Introduction To Art Therapy Research (By Lynn Kapitan)

Introduction
to Art Therapy
Research
Introduction
to Art Therapy
Research
Lynn Kapitan
New York London

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Kapitan, Lynn.
Introduction to art therapy research / by Lynn Kapitan.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-415-87147-1 (hardback : alk. paper)
1. Art therapy--Research. I. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Art Therapy. 2. Research--methods. WM 450.5.A8 K167i 2010]
RC489.A7K355 2010
616.89’1656--dc22 2009053529
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Dedication
I dedicate this book to my students, who taught me to be courageous in heart and

daring of mind, and to pursue the questions that truly matter.
The following abstracts appear in Chapter 9, Models of Good Research: Conducting
the Study and Reporting Results, and are reprinted with permission from Art Therapy:
Journal of the American Art Therapy Association:
Barbee, M. (2002). A visual-narrative approach to understanding transsexual identity. Art Therapy:

Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 19(2), 53–62.
Collie, K., & Cubranic, D. (1999). An art therapy solution to a telehealth problem. Art Therapy:
Doric-Henry, L. (1997). Pottery as art therapy with elderly nursing home residents. Art Therapy:
Henley, D. (2007). Henley, D. (2007). Naming the enemy: An art therapy intervention for children
with bipolar and comorbid disorders. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy
Association, 24(3), 104–110.
Kearns, D. (2004). Art therapy with a child experiencing sensory integration difficulty. Art
Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 21(2), 95–101.
Morgan, C. A., & Johnson, D. R. (1995). Use of a drawing task in the treatment of nightmares
in combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art
Therapy Association, 12(4), 244–247.
Pifalo, T. (2006). Art therapy with sexually abused children and adolescents: Extended research
study. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 23(4), 181–185.
Spaniol, S. (1998). Towards an ethnographic approach to art therapy research: People with psy-
chiatric disability as collaborators. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy
Association, 15(1), 29–37.
Spaniol, S. (2005). “Learned hopefulness”: An arts-based approach to participatory action
research. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, 22(2), 86–91.
Contents
About the Author xiii

Acknowledgments xv
Introduction to Art Therapy Research xvii

Research as a Creative Archetypal Process xviii
A Brief History of Art Therapy Research xix
Conversations Between Science and Art xxi
Organizational Premises and Goals of the Text xxiii
References xxvii
PART I OVERVIEW OF ART THERAPY RESEARCH 1
1 Art Therapy Research Ideas, Tools, and Steps in the Process 3

Designing a Research Study 4
Step One: Identifying the Research Question 5
Step Two: Developing the Problem Statement 10
Step Three: Review of the Literature 12
Step Four: Determining Methodology 15
Step Five: Tools and Resources for Conducting the Study 19
Statistics and the Value of Measurement 20
Valid and Reliable Instrumentation 21
Art as a Research Tool 21
The Clinical Research Team 21
The Use of a Mentor 23
Step Six: Implementing the Study Within Ethical Boundaries 23
Step Seven: Reporting and Disseminating Results 25
Chapter Summary 26
References 26
2 How Art Informs Art Therapy Research 29

The Art Therapy Lens 30
The Ethics of Using Art as Data 33
Interpreting Client Art 33
Collecting Client Art 33
Exhibiting Client Art 34
vii
viii Contents
The Place of Art in Research Methodologies 35

Art Assessment: An Art Therapy Window on Science 38
On-Going Informal Assessment 39
Art Evaluation Procedures 39
Projective Drawing Tests 40
Art-Based Assessments 41
Extending Research Into Process, Outcomes, and Perspectives 42
An Inclusive Framework for Art Therapy Research 44
Chapter Summary 45
References 46
PART II ART THERAPY RESEARCH METHODS 49
3 Quantitative Models of Art Therapy Research 51

Purpose: Why? Cause-and-Effect Relationships 52
Manipulation and Measurement 52
Control 53
Randomization 54
Systematic, PrePlanned Structure 54
Experimental Models of Quantitative Research in Art Therapy 55
The True Experiment 55
Control Group Designs 56
Single-Subject Research 58
Quasi-Experimental Studies 59
The Quasi-Experiment 59
Ex Post Facto or Natural Experiment 61
The Research Protocol 61
Measurement and Statistical Analysis in Experimental Research 63
A Review of Validity in Experimental Research 65
Non-Experimental Descriptive Research 66
Correlational Research 66
Survey Research 67
Chapter Summary 70
References 71
4 Outcomes Research to Generate Evidence-Based Practice 73

