived
from gau and suggest that social religions and all important areas of Rigvedic life centred
round the rearing of cows. Literary references to pasture lands, cow pen, dairy products and
domesticated animals are also found in most of the hymns and prayers. Compared to the very
substantial linguistic evidence for cattle rearing in the Rigveda, agricultural activities find
very few references.8 Most of the references to agriculture are of a later date. Apart from
'Yava' or barley, no other grains are mentioned. The Early Vedic people did not use iron
8
“Aryans and Their Agricultural Developments | Vedic Period | Indian History.” History
Discussion - Discuss Anything about History, 9 Oct. 2017, www.historydiscussion.net/history-
of-india/aryans/aryans-and-their-agricultural-developments-vedic-period-indian-history/7065.
Accessed 21 Nov. 2022.

12
technology. Copper, with which they were familiar, did not have as much value in
agricultural operations as iron implements. Stone tools (like axes) were used and these are
mentioned in the Rigveda. Fire was used to burn down the forest cover and shifting
agriculture was practised. Further, the region under discussion receives low rainfall and alI
the rivers mentioned in the Rigveda i.e. the Satluj, Indus, Ghaggar, Ravi etc. are known to
change their courses frequently. Without the facilities of large-scale irrigation which were not
developed in this period, the alluvial lands near the rivers could not be cultivated on a
permanent basis. Thus the hoes, sickles and axes mentioned in the texts, were probably used
for slashing purposes or shifting cultivation. The evidence of pastoralism as well as shifting
cultivation suggests that the people were either nomadic or semi-nomadic. 9 They moved out
of their villages with their herds for a certain period in order to feed their cattle. The literary
and the archaeological sources do show that the people did not lead a fully sedentary life. The
mobile character of the population is seen in the term 'vis' which also implied a settlement.
The suffixes Punar (vis), Upa (vis) and Pra (vis) were constantly used, and the settlements
were qualified by them to mean settling near (asettlement), re-entering (a settlement) or
coming back (to the settlement). Gift exchange and redistribution had an important economic
role in the society. Tribal conflicts led to the payment of tributes and prestations, i.e. bali, to
the victorious chiefs by the defeated or the subordinate groups. The rest of the clansmen of
the victorious tribe had a share in the spoils and booty won in the war. The chief also fed and
gave gifts to his clansmen during ceremonial occasions. This was done by him to acquire
prestige. Evidence of trade and commerce in Early Vedic society is meagre. There was no
concept of private property based on land-ownership.

9
Leshnik, Lawrence S. “Pastoral Nomadism in the Archaeology of India and Pakistan.” World
Archaeology, vol. 4, no. 2, 1972, pp. 150–166, www.jstor.org/stable/123973. Accessed 21
Nov. 2022.
13
 VI. CONCLUSION

The researcher has attempted to bring forward the literary and to some extent archaeological
sources which help in the reconstruction of Early Vedic society. In the light of the
archaeological sources, it is difficult to accept the notion of a large-scale Aryan migration.
The early Vedic economy was mainly pastoral and cow was the most important form of
wealth. Agriculture had secondary importance in the life of the Early Vedic people. Clan and
kinship relations formed the basis of the society and family was the basic social unit. Social
divisions based on occupations had started but there was no caste division. In the Early Vedic
polity, the tribal chief or the Rajan and the priest or the Purohita had important positions.
Among several tribal assemblies the Sabha and the Samiti played important roles. Though
there was no well-defined political hierarchy in the Early Vedic set up, the tribal polity was
not completely egalitarian. The Early Vedic people personified the natural forces, e.g. wind,
water, rain etc. and worshipped them as gods. They worshipped god not through any abstract
philosophical concept but for material gains. There was growing importance of sacrifices or
yajnas in the Vedic religion. What you must remember is that this society was not static but
dynamic. Between 1500 BCE and 1000 BCE society was constantly evolving and newer
elements in the economic, social, political and religious were operating to transform its
structure.

14
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

1. Singhal, K C, and Roshan Gupta. The Ancient History of India, Vedic Period : A New
Interpretation. New Delhi, Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, 2003.
2. Knapp, Stephen. Ancient History of Vedic Culture. Createspace Independent
Publishing Platform, 6 Sept. 2016.

3. Joseph, Tony. Early Indians : The Story of Our Ancestors and Where We Came From.
New Delhi, Juggernaut, 2018.

WEBSITES

1. Leshnik, Lawrence S. “Pastoral Nomadism in the Archaeology of India and Pakistan.”

World Archaeology, vol. 4, no. 2, 1972, pp. 150–166, www.jstor.org/stable/123973.
Accessed 21 Nov. 2022.
2. “Aryans and Their Agricultural Developments | Vedic Period | Indian History.” History
Discussion - Discuss Anything about History, 9 Oct. 2017,
www.historydiscussion.net/history-of-india/aryans/aryans-and-their-agricultural-
developments-vedic-period-indian-history/7065. Accessed 21 Nov. 2022.
3. Binod, Bihari, and Satpathy. DDCE/History (M.A)/SLM/Paper-XII Socio-Political
and Administrative History of Ancient India (Early Time to 8 Th -12 Th Century C.E).
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