IDEOGRAPHIC VERSUS NOMOTHETIC

EXPLANATIONS

Let’s assume that a social scientist is interested in

understanding why a particular outcome, let’s say Y,
occurs within society. In other words, “What causes Y?”

A scientist using an ideographic approach would

take one case in which Y occurred (or a very limited
number of occurrences of Y) and then do a thorough
investigation of the events and circumstances that led
to that occurrence of Y.

A scientist using a nomothetic approach would

gather as many examples as possible and feasible of
the occurrence of Y, then search for common
patterns that might reveal the general circumstances
under which Y occurs.
 AN IDIOGRAPHIC APPROACH TO THE
STUDYING OF LYNCHING

Howard Smead. Blood Justice: The Lynching of Charles

Mack Parker (1986, Oxford University Press).

Strength: Rich and Detailed Description

• the social environment within which the

lynching occurred,

• beliefs and attitudes of a wide range of

community members,

• the possible motivation of mob members,

• the performance of the local police, and

• the behavior of the victim that may have

precipitated the lynching.

Weakness: Questionable Generalizability

 A NOMOTHETIC APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF
LYNCHING

LYNCH VICTIMS IN TEN SOUTHERN STATES, 1882-1930*

GENDER OF VICTIM
VICTIM’S
RACE Males Females Unknown Total

Black 2,364 74 24 2,462

White 283 5 0 288
Other 5 0 0 5
Unknown 49 0 1 50
___________________________________________

Total 2,701 79 25 2,805

Strength: More Representative of all Lynchings

Weakness: Statistical Information at Expense of Rich Detail About

Specific Incidents

* Source: Stewart Tolnay and E.M. Beck. 1995. A Festival of Violence: An Analysis of
Southern Lynchings, 1882-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, P. 269. Ten
Southern States: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi,
North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee.
 WHAT IS THEORY?

“A logically interrelated set of propositions about empirical

reality. Examples of social theories: structural
functionalism, conflict , and symbolic interactionism.”
[Investigating the Social World, Russell K. Schutt (1999,
Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, p. 35)]

“A systematic explanation for the observations that relate a

particular aspect of life: juvenile delinquency, for example,
or perhaps social stratification or political revolution.”
[The Basics of Social Research, Earl Babbie (1999,
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, p. 460)]

“...a theory is a set of related propositions that suggest why

events occur in the manner that they do.” [The Elements
of Social Scientific Thinking, Kenneth R. Hoover (1988,
New York: St. Martin’s Press, p. 34)]

“Theories provide explanations for why society is structured

and organized as it is, or for why certain types of social
behavior occur. Though inherently broad, and not directly
testable, theories are used by social researchers to form
hypotheses that predict how measurable sociological
variables are related to one another. Empirical research
determines whether theory-driven hypotheses are accurate.
If they are, then the theory has been supported. If they are
not, then the results of the research can lead to the revision
or refinement of the theory.” [Stew Tolnay, sometime before
today.]
 TYPES OF SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY

“GRAND THEORY”

• broad perspectives for explaining and interpreting

many dimensions of society and a wide variety of
social behaviors

• Structural Functionalism
< “Organic” model
< Emphasis on consensus and how social
arrangements foster the smooth functioning of
society
< For example: the existence of economic
stratification

• Conflict
< Emphasis on competition over scarce
resources: Wealth, Power, Status
< Social arrangements emerge from Conflict not
Consensus

“MIDDLE RANGE THEORY”

• Explain and interpret a more specific variety of

societal arrangements or social behaviors
• May be a more specific application of a “Grand
Theory”
• For example: Deterrence Theory
THEORIES OF RESIDENTIAL ATTAINMENT

Spatial Assimilation Theory: Individuals or

families with greater human capital (e.g., more
education, income, occupational prestige, cultural
adaptation) are more successful at obtaining
residence in a city’s more affluent neighborhoods.

Place Stratification Theory: Some racial and

ethnic minorities, especially African Americans, will
have less success than non-hispanic whites at
translating higher socioeconomic status into
residence in preferred urban neighborhoods.
 Spatial Assimilation Model of Residential Attainment

Residential
Human Capital Attainment
DEDUCTIVE VERSUS INDUCTIVE APPROACHES
TO RESEARCH

A deductive approach to social research begins with a

general proposition, included in a theory, which states
how two or more theoretical concepts are related to each
other (e.g., human capital and residential attainment). It
then converts the general proposition into a more specific
research hypothesis that predicts the relationship between
two observable, and measurable, variables. Research is
then conducted to test the research hypothesis and,
therefore, the theory (though only indirectly).