Purpose: Results of a Process 75
Efficacy Versus Effectiveness 76
Method as an Extension of Good Clinical Practice 77
What Do We Mean by Treatment and Its Effects? 80
A Research Model for Evidence-Based Practice 82
Program Evaluation Research 84
Program Evaluation for Obtaining Grants and Funding 88
Contents ix
Chapter Summary 91
References 92
5 Investigating the Field: Participant-Observation 95

Action Research 97
Action Research Cycle 98
The Action Research Plan 99
Value of Action Research to Art Therapy 101
Case Research 103
Conducting a Case Study 104
Validity and Strategies for Improving Case Research 110
Ethnography 113
Key Informants 115
Field Issues 115
Ethnographic Interview 116
Phases of the Ethnographic Investigation 117
Validity Issues and Verification Strategies in Ethnographic Research 119
Critical-Orientational Perspectives on Ethnographic Research 120
Participatory Action Research 122
PAR Methodology With Art Therapy 125
Some Ethical Challenges of PAR in Art Therapy 129
Chapter Summary 129
References 130
6 Researching the Phenomena of Conscious Experience 135

Phenomenological Approaches to Research 136
Methods and Core Processes in Phenomenological Research 139
Validity in Phenomenological Research 143
Heuristic Inquiry 144
Core Concepts and Processes of Heuristic Discovery 145
Validity and Critique of Heuristic Inquiry 148
Hermeneutics 150
Method: The Hermeneutic Circle 151
Narrative Analysis and Therapeutic Interview Research 153
Conclusion 156
Chapter Summary 157
References 158
7 Art-Based Inquiry: An Emerging Paradigm in Art Therapy 161

Key Features of Art-Based Inquiry 164
Art-Based Research Methods: Framework of Artistic Practice 166
Artmaking as Data Gathering 167
Artmaking as Data Analysis 170
x Contents
Artmaking as the Presentation of Findings 172

Art Exhibition 173
Performance Art 173
New and Emerging Public Forums 174
The Relationship of Art-Based Inquiry to Other Research Paradigms 175
A Future Role of the Artist-Researcher in Scientific Research 177
Outcomes in Art-Based Inquiry and Art Therapy Research 179
Chapter Summary 180
References 181
PART III DOING ART THERAPY RESEARCH 183
8 Before You Begin: The Research Proposal and Other Ethical

Safeguards 185
The Institutional Review Board and the Definition of Research 186
Columbus’ Map: From Research Design to Research Proposal 187
How Your Reader Thinks 189
Elements of a Research Proposal 190
Introduction and Purpose 190
Context 190
Methods 192
The Role of Ethics in the Research Process 193
Multiple Roles 197
Confidentiality and Anonymity 198
Informed Consent 198
Deception and Disclosure 200
Chapter Summary 200
References 201
9 Models of Good Research: Conducting the Study and Reporting

Results 203
A Matter of Craft: What Artists Know About Good Research 204
How to Read a Research Report 206
The Different Logic of Quantitative and Qualitative Studies 212
Report Standards for Evaluating Research 213
Art Therapy Exemplars and Model Research Reports 214
Conducting Research to Achieve Quality Outcomes 238
Chapter Summary 239
References 240
Contents xi
10 Writing for Publication in Art Therapy and Other Scholarly

