Laura Vinstrup - Extended Essay - Final Draft

IB Physics Extended Essay
International Baccalaureate
PHYSICS
EXTENDED ESSAY
Hubble with a bubble (car)
TOPIC:
Hubble's law and the expansion of the Universe
Word count: 3703
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
1. Introduction
1.1 Hubble's law and the expansion of Universe
1.2 Why Model Hubble's law
1.3 Research question
1.3.1 Constructed research question for experiment
2. Theory
2.1 The doppler effect
2.2 Measuring distance
2.3 Hubble's law
3. Experiment
3.1 Variables
3.2 Experimental method
3.2.1 Finding the velocity by using the doppler effect
3.2.2 Finding the displacement of the cart
3.3 Administering controlled variables
4. Results
4.1 Raw data
4.2 Processed data
5. Discussion and analysis
6. Conclusion
7. Evaluation
8. Bibliography
2
1. Introduction:
1.1 Hubble's law and the expansion of the Universe
Before the 1920’s, the Universe was thought to be static and therefore not
changing. However after Edwin Hubble and Vesto Slipher1 in the 1920’s started
doing accurate measurements of redshift and blueshift of galaxies using the
doppler effect, it seemed that everything was moving away from the Earth.
Thus, the Universe must be expanding. Not only did Hubble find that almost
every galaxy was redshifted, he also figured out that the apparent velocity of
which a galaxy is moving away from us depends on its distance from us. It is
therefore interesting to look at this correlation, as it can explain the past and the
future of our Universe. This linear relationship between distance and velocity,
called Hubble's law, implied that everything in the Universe back in time has
been close together. Hubble's findings thereby started the theory of the
beginning of the Universe, “ the big bang”, which is the theory that all matter in
the Universe was densely packed (hyper compressed), and then expanded to the
Universe that we know today. 2
For Hubble to actually measure the velocity and distance of galaxies was not so
easy. In astronomy distant things are being observed, and as it is not possible to
visit the objects that are being studied,we instead find ways to study objects far
away by observations. Here knowing an object’s distance is key to such cosmic
detective work. Hubble used different methods in order to measure the distance
to different galaxies, though the most important was trigonometric parallax and
standard candle method, which will be covered in the theory section.
1.2 Why model Hubble's law ?
In this essay I will try to make a model of Hubble's law, calculating the velocity
of carts of different velocity moving away and its distance after 4s. Using the
doppler shift of a sound source on the cart, and the standard candle method.
This is first of all to try to create a deeper understanding of how astronomers
observe and study the Universe, but also to see if it is possible to take a complex
thing as the Universe itself and model it in a simple way. This experiment could
1
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesto_Slipher
2
https://www.coursera.org/lecture/astronomy/hubbles-law-and-the-big-bang-ldkGc
3
have been used as a class experiment to enhance the understanding of this

difficult topic.
By creating this model of Hubble's law, evidence for Hubble's law, hence the
expansion of the Universe, can be found and understood. Thus, the title of the
essay “ Hubble with a Bubble (car)” as Hubble's law will be modeled with a
small cart.
1.3 Research question:
Is it possible to model Hubble's law using a smart car and a speaker emitting
800Hz?
1.3.2 Constructed research question for experiment:
What is the relationship between the size of a smart cart in an image travelling
at different velocities and the doppler shift of a sound emitted by them after
travelling for 4s?
2. Theory:
2.1 The doppler effect
First of all, it is important to understand the doppler effect, as it is the method

Hubble used to calculate the velocity of galaxies.
The doppler effect states that there is a change in frequency of any wave due to
the relative motion between the source and the observer. This effect can be used
to determine the velocity of a moving source mathematically.
4
Looking at figure 1, it can be seen that the frequency in front of the source
increases as the wavelength decreases and that the frequency behind the source
decreases as the wavelength increases.
Considering figure 2 as a source moving away from the observer, with velocity
V s , emitting a sound wave at point 1 then traveling to point 2 where it emits a
second wave.
The distance between point 1 and 2 must the be:
V s × Ts
Where T s is the time period of the emitted wave.
The distance from point 2 to the wave (pink line) must therefore be
V w × Ts + V s × Ts
Where V w is the velocity of the emitted wave. (340m/s in air)
The time for the wave emitted at point 2 to reach point A is the observed time
period ( T 0 ), which will be:
T 0 = T s ( V wv+V
w
s
)
1
As f = T
the observed frequency will then be:
f 0 = f s ( V wV+V
w
s
)
5
f0
If we let r be fs
That means that the speed of the source will be

