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Making Sense of RSC Summary for MQ

Research and Theories

Person of Authority
All grade ten learners agree with their educator that the earth is round = authority.
(Learners accept uncritically what an authority figure tells them.)

Research results obtained by a person of authority must be: ONLY accepted if

it withstands critical scrutiny.

Selective Observation
The different accounts of people having witnessed something can be ascribed
to: selective observation.

Selective inquiry
“As a researcher, I look for evidence that support the pattern in data I want to
demonstrate”.
Which potential error in human inquiry is applicable in this statement?

Selective: because the researcher is looking for particular cases to support

his assumptions or tentative findings

Cross-sectional Research

 Research structured in nature refers to the nature of questionnaires.

 Cross-sectional research is nonrecurrent - no identical project will be done after
a specific period of time.
 Cross-sectional studies are comprehensive, in-depth studies and not
repeatable.

Operationalization:

 The procedure followed to make an abstract construct empirically testable.

 A process linked to conceptualisation.
 Although operationalisation is essential to demonstrate causality between
variables, it is not a determinant of causality.

Potential Errors in Human Inquiry:

 Inaccurate observation: Possible subjectivity and bias.

 Over-generalisations: Selective research.
 Selectively: Looking for a specific case.
 Ego: Own Pride and Self-Worth
 Premature Closure: Stopped too early.

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“Interpretivists argue that social reality is inherently meaningful. People have

the ability to interpret a situation and decide how to act in response to this
situation.

Media Myths
People’s dependence on media presentations to understand things is an
example of: media myths

Mysticism and religion

A boy convinces his family members that a strange cat visiting their home daily is
a sign of a tragedy that is about to happen. = Mysticism and Religion.

Religious views based on sacred texts.

Identify the epistemological statement/question:

concerned with the nature of knowledge.

1) social reality and natural reality can be studied in the same way.
2) Are there subjective choices in the selection of a research problem?
3) Can social scientists in their quest for answers to questions be truly unbiased?
4) Can social scientists obtain objective knowledge on phenomena?

A construction of meaning: People have the ability to interpret a situation

and decide how to act in response to this situation.

An Inductive process is moving from observations or data towards

generalisations, hypotheses and theory.
Statements can build a theory.

In social science research induction is the process…

 Through which theory is built.
 Through which general statements are derived from specific evidence.

A Deductive process is when a researcher use a report in which he first gives

an overview of the mass media as a source of information and then deals with an
analysis of specific media preferences by respondents.

Positivists:

In the context of positivism, value freedom implies that:

 Positivists distance themselves in research from their own values

 Objective findings can be made about social reality

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 Objectivity is pursued by using standardized research procedures

 Positivists believe that social reality can be discovered.
 Positivists claim it is crucial that researchers approach social reality in a
neutral, value-free, detached and systematic way.

Value-freedom: researchers’ personal values do not influence the collection of

data

Positivist Approach : “objective knowledge” and “causal relationships”

“This approach emphasises the importance of objective knowledge about

causal relationships.”

Theories in the social sciences?

 Theory = Speculation.
 Concepts identify and describe phenomena

 Theories can describe or explain a phenomenon

 The level of abstraction of theories can differ
 Theories guide research
 Theory and research are inseparable

In social science, theory …

 is used to provide an explanation for social phenomena

 specifies the relationships between key concepts
 organises and systematises ideas
 suggests what kind of facts we should be looking for in research

The following statements are true with regard to theories in the

social sciences.

 Theories can describe or explain a phenomenon

 The level of abstraction of theories can differ
 Theories guide research

The following statements regarding the nature of theory is/are

correct.

 Theories consist of relationships between concepts that provide explanations

for phenomena.
 Theoretical development often occurs in order to keep pace with a changing
world.
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Critical social scientists and feminist researchers

 May use the same data-collection method

 Are both opposed to what they believe to be oppressive social structures.

Alienation:
The concept that reflects the highest level of abstraction? Alienation

 The higher the level of abstraction, the more its applicable.

 The opposite of abstract (bigger picture) is concrete (focused detail).

Hypothesis

If a negative relationship exists between variables in a hypothesis, it implies

that: As the value of one variable decreases, the other value increases in value.

Positive - both variables change in the same direction.

(High population = High Crime)

 Example: The higher the level of education, the more liberal the political
outlook. (Education & Political outlook can be tested).