Journals 243
Why Publish? 244
Preparing a Manuscript for a Scholarly Journal 245
Converting a Dissertation or Thesis to a Journal Article 249
Other Scholarly Articles and Oral Presentation Venues 250
Authorship and Its Responsibilities 251
Strategies to Improve Coherence in Research Report Writing 253
Writing as Thinking 253
For Non-Linear Thinkers 254
Building Your Argument on Claims and Evidence 255
Connect With Your Reader 256
Professional Writing Standards: Make It Publishable 257
Peer Review: The “Eco-System” of Scholarly Communication 260
Overview of Submission and Review: Steps in the Process 261
Stumbling Blocks 265
Chapter Summary 266
References 267
Glossary of Research Terminology 269
References 279
Index 291
About the Author
Lynn Kapitan, PhD, ATR-BC, is founder and professor of the Graduate Art
Therapy program and chair of the Arts & Design Division at Mount Mary College,
Milwaukee, WI. She is the executive editor of Art Therapy: Journal of the American
Art Therapy Association, the leading scholarly research journal in art therapy for
which she has served continuously for the past 18 years as a peer reviewer, advi-
sor, editor, and publisher. An alumna of the Union Institute and University, she was
inducted into the prestigious Circle of Scholars for excellence in research. She is
a past president of the American Art Therapy Association and currently practices
community-based, cross-cultural art therapy in consultation with non-governmental
organizations in Central and South America. She has taught graduate art therapy
research since 1991 and has published and presented nationally and internationally
on the subjects of social action in art therapy, multicultural and professional issues,
creativity development in toxic work environments, strategic policy development,
and leadership.
xiii
Acknowledgments
This text was created from 18 years of conversations with the graduate art ther-
apy students enrolled in my summer research course at Mount Mary College in
Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The work would not have been possible without their con-
tributions of passionate questioning, hunting and gathering, and creating in art and
words. I deeply appreciate my faculty colleagues Patty Rass, Melody Todd, Karen
McCormick, Bruce Moon, Susan Loesl, Chris Belkofer, and Michele Burnie who
do so much excellent teaching and research advising to encourage excellence in our
students. Among the many art therapists who have supported the need for research
in the field, I wish to thank Frances Kaplan, Shaun McNiff, Randy Vick, Susan
Spaniol, Harriet Wadeson, Vija Lusebrink, and the members of the Editorial Board
of Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association who model such
care in their scholarly critiques of the research writings in the field. Special thanks
go to Cathy Malchiodi, who encouraged me with humor, friendship, and emotional
support throughout the many months of bringing this text to publication, and to my
colleague Holly Feen-Calligan, for her dedication and abiding friendship. Thanks
go to Alex Kapitan for her editorial skills and keen insight, and to Chelsea Kapitan-
Daniel for her loving patience. Finally, thank you, dear soul mate Eddee Daniel, for
loving me through the years and through all the crazy distractions of my profes-
sional life.
xv
Introduction to Art
Therapy Research
Research:
—scholarly or scientific
investigation or inquiry.
—to study thoroughly. From
Old French: To seek out, to
search again and again.
Inquiry:
—the act of inquiring, that
is, to put to a question, to
look into or investigate.
—a close examination of
some matter in a quest for
information or truth.
Quest:
—the act or instance of seeking
or pursing something; a search.
—from Latin: to seek,
to search for game.
Hunt:
—to pursue; to seek out, search for.
—to conduct a diligent
search, to seek.
What really matters? What do art therapists care about and want to see realized, beyond
all else, as their enduring work in this world? Research is a creative act of searching
for the knowledge that matters to artists making art, art therapists helping clients, and
student-practitioners finding their way toward mastery in their chosen field. The suc-
cessful outcome of the search is a kernel of value with transformational power: more
effective practices grounded on more precise knowledge, deeper understanding of the
impact of events or experiences on people’s lives, or new facts and awareness that build
a case for art therapy.
xvii
xviii Introduction to Art Therapy Research
RESEARCH AS A CREATIVE
ARCHETYPAL PROCESS
Research is a creative process. It begins with an act of creatively imagining how one
might go about discovering something new, or of verifying something taken to be true.
According to Leedy (1997, p. 5), research has eight distinct characteristics:
1. Research originates with a problem or question.