V w − V w ×r
Vs = r
This is the formula that can be used in my model of Hubble's law to calculate
the speed of a source moving away, emitting a frequency of 800Hz.
However, Hubble did not use the doppler effect for sound waves but for light
waves.
Looking at figure 3, it is shown how light emitted from a galaxy moving

towards Earth is, when observed on Earth, shifted towards the red end of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
By using absorption lines Hubble, could observe the difference in λ . As every

element has a unique energy level, they will give different lines in the
spectrum.3 Then by knowing which absorption lines a galaxy is supposed to
produce, the difference is found.
From this Hubble used the redshift number z to calculate the velocity of
galaxies.
λ−λo Δλ
z= λ
= λ
3
https://www.student.thinkib.net/physics/page/20145/activity-light-from-stars
6
By using this value the velocity of a galaxy can be found be this equation:
v =c×z
Where c is the speed of light.
2.2 Measuring distance
The next step was then to find the distance of the galaxies. For this Hubble used
the size of galaxies measured in telescope photographs to measure their relative
distance from the earth. These measurements could be calibrated by using either
parallax or a Cepheid in a nearby galaxy.
Any object with a known luminosity is referred to as a standard candle, in

astronomy today 1A supernovae are often used as the standard candle. 4
However Hubble’s data used Cepheid variable stars as standard candles to
measure distance.
If the real luminosity of a source is known, its distance can be estimated by

observing how bright it appears on Earth. This is done by using the formula:
d=
√ L
4π×B
Where L is the real luminosity and B is how bright it appears on Earth. From
this equation it is clear to see that the greater the distance between L and B the
greater the distance the source is from Earth.
To use the standard candle method it must first be calibrated by using methods
like parallax applying to less distanced objects. Then a pattern between
luminosity and distance is found, for the standard candle.
From the standard candle the distance to a galaxy is given, which can be used to
determine the actual size from the size in the photograph. The ratio of image
size to actual size can be used to calculate the distance to the other galaxies
from their image size. In my case photos of the smart cart after 4s at different
velocities will be used to model galaxies.
4
http://www.astro.ex.ac.uk/people/hatchell/rinr/candles.pdf
7
Figure 4 shows a drawing of g that is the size of the galaxy and x which is the
size of the galaxy in a picture. From this comes the formula:
g×f
d= x
As g and and f will be constant in my model, because I use the same camera and
smart cart, the distance can be found from:
k
d= x
By using a light bulb and a light sensor, k can be found. This is done by
measuring the brightness from a known distance and finding L for the light
bulb. By knowing L, d can then be calculated for the cart. By the knowing d and
taking a picture of the cart and finding x, the other pictures can be celebrated as,
k =d ×x
The found value of k can then be used to calculate the distance for other
recordings.
8
2.3 Hubble's law
By inserting this observational data of velocity and distance, into a diagram

with the velocity v as a function of the distance d, Hubble found that the points
were on a roughly straight line through (0,0), as seen in figure 5.5
The relationship between velocity and distance is linear and
v = H ×d
Where H is Hubble's constant:
This can be used to determine the age of the Universe by calculating when a
galaxy was at the starting point.
5
Orbit B STX (book)
9
If a galaxy traveling with constant velocity is distance d away, divided by its

velocity must be when it was at its starting point.
That means the time where all matter was compressed to the same point will be:
d d 1
Age of U niverse = v = d×H = H
Since H is the slope of the line, the age of the Universe can be calculated:
That means the Universe is approximately 13.2 billion years old.
Applying this to my model the gradient of my graph would be 0.25 m2 s−1 as the
time before it started would be 4s, so
1
4
= the gradient
Hypothesis:
From Hubble's law it can be deduced that the velocity of a cart is directly
proportional to its distance after a given time.
v∝d
10
3. Methodology:
3.1 Variables
Independent variable:
- Velocity of smart cart
Dependent variable:
- The distance travelled at a given time
Controlled variables:
- Time traveled
- Frequency emitted by source
- Material of smart car and track
- Temperature
3.2 Experimental method
3.2.1 Calculating the velocity from the doppler effect.
First, a 6 m long track was lined up on the floor, to make sure that the track
wouldn’t slip it was sticked to the floor with strong duct tape in its corners.
11
A smart cart with a motor from Pasco 6 was then placed on the track. By using
the software Capstone from Pasco the smart cart and motor was connected to a
computer with bluetooth and the computer could then be used to make the smart
cart drive with constant speed. Another computer was then placed next to the
smart cart as seen in figure 6, and used to record a sound profile of the cart
driving away with the program Audacity.7 On top of the smart car a small
bluetooth speaker was placed, and by connecting the speaker to my phone I got
it to emit 800 Hz8. I then placed my phone, approximately in a distance of zero
from the smart car as seen in figure 6.
By using the motor of the smart cart it was possible to get it to drive with
different speeds. The software Capstone was used to control the speed of the
cart and at the same time recording the real time speed and position of the cart.
While the speaker was emitting 800Hz, the smart cart was started at the same
time as the other computer started recording the sound of the speaker. At the
same time the phone was recording as the cart moved away.
I then used Capstone, as seen in figure 7, to find the real velocity of the smart
cart, both to compare it to the calculated velocity and to make sure it was
constant. I recorded this value in table 2.
6
https://www.pasco.com/products/smart-cart
7
https://www.audacityteam.org/
8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B2VX7viZCNo
12
Afterwards I recorded the observed frequency from the computer after 4