An inductive approach to social research begins when

specific observations (e.g., relationships) from a variety
of studies are used to identify a general, overarching
pattern. That pattern is then used to fashion a general
theoretical perspective, or to modify an existing
perspective, that accounts for the observations
Relationships Between Neighborhood and Person Characteristics

Employment
Of Person X
% Non-
Education
Hispanic White
Of Person X
In Neighborhood
Income
Of Person X

Employment
Of Person X
Median
Education
Family Income
Of Person X
In Neighborhood
Income
Of Person X
Revision to Spatial Assimilation Model of Neighborhood Attainment
Resulting from Inductive Reasoning

Human Capital

Neighborhood
Characteristics

Race/Ethnicity
Revised Relationships Between Neighborhood and Person Characteristics
Based on Inductive Evidence for Place Stratification Model

Employment
Of Person X

Median Family
Education
Income in
Of Person X
Neighborhood

Income
Of Person X

Race
Of Person X
 Inductive and Deductive Approaches

Deductive Process

Theory Hypothesis Observations Generalization

Inductive Process

Observations Generalization Theory

 IDENTIFYING THE UNITS OF ANALYSIS

Questions to Ask:

T For what kinds of units are my variables measured?

Or, what units do they describe the characteristics of?

T Across what units do my variables vary in

magnitude, level, degree, etc.?

Some Practice:

‘ I’d like to be able to develop a model that explains

why some states have higher homicide rates than
other states.

‘ A recent survey of American voters shows that

George Bush’s job approval rating is higher among
men than among women.

‘ A study shows that editorials in southern newspapers

are more likely to support the welfare policies
advocated by the Republican Party than similar
editorials in northern newspapers.

‘ In a sample of traffic stops by the Washington State

Patrol it is found that the cars of black drivers are
more likely to be searched than the cars of white
drivers.
ECOLOGICAL AND REDUCTIONIST FALLACIES

UNITS OF ANALYSIS

CONCLUSIONS Individuals Groups

ABOUT

Individuals CORRECT ECOLOGICAL

FALLACY

Groups REDUCTIONIST CORRECT

FALLACY

Ecological Fallacies occur when evidence based on

groups is used to draw conclusions about individuals.
While the conclusions may be correct, the inferential
process is faulty.

Reductionist Fallacies occur when evidence based on

individuals is used to draw conclusions about groups.
While the conclusions may be correct, the inferential
process is faulty.
 CROSS-SECTIONAL VS. LONGITUDINAL
RESEARCH DESIGNS

Cross-Sectional Approach

Advantages: Lots of data sets available

Easy to analyze
Useful for testing hypotheses

Disadvantage: Limited ability to untangle cause

and effect

Longitudinal Approaches

Advantage: More useful for causal inferences

Disadvantages: More difficult to collect data

More difficult to analyze data
 LONGITUDINAL APPROACHES

Trend Studies: Make observations for the same variable(s),

but not necessarily the same individuals, at
several different points in time.

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6

Cohort Studies: Gather information from the same birth

cohorts over time, but not necessarily from
the same individuals within birth cohorts.

1975 2000 2025

X15-30 X40-55 X65-80

Panel Studies: Collect information from the same

individuals for more than one point in time.

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Xi1 Xi2 Xi3 Xi4 Xi5 Xi6

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Primary Purposes

i Provide historical or conceptual background for a

topic

i Help to identify questions for future research

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Primary Purposes

i Describe basic temporal patterns in a sociological

phenomenon

i Describe basic cross-sectional patterns in a

sociological phenomenon

i Help to identify questions for future research

EXPLANATORY RESEARCH

Primary Purposes

i Explain temporal variation in a sociological

phenomenon

i Explain cross-sectional variation in a sociological

phenomenon

i Test sociological theories

i Identify questions for future research

 Percent of U.S. Population Favoring Capital Punishment
For Murder, 1972 - 1998

80 & & &

& && & & & & &
& &
& & & & &
& &
&
75 & & & & &
&
&
&
& & &
70 & &
&&

& &
65 & &
&
&

60 &

&

55
1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1998
Year
Causal Model for Explaining Race Differences in
Support for the Death Penalty

Support for
Race
? Death Penalty
VARIATION IN SUPPORT FOR THE DEATH PENALTY
BY RACE AND GENDER (1996 GSS)

RACE

OPINION White Black Total

Favor 78.26 49.86 74.05

(1,616) (179) (1,795)

Oppose 21.74 50.14 25.95

(449) (180) (629)

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00

(2,065) (359) (2,424)

GENDER

OPINION Male Female Total

Favor 78.68 69.07 73.34

(908) (998) (1,906)

Oppose 21.32 30.93 26.66

(246) (447) (693)

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00

(1,154) (1,445) (2,599)