# How to know when something is Hypothesis?

Ask yourself:
 Are two or more variables related to each other and is the statement testable?
 Is the relationship between the variables is specified?
= If this is done, it suggests a more comprehensive hypothesis.

The scope of a theory:

 Increases as the level of abstraction increases

 Refers to the generalizability of the theory

Identify the statement(s) that has/have the potential to be a social law:

If we exert less force on an object, it will move slower
The suicide rate decreases as the level of social integration increases

Social laws is probabilities rather than certainties.

In social science basic research:

1) support or reject theories
2) explain social relationships
3) interpret changes in communities
4) enhance new scientific knowledge
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Frequency distribution in chronological order:

1) List the categories.
2) Mark the tallies that applies.
3) Count the totals.

Cross sectional studies concentrate on the here and now of the problem
being investigated.
Cross-sectional survey=election/voting
Information is collected at one point in time.

Longitudinal Study

A longitudinal study is collecting information at different times over a

longish/specific period of time.

Which of the following types of research can be classified as

longitudinal research?
 Panel studies
 Cohort studies
 Time-series research

Panel Studies: the same people or groups are investigated over various
periods of time.

Cohort Studies: a certain category of people with the same life experiences
which occurred over a period of time, is researched.

Time-series research: the researcher studies what happened to people over

a period of time. Information is collected at a specific point in time.

Conducting Research
A student conducts research. She wants to give an accurate profile of the
respondents, provide information about the phenomenon and describe
successive phases that occured. She is conducting a descriptive research.

Descriptive - To describe everything - descriptive research.

Exploratory - To explore the how and experiences. When a certain field or

topic in the social sciences is investigated.

Explanatory - To determine the reasons why. To determine causality is not

specifically linked to exploratory research where new phenomena are explored.

Correlational - To determine the relationship between compliances.

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Main point of criticism against basic research is that it does not:

Provide short term practical solutions.

Unobtrusive observations (in field research) occur when:

The reason for a researcher's presence is not known to the group being observed.
They don’t know why they are being observed and this makes data more objective.

Quantitave Research
Quantitative research aims to provide an explanation of phenomena, and
more structured and controlled methods are used in this process

A characteristic of quantitative research is that the findings accept or reject

theoretical propositions.

Quantitative Research: Generalisation, accept or reject theoretical

propositions.

 In quantitative research the person is called the respondent.

Eclectic means that data should be at the heart of every key marketing, media,
creative and communication strategy. It’s the approach to problem solving and
always shows results and data.

Qualitative Research
In qualitative research he or she is called the subject or participant.

# Research that involves a holistic investigation in a natural

setting, is called Qualitative research.
Qualitative research studies people holistically within unique and meaningful
situations and interactions, and all the elements within the particular context are
taken into account.

Qualitative data is examined to make more sense of it and understand it more

clearly. (Break up in pieces, organise, etc.)

Qualitative data analysis refers to:

Nonnumerical processes of examining and interpreting of data - in order to elicit
meaning, gain understanding, and develop empirical knowledge.

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Qualitative data analysis – Making sense of the data, breaking it up,

organising it, searching for patterns so that you can understand it and decide what
is of quality to tell others.

Qualitative researchers:

Label the perspectives of participants, count the number of perspectives and

express them as frequencies and percentages.

In practice, when does the process of qualitative data analysis

tends to commence? (At the end when everything is clear and no new
information shows)
Once data saturation becomes noticeable.

Saturation: When multiple interviews have been conducted and observations

have been made and patterns and themes start, or no new information emerges,
the data are then said to have achieved “saturation”.

Different Types of Research

Social-impact Research
Social-impact research aims to evaluate the consequences of social change.
It is used to evaluate:

 Demographic consequences (e.g. migration),

 Health matters (e.g. impact of health programmes)
 Environment (e.g. preservation of old buildings).

# Example: Type of research can be used to conduct a study on the

migration of people from rural areas to cities, health matters or preserving
old buildings.

Action research
The elements that are studied actually take part in the research process itself.

Evaluation research
Value judgements are established based on evidence.

Basic research

Used to enhance basic/fundamental knowledge about social reality.

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Literature Reviews:
In Iiterature, the process of qualitative data analysis is descnbed as:

 nonlinear
 a lengthy process

When writing a journal article, theoretical background to the research should be

located in the:

Literature review.