seconds. To remove background noise I at the end of each trail stopped the
sound of the speaker and recorded the noise from the smart carts motor and
wheels. I next used that part of the sound profile to reduce the noise with the
Audacity noise reduction function.This was as the smart cart was making a lot
of noise when driving, so to get spectrum for the emitted 800Hz, noise
reduction was needed. I then marked the sound profile at 4s and used the
analysis spectrum function to find the observed frequency. This was done by
finding the peak of the spectrum as seen in figure 8. This value was recorded in
a data table in Excel next to the corresponding value for the real velocity.
I repeated this process 5 times for 5 different velocities of the cart. The velocity
was chosen from the maximum and minimum speed the motor could provide
the smart cart.
I could then calculate the the velocity of the cart with the formula found in the
theory :
V w − V w ×r
Vs = r
3.2.2 Finding the displacement of the cart
To calibrate the distance measurements, I used the

standard candle method. A light bulb was first placed on
top of the smart cart from a known distance of 0.5 meters,
as in figure 9. From a distance of 0 a Pasco light sensor,
connected to Capstone, was placed.
The light was then turned off and a magnifying glass,

representing a telescope, was used to concentrate the light
into the sensor as seen in figure 11.
13
The light intensity in percentage could at that point be recorded in capstone as

seen in figure 12.
The cart was then moved to a distance of 1 meter, and the

light intensity was again recorded in excel as seen in the
raw data. By knowing d and B, L was then found from both
measurements.
Next I moved the cart to an unknown distance, and took a