2. Research requires a clear articulation of a goal or purpose.
3. Research follows a specific plan or procedure.
4. Research is organized around a principal problem that usually is divided into
manageable sub-problems.
5. Research is guided by the specific research problem, question, or
hypothesis.
6. Research accepts certain assumptions.
7. Research requires the collection and interpretation of data to resolve the
problem.
8. Research is cyclical or, more exactly, is approached as a spiral of
investigation.
These principles differentiate research from other scholarly and creative activi-
ties. For example, research is not looking up facts in the library or on the Internet and
reporting on them; a researcher must interpret those facts in some way to illuminate
their meaningful relationship to a problem. Research is not simple reflection on a
question; it usually requires an actual plan. Quality research is constructed with care
in how the researcher frames the problem, collects useful data about it, and accounts
for the results. But nothing in this definition excludes creative activity from the con-
duct of research. Art therapy offers unique perspectives on research because of the
way art therapists think about and approach their creative work in the context of a
helping profession.
A contemporary challenge for art therapists has been to find paths of inquiry that
reflect their core values and allow them to see and to act upon the therapeutic enterprise
with both an artist’s and scientist’s ways of knowing. Braud and Anderson (1998) offered
three major motivations for conducting research that art therapists might consider. In
the first category, research is approached as a series of problems to be solved in order
to produce predictable outcomes. The second motivation, which embraces an attitude
of curiosity and wonder, is simply to understand the world. Research is a puzzle that,
when sufficient pieces are fitted together, reveals a larger picture to be apprehended.
The third motivation also is in service of wonder, but it is the wonder of surprise and
discovery. Research is less like a problem or puzzle to solve and more like a work of art
to be appreciated. Though not equally appropriate for every research question, all three
of these motivations are valid and can co-exist in art therapy research.
Introduction to Art Therapy Research xix
Another helpful metaphor for the creative path of inquiry is to imagine research as
a contemporary form of the hunting and gathering archetype (Kapitan, 1998). Our brief
era lived as modern humans has not eliminated instinctual patterns inherited from our
ancestors, the hunter-gatherers. The hunt is a search for knowledge rooted in a human
being’s primal relationship with the world. For art therapists it offers a vivid archetype
that characterizes much research. When art therapists begin to search for their own
instinctual responses to the challenges of practice, they reach naturally for the dis-
ciplines, tools, methods, and thought processes of art as well as traditional scientific
inquiry. They can engage in research as an extension of an archetypal creative process.
Both hunting and research constitute a dynamic interaction between individuals and
their surroundings; science and artmaking offer an identical interchange. Knowledge in
the hunting-gathering tradition has to do with how to act, what to hold on to, and what is
important to pay attention to in the face of life’s demands (Ortega y Gassett, 1943/1985).
Artists and scientists, therapists and researchers, and ancient hunter-gatherers have
always participated in this deeply human quest.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF ART THERAPY RESEARCH