Premature Closure
Premature closure occurs if research is ended before all the relevant aspects have
been studied. Increasing the time dedicated to the study should therefore help
avoid this problem.

Premature closing of enquiry can be avoided by …

 Carefully studying published research results and current thinking on a
specific subject matter.
 Planning for more time in which to research a problem.

Proper literature survey will indicate the complexity of our research problem and
therefore all the published research needs to be studied to prevent premature
closing.

Overgeneralisation
It is concluded that if HIV incidence amongst students at this university is
low it should also be the case at other universities.

Overgeneralisation means reaching a conclusion about something when we

have only observed a few cases of that thing.

Behavioural Norms
Communalism
In a report of a survey conducted among prisoners, the researcher neglects to
state how the sample of respondents was drawn = communality.

Communality - To accurately report/share the methods, purpose, motives and

consequences of research.

Universalism
Research is judged only on scientific merit – it doesn’t matter who or where it was
done.

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"The norm of universalism has been honoured for a given project when all
research, including its means, ends, motives and consequences can be evaluated
according to predetermined standards set by a scholarly community".

Disinterestedness
Scientists must be neutral, impartial and open to new ideas.
They should accept and look for evidence contrary to their own beliefs and views.

Organised Scepticism
Researchers challenge and question data.
They accept it if it can stand up to examination.

Honesty and Respect

Essential behavior.

Commonality
“The principle of ..commonality / ethics.. compels all researchers to share their
research findings, including means, ends, motives and consequences, freely and
honestly with all other members of the research community”

Hawthorne effect – Reactive Effect

When the Hawthorne effect occurs during a research study, this effect will
influence: Internal validity

Hawthrone effect: The research will have less internal validity if participants
respond in an atypical manner because they know they are part of the study.
(They behave differently because they know they’re being observed)

How to differentiate between Research Design

# Case study: an in-depth investigation into the characteristics of a small

number of cases over a specific period of time.
Example: Each ex-nurse’s reasons for leaving the profession, is thus important.

# Experiment: the cause-effect relationship between variables by

manipulating/changing the situation.
Example - The ex-nurses have already left the profession. There was no deliberate
action on the part of the researcher (no ‘treatment’ was applied).

# Quasi-experiments: studies where two groups are used with the aim to
establish cause-effect relationships without applying randomisation.
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# Cohort research: investigating people as a whole in order to determine its

most important characteristics.

Ethics

Ethics: Certain standards according to a particular group or community.

# Professions like nursing, teaching, psychology, etc. have a professional
Code of Conduct to regulate and justify behaviors.

# “Impressionable children are exposed to visual violence in television

messages.” = the principle that was being disregarded is that of freedom from
harm.

# Red herring is a distraction or misleading clue, which is false or does not apply
in a particular context.

Which factor can pose a risk to respondents’/participants' right to privacy

when conducting research?

 the sensitivity of the information

 the place where the research is conducted
 how public we are going to make our research findings

The 4 situations when Judging Ethics:

Method – Is it ethical? Human rights – Get permission first to protect privacy.

Purpose – Reason for research.

Motives/Intentions – not allowed to do it for personal gain.

Consequences/Effects – Do no Harm – Must not cause any physical discomfort,

emotional stress, humiliation or embarresment.

Consent in Ethics:
Direct consent: Person personally involved in research.

Substitude consent: (3rd party) – If the person doesn’t have cognitive or

emotional capacity to give consent (like children or retarded people).

The Requirements to get consent:

Person’s ability: Can understand and evaluate what is said to make an informed
decision.
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Voluntariness: Person must give consent voluntarily – not forced, deceived or

threathened.

Information: All relevant details must be clearly explained and understood.

Confidentiality agreement: To protect anonymity.

A researcher undertake not to publicly link a respnse or behavior with a particular
participant.

# Observing people in their natural environment is an invasion of their privacy.

# Observing people in a public setting needs no prior consent.

The human rights of research participants include the following:

 not causing someone any harm;
 obtaining direct or substitute consent;
 ensuring that participants have the legal capacity to give consent;
 voluntary participation;
 avoiding deception; and
 ensuring participants’ privacy, confidentiality, and anonymity.

Unethical practice
Example: A hidden camera when conducting a face-to-face interview.
Protect privacy – don’t invade it.
Voluntary consent must be given.