picture as seen in figure 10. Then I measured the light
intensity to calculate the distance the cart was away.
I afterwards used the average value of L found to calculate the distance of the
cart in figure 10. I then measure the x by photo analysis in Logger Pro. From
knowing the distance and the x, I could find k by saying d × x . Thereby I had
calibrated the other pictures, like when measuring the distance to a galaxy.
14
By using Logger pro I then inserted the picture from figure 10, and used picture
analysis to find the length of the smart cart. By knowing the distance d and x I
could use this to find the constant k, and thereby scale the other pictures of the
cart from the experiment in 3.2.1
Using the videos taken in the experiment in 3.2.1, it was possible to find the
exact place where the cart had been moving for 4 s, by looking at the computer
screen recording sound in the corner (as seen in figure 13). I then took a
screenshot of the video and found x from picture analysis in Logger Pro as seen
in figure 13. I did this for all 25 videos and recorded the value of x in table 3
seen in raw data.
3.3 Administering controlled variables
To be sure that the time travelled by the cart was the same each time I looked at
the computer recording of the sound, at which the time of the recording could
be seen. To be sure that the temperature was the same during the experiment, I
did the experiment at the same place and time, and monitored the temperature
throughout the experiment. By using the same material of cart and track, these
variables were controlled.
To be sure that the speaker was emitting the same frequency, the same sound
file was played from my phone each time.
15
4. Results:
4.1 Raw data
The observed frequencies obtained from Audacity:
The value of x found in Logger Pro:
The values of light intensity used to calculate L:
16
4.2 Processed data
In order to calculate the velocity from the observed frequencies I first found the
average frequency for each velocity, and its uncertainty using:
M AX −M IN
2
I then took found the ratio of average observed frequency and the emitted
800Hz
V w − V w ×r
I could then use V s = r to calculate the velocity of the cart, by taking
the speed of the wave as 340m/s.
I then took the average value of x for each velocity and calculated the distance
by using the formula:
k
d= x
M AX −M IN
By then using 2
I then calculated the uncertainty in x and d.
17
5. Discussion and analysis:
Logger Pro was used to plot the best fit line of v vs. d, which gave a gradient of
3.070 m/s/m. This is the same way as Hubble plotted his observations, to find
the relationship between galaxies distance from Earth and their velocity.
The steepest and least steepest lines were then plotted manually in Logger pro,
using the calculated uncertainties. This gives gradients of 3.773 m2 s−1 and
2.078 m2 s−1 , which is quite far from the predicted 0.25 m2 s−1 . From the results
the “age of the Universe” can be calculated:
18
1
"age of universe" = 2.078 m2 s−1
= 0.48 s
The real “ age of the Universe” is 4s, the time before the cart started driving, so
the “age of the Universe” found from the experiment is way too young.
Nevertheless, from these results it can be seen that there is a clear linear
relationship between the distance the cart travelled and its velocity, just as
Hubble's found from his analysis, and as predicted in the hypothesis.
6. Conclusion:
From the result and the analysis of the data it can be concluded that it is possible
to model Hubble's law, but with quite uncertain results for the velocity. The
model shows a clear correlation between the velocity of an object and the
distance it is away from its start point after a given time, as Hubble's law. That
means that to some extent the complex concept of Hubble's law can be
understood and explained from the model.
7. Evaluation:
As mentioned in the analysis and conclusion, the experiment seemed to model
Hubble's law quite well. However, the results obtained, surprisingly even
though carried out carefully, had many sources of uncertainty, which is the
reason my calculated “age of the Universe” was 0.48s and not 4s.
First of all, the values for the cart's velocities were way bigger than the real
velocity of the cart, which was found from Capstone. (see figure 7) The reason
for this is an uncertainty in the measure of the change in frequency. The
program, Audacity, gives the frequencies to nearest whole numbers, which
makes a huge difference when calculating the velocity. This is because a change
in frequency of 1 Hz gives a difference in velocity of around 0.4m/s.
19
This might not sound like a lot, but as the range of velocities is 0.1 to 0.5, a
small variation in velocity can cause big uncertainties. To solve this problem,
either a program with more precise measurements could be used, or bigger
velocities and a bigger range of velocities could have been used.
However, the values for the velocities calculated from the experiment differ
much more from the real velocities than by 0.5 m/s. For example the value
calculated for the velocity of the smart cart driving with a velocity of 0.195 m/s
is 1.709 m/s. Because this is the case for all the values, it suggested that there is
a systematic error in measuring the frequency. To figure this out, I tried playing
the 800Hz from the speaker on the cart driving past the computer. This should
not lead to any change in frequency,since the cart is not travelling towards or
away from the computer microphone. So by doing this I could test if the sounds
from the cart, caused by the motor and the wheels, had any impact on the
results, even though noise reduction was used.
From figure 14 it can be seen that the value obtained is 2 Hz too low. This
shows that there is systematic error in the measurements of the frequency,
causing the gradient of the graph to be way bigger than it should.
By then adding 2 Hz to the average frequencies obtained, the data becomes
more accurate, but it is still far from perfect.
20
Again this is because the difference between the different velocities was not big
enough and the velocities were too small.
This could suggest that there also was a big uncertainty in Sliphers
measurements of velocity. However, they did not use the doppler shift of sound
but the redshift of light, which is more accurate, as light has a much higher
velocity than sound. Also, the apparent velocity of a galaxy is way bigger than
the one used in my model, which increases the accuracy of Slipher and Hubble's
data. Hubble's law when found in the 1920's also had huge uncertainties.
Actually, his uncertainties were so big that his calculated age of the Universe
was less than the age of the sun. But with recent technological advancements,
the uncertainty of Hubble's law has now been reduced to less than 2 procent.9
Another thing that could cause an uncertainty in my experiment is the

measurement of distance. Nevertheless my value calculated of distance turned
out to be quite accurate, when comparing it to the real value for distance after 4s
recorded by Capstone. In comparison, in Hubble's law the measure of distance
is what is causing uncertainty in finding Hubble's constant. This is due to the
fact that Hubble used small images from his telescope, and assumed the
galaxies to be the same size.10 However, I used the same cart, and therefore I
could be sure it was the same size.
9
https://hubblesite.org/hubble-30th-anniversary/hubbles-exciting-Universe/measuring-the-Universes-e
xpansion-rate
10
xpansion-rate
21
However even today there is a disagreement about the value of Hubble's