Art therapists who enter the field today accept the importance of research. This is evi-
denced by the growing number of studies found in Art Therapy: Journal of the American
Art Therapy Association, The Arts in Psychotherapy, International Journal of Art
Therapy, and other scholarly journals in recent years; in updated standards that include
research as a required component in graduate art therapy education; and the advance-
ment of doctoral programs. The conversation has shifted away from reservations about
whether and how art therapists should conduct research, and toward its value. A brief
glance at the history of art therapy research publications in the United States can serve
to illustrate an emerging research tradition in the global development of art therapy:
1960s: The first journal in art therapy, Bulletin of Art Therapy, was published in
1968 and included an account of art therapy research activities. Re-named the American
Journal of Art Therapy, it chronicled diverse work in art therapy and encouraged peer-
reviewed publication by art therapists (Knapp, 1992).
1970s: Graduate students throughout the 1970s learned art therapy by synthesiz-
ing mid-20th century psychological theory and the art studio knowledge they brought
to graduate school. There was little published art therapy literature and, with a few
exceptions, the texts that existed in the United States were only newly available (see
Anderson, 1978; Betensky, 1973; Keyes, 1974; Kramer, 1971; Kwiatkowska, 1978;
Naumburg, 1966, 1973; Rhyne, 1973; Robbins & Sibley, 1976; Rubin, 1977; Ulman &
Dachinger, 1975). The initiation of The Arts in Psychotherapy in 1973 created the first
international venue for art therapy research publication. Rhyne’s survey of art therapy
xx Introduction to Art Therapy Research
research found, however, that two-thirds of all studies being published in the United
States and abroad were conducted by non-art therapists (Knapp, 1992).
1980s: The American Art Therapy Association (AATA) began publishing Art
Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Association in 1983. A growing number
of research reports were becoming available to the wider field. But few art therapy gradu-
ate programs included a formal research course; the prevailing view at the time was that
graduate education primarily served to educate practitioners and that research was best
left to doctoral students. Absent a common language, art therapists worked solely from
the traditional research methodology of behavioral science. Qualitative research was
unknown outside the social sciences and was devalued as not actual research. At the end
of the decade, a dialogue between Maxine Junge and Marcia Rosal (1989) articulated the
prevailing attitudes and challenges of developing art therapy-specific methodology.
1990s: In the 15-year period from 1980 to 1995 art therapy literature greatly expanded
in both the United States and the United Kingdom, and a recognized body of art therapy
knowledge started to coalesce. To fill a need for information on research, A Guide to
Conducting Art Therapy Research was published by the AATA in 1992. By 1995, a
greater methodological variety of studies started showing up in Art Therapy. Because of
a pressing need for an empirical body of knowledge that would advance the profession,
however, the validity of all but experimental studies continued to be questioned. Support
for quality standards and greater diversity in research methods to address the needs of
practitioners emerged in national debates on education and practice standards.
At the end of the 1990s, Art Therapy published two groundbreaking issues dedi-
cated to art therapy research (Malchiodi, 1998a). Shaun McNiff published Art-Based
Research (1998a), the first text devoted entirely to art-based inquiry in art therapy.
McNiff felt that there was a lingering dependence upon other disciplines instead of
research that emerged from art therapy itself. Two years later, Frances Kaplan (2000)
contributed a second book-length treatment of the topic of research and articulated how
scientific approaches support an art-based theory of art therapy.
2000s: Recognizing the power of research to advance public awareness, the AATA
established a task force to update the research literature of the field (Vick, 2001). The
work of the task force was furthered when the groundwork was laid for the first national
clinical outcomes study, launched in 2005 (Kapitan, 2003b, 2005). In the United
Kingdom, with Art Therapy, Research, and Evidence-Based Practice, Gilroy (2006)
documented the growing necessity of research to validate art therapy practices within
the dictates of the British health care system.
When viewed in the context of a relatively young, evolving profession, art therapy’s
recent shift toward defining a research base is not unusual. Thirty years ago, the first
generation of art therapists were the leading voices in the field and—as also happened
in psychology, professional counseling, and social work—theory was built on the found-
ers’ own practices. This pattern was repeated as art therapy emerged and migrated to
diverse areas of the world. “Schools of thought” became organized and established in
Introduction to Art Therapy Research xxi
graduate schools and within related disciplines by the various pioneers of art therapy.
Translating these innovations into broader art therapy theories and practices was not
possible without a critical mass of practitioners collaborating with one another over
time and beyond their original training. As art therapy became an established academic
discipline, a second generation initiated this broader dialogue. Commitment to peer
reviewed research has generated common knowledge and evidence-based constructs for
practice. When elaborated within diverse cultural contexts and tested through empirical
research, these constructs finally will make it possible to form “approaches that emerge
from art therapy itself” (McNiff, 1998b, p. x).
Because research is dynamic, art therapy will continue to evolve. It is constantly reborn
in the fertile soil of shared understandings that transcend individualistic conceptions of
practice. As the figure in the figure-ground relationship with the profession of art therapy,
research has an impact on the evolution of ideas and practices that form the whole. Each
new contribution offers art therapists a critique of “received wisdom” in a newly changed
context. Yet these new understandings exist only because we are standing on the invisible
shoulders of those who came before and who helped create our new vantage points.
CONVERSATIONS BETWEEN SCIENCE AND ART