Four situational factors that apply when we make judgements

about ethics in research:
 the methods we use to collect data
 the goal of the research study
 our intentions as researchers
 the consequences of the research

Anonymity
Which ethical requirement is met by the following?
A researcher shows sensitivity by not revealing the names of tuberculosis patients
in a published report. = anonymity.

Research Design

Experimental Group = Receives Treatment (Councelling)

Control Group = No Treatment (Councelling)

Survey Research = Selective Groups answers questions.

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The factors that should be taken into account to ensure that the
research design is coherent:

 The purpose and use of the research

 The research paradigm is one of the aspects that should be considered for
design coherence.
 The data-colIecilon and data-analysis techniques (must fit together logically).

Researcher expectancy.
Suppose a researcher has an expectation about how a study will turn out, and
the study does in fact turn out that way because of his beliefs.

Regression effect refers to a tendency of extreme scores to move towards the

average when retesting.

Violent criminals watching a violent movie doesn’t make them more violent if they
are tested again afterwards.

Selection of subjects to be assigned to a specific group could be bias

towards the study.
A rugby team is different from a choir-group.

Paradigm that influences research design includes theoretical assumptions.

Mortality in research is when some subjects drop out before it is completed.
Selection in research must be from a larger group.
Reactive effect is like the Hawthorne effect.

True experimental designs is where researchers manipulates treatment

conditions and decides who receives it.

Time-series designs is a series of measurements over time that is interrupted

by intervention. It uses only a sinlge sampling unit.

Pre-experimental design Manipulation of treatment conditions – one group.

Post-test only control group design – When a researcher has only one
experimental group and one control group.
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Quasi-experimental design – Researcher aims to establish the cause-effect

relationship. Only one group is studied, and not two as in the 'true' experiment.

Questions

Ontological question.
Ontological questions deal with the assumptions that are made about the nature
(characteristics) of the subject matter that is studied.

Ontology deals with theories of reality and the subject matter studied.
 Is human behaviour predominantly unpredictable and arbitrary?

Ontological focuses on how entities came to be, their existence and reality.
Concerns social reality.
Epistemological Questions
Epistemological questions deal with assumptions that are made about the nature
(characteristics) of knowledge.
In the context of research, this implies the question of what the nature
(characteristics) of scientific knowledge is.

 Epistemology deals with theories of knowledge (how we know).

Contingency Question
A questionnaire where some respondents are required to answer and others are
required to ignore them. = Contingency questions

(Apply only to some so it needs clear instructions)

Survey:

A researcher distributes a questionnaire to a sample of ex-nurses in an attempt

to discover their reasons for leaving the profession. This research design is best
described as a/an …Survey.

1) Ranking questions – Rank/Ordering from least to most according to

respondents preferences.

2) Filter questions – Closed-ended questions with fixed number of answers.

3) Inventory questions – Comprehensive overview that applies to each

correspondent.

4) Paired comparison questions – More descriptive information.

5) Multiple choice questions – Choose most likely option.

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6) Free-narration questions – Tells/Narrate own story.

7) Open-questions – Express emotions, opinions and experiences.

8) Follow-up questions – Probing questions to gain more information.

Self-administered questionaire
This statement is to be used in a self-administered questionnaire. It is
problematic because it is a lengthy statement.

Some groups accept that all television news items are literally true while others
believe that news should be interpreted contextually.

(Lengthy questions and statements must always be avoided)

Interviews

Open-ended, in-depth Interviews

Open-ended, in-depth interviews = Share thoughts and experiences to obtain
detail = ensure reliability by maintaining a proper scientific distance from the
research participants.

# When you conduct an unstructured interview in a respondent’s home …

= It minimises control over intervening variables.

Interview: Characteristic of qualitative designs – flexibility

A researcher investigates the experiences of victims of a natural disaster. She has
an in-depth, open interview with the victims, trying to understand the experiences
These interviews are then analysed in detail. = Flexibility

Flexibility:
 The idea is determined in advance, but further questions may be asked later.
 The interview is naturalistic and open.
 The analytic technique (experiences and perceptions) is specified in advance.

Determining causality: Casualty is the presence, absence or change of one

variable that determines the presence, absence or change of another.

 Temporal order – Cause and effect is observed.

 Association – Factors influencing a relationship.
 Elimination of alternatives – Changes in cause and effect is done.
 Logical reasoning – Rationale for cause and effect must be reasoned.
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Sampling

Random selection is used in cluster sampling.