constant. This is because measurements of the early Universe, found from the
cosmic microwave background and direct measurements from the nearby
Universe are in disagreement with each other. This is implying that there is an
incomplete understanding of Hubble's law.11
Finally it should be considered that my experiment is a model of Hubble's law,

meaning that it is a simplified version of reality. Hubble's law of course is more
complex than what has been done in the experiment, though my model is able to
find the same trend between velocity and distance as Hubble's states.
11
xpansion-rate
22
8. Bibliography
- Pasco, wireless smart cart, (2016), [webside], available at:
https://www.pasco.com/products/smart-cart
- Audacity, (2021) [Audiosoftware], available at:

https://www.audacityteam.org/
- Khan academy, Doppler effect formula when source is moving away

(2010), [web], available at:
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/mechanical-waves-and-so
und/doppler-effect/v/doppler-effect-formula-when-source-is-moving-awa
y
- Think IB, Activity: Expanding Universe, [webside] available at:

https://www.thinkib.net/physics/page/20164/activity-expanding-Universe
- Think IB, Activity: Doppler, [webside] available at:

https://www.student.thinkib.net/physics/page/19522/activity-doppler
- Brydensholt, Morten, Orbit B STX, (2017), [book]
- Yale National Initiative, The Use of Astronomy to Teach Statistical

Concepts, [web], available at:
https://teachers.yale.edu/curriculum/viewer/initiative_05.04.09_u
- Nasa, Hubble's exciting Universe: measuring the Universe's expansion

rate, [web] available at:
https://hubblesite.org/hubble-30th-anniversary/hubbles-exciting-Universe
/measuring-the-Universes-expansion-rate
- Astroeud, street lights as standard candles, [web] available at:

https://astroedu.iau.org/en/activities/1535/street-lights-as-standard-candle
s/
- Wikipedia, Vesto slipher, (2021), [web], available at:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesto_Slipher
23

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IB Physics Extended Essay

Hubble with a bubble (car)

Hubble's law and the expansion of the Universe

Word count: 3703

1.1 Hubble's law and the expansion of Universe

1.2 Why Model Hubble's law

1.3 Research question

1.3.1 Constructed research question for experiment

2.1 The doppler effect

2.2 Measuring distance

2.3 Hubble's law

3.2 Experimental method

3.2.1 Finding the velocity by using the doppler effect

3.2.2 Finding the displacement of the cart

3.3 Administering controlled variables

4.1 Raw data

4.2 Processed data

5. Discussion and analysis

1.1 Hubble's law and the expansion of the Universe

1.2 Why model Hubble's law ?

have been used as a class experiment to enhance the understanding of this

1.3 Research question:

1.3.2 Constructed research question for experiment:

2.1 The doppler effect

First of all, it is important to understand the doppler effect, as it is the method

The distance between point 1 and 2 must the be:

Where T s is the time period of the emitted wave.

Where V w is the velocity of the emitted wave. (340m/s in air)

That means that the speed of the source will be

Looking at figure 3, it is shown how light emitted from a galaxy moving

By using absorption lines Hubble, could observe the difference in λ . As every

Where c is the speed of light.

2.2 Measuring distance

Any object with a known luminosity is referred to as a standard candle, in

If the real luminosity of a source is known, its distance can be estimated by

2.3 Hubble's law

By inserting this observational data of velocity and distance, into a diagram

The relationship between velocity and distance is linear and

Where H is Hubble's constant:

If a galaxy traveling with constant velocity is distance d away, divided by its

That means the Universe is approximately 13.2 billion years old.

- Velocity of smart cart

- The distance travelled at a given time

3.2 Experimental method

3.2.1 Calculating the velocity from the doppler effect.

Afterwards I recorded the observed frequency from the computer after 4

3.2.2 Finding the displacement of the cart

To calibrate the distance measurements, I used the

The light was then turned off and a magnifying glass,

The light intensity in percentage could at that point be recorded in capstone as

The cart was then moved to a distance of 1 meter, and the

Next I moved the cart to an unknown distance, and took a

3.3 Administering controlled variables

The observed frequencies obtained from Audacity:

The value of x found in Logger Pro:

The values of light intensity used to calculate L:

4.2 Processed data

5. Discussion and analysis:

Another thing that could cause an uncertainty in my experiment is the

However even today there is a disagreement about the value of Hubble's

Finally it should be considered that my experiment is a model of Hubble's law,

- Audacity, (2021) [Audiosoftware], available at:

- Khan academy, Doppler effect formula when source is moving away