Despite the encouraging view that research in art therapy is alive and well, many art
therapists continue to feel ambivalent about it. Their ambivalence may be due in part
to the influence of modernist traditions of science as well as a postmodern backlash
against science that also is our inheritance. In the years leading up to the 1969 U.S.
launch to the moon, it seemed that no problem was too big for science to solve. Such
was the confidence that the public placed in modern science. But immediately after
this pivotal moment, other voices emerged to counteract prevailing views of scientific
dominance. Such events as the Vietnam War, the U.S. civil rights movement, and the
women’s liberation movement challenged the status quo and ushered in postmodernism
with its demands for other ways of knowing about the world and its problems.
The idea that there was one right way to conduct research endured for at least two
more decades, however. As Habermas wryly observed, “modernism is dominant, but
dead” (cited in Gergen, 1991, p. 11). Partly this was due to exponential growth in edu-
cational and medical research at the time. These industries needed quantifiable results
to justify spending vast amounts of publicly financed dollars. The enduring modernist
view of science maintained that all things could be known objectively and factually
without the mediation of language, culture, or symbol systems. Postmodern critics of
this view held that research knowledge is valid only within a given social or cultural
context. Something that is valid in one context should not be mistaken for truth in all
contexts. Art therapist Junge (1989) explained:
Our research questions come out of our worldview of what there is to be seen, and
we have learned that certain ways of thinking about things makes them visible. The
xxii Introduction to Art Therapy Research
researcher is not a wholly objective scientific being looking through a microscope but,
by her or his human choice to ask a question to focus on a particular phenomenon,
intervenes in the system and creates planned and unplanned change. (p. 78)
What we see depends upon what and how we choose to look at it. The reality
we believe we have “discovered” is more accurately a construction. This constructed
context is grounded in a particular historical time and social history, language, and
culture—all of which provide certain frameworks or lenses for apprehending reality.
With postmodernism, research shifted from solely external or behavioral perspectives
to consideration of the internal and interactive perspectives of subject and researcher
as well. Postmodernism asserts that reality cannot be separated into object and sub-
ject. Human beings cannot step outside their species-specific perceptions and view
reality from the place of the object. Thus, because we are all subjects, what we take
to be true can only emerge from our relationships of interaction with other subjects
and objects.
This understanding sits well with many art therapists who distrust the reductive
process of traditional science because of an artistic bias that makes reality “more real”
when colored with aesthetic, subjective experiences. Junge and Linesch (1992) con-
cluded that the processes of art and art therapy did not fit easily with scientific research.
Wadeson (1992) observed, “such [creative] work is of a very different nature from the
exacting methodological considerations of research design and implementation” (p.
1). McNiff (1998a, 1998b) decried “scientism” in art therapy, which he defined as the
erroneous application of scientific methods to artistic truths. A distrust of how science
could address the complexities of art therapy theory and practices, on the other hand,
has contributed to “science neglect” (Kaplan, 2000). In addition to postmodernism that
underscores the relativity of knowledge, Gantt (1998) identified gender bias, the popu-
larity of pseudoscience, and the perception of science as a destructive enterprise, as all
contributing to the field’s ambivalence toward scientific research.
Interestingly, these “science versus art” observations in art therapy parallel historic
developments in the social sciences in the 1980s and 1990s when proponents of qualita-
tive research were struggling for recognition. Heated debates pitted traditional scientific
research (popularly known as “quantitative”) against new paradigm research (“qualita-
tive”) and centered around the polarized imagery described below:
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
Taken for granted Alternative, “other”
Establishment Establishment protesters
Regular army Resistance
Big guns Reconnaissance
Male Female
Hard, firm, solid, real data Soft, fuzzy, weak data
Dry, unintelligible, meaningless data Thick, deep, grounded data
Control the variables; avoid dirty data Immerse in data; avoid drowning
Not really truth Not really science
Introduction to Art Therapy Research xxiii
Kaiser, St. John, and Ball, in their 2006 survey of art therapy research education,
expressed surprise that most art therapy graduate programs had a preference for quali-
tative methods; however, the images above suggest where the iconoclastic bias of art
therapists may be aligned. Art therapy has had its own historic, polarized debates on the
importance or place of art versus science, therapist versus artist, products or outcomes
versus processes, and philosophy versus pragmatism. It makes it difficult to sort out art
therapy research, I believe, because of a tendency to emphasize the binary poles of what
is essentially an interdisciplinary field. Fortunately, the classic qualitative–quantitative
debate of the social sciences has largely been resolved and there now is broad recogni-
tion that diverse approaches are needed and credible (Patton, 2002). In art therapy, the
discourse has shifted toward finding a balance between scientific and artistic thinking,
and beyond polarized ideas of theory and practice. By matching methods with research
purposes and questions, many avenues of understanding may be honored (Carolan,
2001; Gantt, 1998; Kapitan, 1998; McNiff, 1998b; Wadeson, 1992). Carolan concluded,
“Art, imagery and metaphor can serve as the primary means of integrating [all] our
approaches” (2001, p. 191).
ORGANIZATIONAL PREMISES
AND GOALS OF THE TEXT
My goal in creating this text was to provide an informative and useful guide for art ther-
apists who want to understand and evaluate art therapy research, and who are motivated
to carry out their own studies. As a pragmatic text, it is grounded in art therapy research
literature and surrounding contexts, providing guidance to students and practitioners
in research design via a broad survey of appropriate questions, methods, and ethical
values. The archetype of the “hunt” is threaded throughout to spark the imaginations
of art therapists and to help them access the different artistic and scientific logistics of
research design.
Because art therapy is an interdisciplinary field—born of art and social science, the
studio and the clinic—it is appropriate for art therapists to draw from other disciplines
in the conduct of research. A research tradition takes many years and many, many
researchers to build. Art therapy is a relatively small field compared to other social,
behavioral, biological, and psychological fields that have many more resources devoted
to research. Art therapists would be smart to use such knowledge for their own pur-
poses. I believe that the creative synthesis resulting from the effort will shape a research
tradition that is appropriate and natural to art therapy.
Art therapy research is not born in a vacuum and neither was this text. There has
long been a need for an up-to-date research manual; the complexities of creating one
text from many voices is daunting. I envisioned this project as a logical extension of
the past efforts of art therapy researchers, educators, and leaders in the field who made
significant contributions to the dialogue on art therapy research. Most notably, their
work can be found in the 1992 Guide to Conducting Art Therapy Research edited by
xxiv Introduction to Art Therapy Research
Harriet Wadeson, articles in Art Therapy that were authored by members of the AATA
Research Task Force, and published accounts that serve as exemplars of art therapy
research. A selection of these has been included in this text to preserve their expertise
and to provide useful resources for the reader.
My own role first is to serve you, the reader, as your friendly “tour guide.”
Having taught art therapy research to graduate students since 1991, I have been
hungry for a useful text that would help my students learn and think about research
in their own language of art therapy that resonates with their artistic worldview
and clinical experiences. In Part I, I present an overview of the basic tools and
practical steps involved in the design and implementation of an art therapy research
study, and areas of inquiry that hold particular interest for art therapists. Part II
describes quantitative and qualitative models through the “lens” of an art therapist
that illustrates their inherent logic as congruent with art therapy practice. In Part
III, the reader will be guided by the “how-to” of research: how to write an effec-
tive research proposal, how to meet standards of ethical conduct in carrying out the
study, how to evaluate and recognize good research, and how to report results and
publish your work.
My other role for readers of this text is to offer my perspective as the executive
editor of Art Therapy, one of the leading journals in the profession. Over the 18 years
that I have served nearly continuously in the various roles of peer reviewer, editor,
and publisher, I have had the privilege to evaluate hundreds of research reports and
to work closely with art therapists who have accepted the challenges of contributing
their research to the foundational knowledge of the field. I offer insights gleaned
from this experience with the hope that art therapists will use them well in research
of their own.
One of my duties as the senior editor is to read all of the manuscripts submitted
to Art Therapy. Several years’ worth of exposure to research created by art therapists
and a volume of feedback from the reviewers that evaluate the studies’ strengths have
shaped my perspective and underscored particular areas of need. To organize some of
the premises of this text, I put together a “wish list” for art therapy research that I hope
will inspire readers. Here is my “Top Ten list”:
10. End the old debate: To paraphrase Habermas cited earlier, the philosophical
debate on the need for art therapy research is dominant but dead. Art therapy would
be well served by embracing the middle ground and abandoning insistence on any one
paradigm as more important or more appropriate for the field. Qualitative research is
not inherently more creative than quantitative research. Quantitative research is not
inherently reductive. Art therapists need to learn both paradigms in order to effectively
address the questions that matter to them. Art-based methods can help bridge the dif-
ferent logic of scientific research and artistic inquiry. In this text, both the overview in
Part I and the specific methods chapters in Part II will lay the groundwork for moving
the field beyond these old debates.
9. No more fear of research: Twenty years of guiding research has taught me that
art therapists love research when they have the opportunity to apply it skillfully to their
Introduction to Art Therapy Research xxv
most pressing questions. Obstacles tend to be a lack of confidence, lack of knowledge