A sample of 250 members is randomly selected from the data records of a

professional body. This is simple random sampling. (Most basic)

Bias in selection when sampling: Faulty technique (forgets age, etc)

A representative sample: reflects the crucial characteristics of a population.

It resembles the population and shows accurate results.

A researcher studying leadership selects 30 business practitioners to investigate

management practices.
= Purposive sampling.

Purposive or judgmental sampling (theoretical sampling) is when

the researcher selects a sample that can be judged to be representative of the
total population. (Hand-pick elements)

A researcher selects all the clients that enter a health clinic between 08h00 and
09h00. = Convenience sampling (easy access/availability)

Levels of measurement

Nominal = A survey is done to determine which websites men visit (such as

news), compared to women (such as health issues).

In an electronic questionnaire, internet users are asked to identify their gender

(male versus female) = nominal (Distinct)

Ordinal = ordering ranked data = behaviours, attitutudes, opinions.

Interval = Interval/Distance between variables = thermometer.

Ratio = Highest level = Weight, lenghth and time.

Equivalent-forms method
You have compiled a questionnaire to test how employees in one organisation feel
about new job evaluation and performance appraisal procedures.

Compiling two forms with the same phenomenon to get the equivalent.

Pre-test post-test control group

An advertising company wants to investigate if people will more likely buy a new
product when they know the advantages of the product, than before being
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informed. (Test one group before knowing and test the same group after
knowing). = One Group

Quasi-experimental group testing.

An advertising company wants to investigate if people will more likely buy a new
product when they know the advantages of the product, than before being
informed. (Test one group that gets the information of the advantages and test
another group not knowing them.) = Two groups

Split-half method = Split scale and score separately.

Standard deviation = original units of measurement.

Data Collection (Statistics – Frequencies)

Personal values and beliefs as a possible barrier to further

inquiry is guarded against by scientists:

 Rigorously testing hypotheses

 Sharing research results with fellow scientists

Cumulative frequency: number of scores below (or above) a certain value

The maximum possible score for an examination question paper in a specific
second-year module at Unisa is 75.

Which statistic would be useful if a lecturer wants to know how many students
scored below 40 on this paper? cumulative frequency.

Histogram: Intervals over a specific time that illustrates the

frequency distribution of numerical data.
A researcher is conducting a study on serious crimes. The relevant variable is
'type of crime' and the researcher obtains data on the number of crimes in a
specific area for a specified time period. She distinguishes between murder, armed
robbery and assault.

What type of graph would best display the frequency distribution

of the crimes?
A Histogram
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Measure(s} of central tendency:

 Mode: Scores that occurs the most - greatest frequency.

 Median: The score in the middle.

If it is an Odd number - the median is the middle number.
If it is an Even number – work out the average of the two middle numbers.

 Mean: The sum of the scores divided by the amount of the scores.

Correlation Coefficients (Statistics)

Positive correlation - an increase in one variable is associated with an

increase in the other.
Bigger Family – Bigger Expenses.

Negative correlation - as the value of one variable increases, the value of the
other one decreases.
The more you work – the less free time you have.

De-contextualising data analysis (Sifting)

Qualitative data analysis is about organising or de-contextualising the masses
of information during the process of data collection so that the themes/categories
and interpretations that emerge from this process address the problems and
questions of the research.

Re-contextualising data analysis (Change of Context)

Recontextualisation is a process that extracts text, signs or meaning from its

original context and reuses it in another context.

Identify the three primary functions of a research report. The

functions of a research report are to:
1) expand scientific understanding
2) point to areas needing further research
3) transfer scientific knowledge

The introduction to a research report should: (Final and Fourth Stage)

Be written after the body of the report has been completed.

Validity
The degree to which a scale measures what it is supposed to.

 Predictive Validity – The instruments ability to measure and predict.

 Concument Validity – Same as predictive, only one differene in procedure.
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 Content Validity – Degree the scale corresponds with the content domain.
 Construct Validity – Focuses on what is being measured.

What does “maturation” as a threat to the internal validity of a study refer to?

Maturation … is a threat to internal validity whereas generalisability has to do

with external validity.

 Maturation refers to changes within the subjects over time that affects the
dependent variable.
 It therefore requires measurement before and after the changes have taken
place.

“The Halo Effect” – (Physicists is always right)

The “halo effect” gets stature in the prominence of the physicist, who, according
the minister, is always correct in everything he gives an opinion on.

Identify the potential error in human inquiry the following example

illustrates.

The Minister of Education accepts the conclusion that academic support in higher
education is unnecessary because it is the viewpoint of an eminent physicist.
= “The Halo Effect”

Tutorial Letters – Mixed Random Info to read

Which of the following threats to internal validity is associated with a lack of
random assignment? – Selection Bias.

 Could lead to selection bias.

 Selection of respondents to be assigned to groups could bias the study if there
are important, unsuspected differences between the respondents in each
group.
 Equality.
 Random assignment of respondents to the groups ensures that every
respondent has an equal chance of being assigned to any group, and that the
groups will be equivalent as far as all possible variables are concerned.

After completing an experiment the researcher learns that she has unintentionally
influenced the behaviour of the subjects. This refers to …
 Researcher expectancy

Selecting every 20th patient attending clinic C in the month of April, is an example
of systematic sampling.
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Twenty-five people who lost a family member through suicide and who are
currently attending a support group, are referred to the researcher by other
members in the support group already in the sample. – Snowball-effect.

Data collection will be more costly when the sample size is large as it will have an
impact on the number of data collection instruments, for example, number of
copies of a questionnaire. It can also be costly in terms of time. – True

Ordinal level of Measurement uses an ordinal level of measurement, and

preferences (or intensity, or extent) that can be ranked in a particular order, such
as from the least to the most.

A literature review usually means that you have consulted several other sources,
such as journals and books. A literature review can therefore be regarded as
secondary data. In other words, a report that is based on a literature review,
moves the report further away from the original or primary sources, which makes
such a report an example of tertiary data.
Ethnographic research occurs when …

Is characterised by the researcher becoming involved with the social and other
activities of the group of participants being observed. The participants are
therefore aware of the researcher’s presence and reasons for his or her presence.

You want to determine the reasons why community health workers are
disgruntled in a specific geographic area. The most appropriate way in
which you would collect this information, is by using … in-depth interviews.

An advantage of using focus-group interviews is that... diverse opinions can

be obtained.

A bar chart is used to represent frequencies for categorical variables.

Which statement best defines the mean of a set of scores?

It defines the means, and option.

A doctor notices that some of his patients who received an injection against
flu still get ill. Which statistic would provide him with a helpful summary of
this trend? A percentage.

Which one of the following is NOT a characteristic of qualitative research?

It stresses the centrality of establishing causation in interpretation. Such a
nomothetic approach is characteristic of quantitative research. This option refers to
a characteristic which does NOT describe qualitative research.

Correlation co-efficients:
The process of induction, reflecting the grounded theory approach of qualitative
research.
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The importance of an idiographic approach, focussing on the contribution of case

studies.
Taking the context into consideration.
The role time and space plays in research. This can be linked to qualitative
researchers’ emphasis of sequence and process.
What pointers should you as a qualitative researcher keep in mind when
reading through the transcription of interviews conducted?
If the transcripts are too extensive, do not attempt to read them all at once. When
your mind starts to wander or you become impatient or start feeling uninterested, it
is time to pause.

When writing a research report for publication in a newspaper, we should

follow journalistic principles because… of practical constraints brought about
by editing requirements.

The introduction to a research report should … When writing the introduction to

a research report, your aim is to gain your reader’s attention. You can achieve this
by providing some information about the purpose, or goals, of the research you are
reporting on. You also use the introduction to establish your point of view on the
topic being researched.

The purpose of including the literature review in a research report is to

establish the status quo regarding understanding of your research problem.
This statement is …… is to summarise work already done in your field of study,
thus providing a conceptual framework from which you can design your own
research plan.

A literature review for a research report should … The purpose of a literature

review is to summarise work already done in your field of study, thus providing a
conceptual framework from which you can design your own research plan (see
your study guide.

When describing the method you used in a research report, we need to use
the... past tense when writing about the method we used in research because we
are describing events that occurred in the past.

Which one of the following factors will NOT influence your decision as a
researcher to obtain substitute consent to conduct a survey, instead of
direct consent?
Respondents’ … language preferences.

Which one of the following behavioural norms would mainly regulate your
response, from an ethical point of view, to the following request?

A government department requests you, as a psychologist, to forward a detailed

record of your patients’ problems and treatment over a six-months period.

= Respect (Respect the patients’ basic human and civil rights – first get consent)