and skill, and fear of failure. The practice of art therapy is not too special, too compli-
cated, or too nuanced to yield its knowledge through systematic research. My hope is
that the pragmatic ideas, tools, and steps in this text will provide sufficient guidance to
inspire creative innovation and a can-do attitude.
8. Read more selectively: There are wonderful and amazing accounts of art ther-
apy found in many books on the subject. But most of these books are not peer reviewed;
their claims have not been subjected to evaluation and critique, and should not be taken
at face value. In today’s Internet age, we are awash in information. Art therapists who
want to make a contribution to the profession should learn to use a research database
to find the best and most current studies on which to build their own knowledge and
research. To promote higher standards for scholarship in art therapy, I provide pub-
lished exemplars of each research model.
7. Ask different questions: Art therapists have long been fascinated with finding
the keys to unlock the meaning of certain symbols or images that turn up in therapy. In
1995, former editor Cathy Malchiodi wrote that most research submitted to Art Therapy
at the time focused on surveys of “what other art therapists are doing or thinking, rather
than on clients’ experiences” and on “the content of art expressions” known as art-
based assessment (p. 218). Few studies examined the process of art therapy treatment
or its efficacy. The situation hasn’t changed much today. Much has not been examined
and many important questions need to be asked. Readers will find detailed discussion
of “researchable questions” in this text that are unique to art therapy and that lead to a
broad range of possible research approaches.
6. Craft better research designs: Quality research is made possible when art thera-
pists intentionally craft their studies to collect data from direct observation, to analyze
the data systematically, and to examine the validity of their findings against plausible
alternative explanations. There are many one-shot case studies in art therapy; little
research has been conducted with a large number of participants or in multiple sites.
Various chapters identify the basic elements of each kind of study and strategies for the
design and conduct of valid research.
5. Consider adding a control group to your design: On a similar note, many

art therapy research studies conclude that the findings are preliminary and need to be
validated with an outcome study or an in-depth qualitative investigation. The most com-
monly missing elements are a control group, frequent systematic measurement taken
over more than one session, and follow-up assessment of outcomes over a period of
time. Such critical components to improve quality are reviewed in each methods chap-
ter and in the overview of good research conduct in Part III.
4. Report research more clearly and completely: Reporting or publishing your

research also is a craft and need not be a mystery. Art therapists learn to write
up research in graduate school, usually as a case study or thesis. But they may be
xxvi Introduction to Art Therapy Research
unfamiliar with the requirements of a readable scientific report. A standard report

presents a clear rationale for the study, reviews the literature concisely, and pres-
ents the methods with enough detail to allow for replication. Results are readable
and clear; discussion places the results into an understandable context. Finally, any
report that involves art therapy should provide a clear description of what took place
as differentiated from art instruction, art-based assessment, or studio art activities.
Readers will learn how to read a research report and find art therapy exemplars of
such reports in Part III.
3. Replicate: I have often wondered why so many well-crafted studies are never
replicated to expand their original findings with new applications, populations, or adap-
tations. Perhaps art therapists, like many artists, are inspired by originality of expres-
sion; the thought of repeating a published research study may seem counterintuitive,
like copying someone’s creative work. Scientists, on the other hand, are always experi-
menting to see if they can get the same or different results in their lab as compared to
someone else. Even musicians commonly take songs and try them over and over with
different tempos, instrumentations, or riffs on a dominant motif. I would love to see art
therapists embrace and expand research through replication. Perhaps the many exam-
ples of published research provided in this text will acquaint readers with the scope of
studies already conducted that they may want to try for themselves.
2. Partner up—collaborate: So much research doesn’t happen because those

closest to the critical questions—the practitioners in the field—do not have the time,
knowledge, or skills required. Having developed artistic practice, our mathematical
skills may have atrophied and statistics is only a distant memory. Or we may not have
access to the kind of site we need. As is becoming apparent in other mental health and
arts-based fields, the kind of research that produces needed quality outcomes more
often than not is the result of a collaborative process. When art therapists start to form
research partnerships with other professionals, research foundations, organizations, and
agencies, the process of recognition and funding for art therapy’s value can result. A
special discussion on research collaboration is discussed in Chapter 1 and in methods
chapters that lend themselves particularly to collaboration.
1. Do it! Then publish it: If every art therapist made a commitment to conduct
one research study as part of his or her professional development, art therapy would
have an abundance of knowledge generated. Various art therapy conferences in recent
years have supported this kind of grassroots commitment to research. But how many
art therapists who present their work at conferences take the next step and write up their
research? Hopefully, the final chapter on writing for publication in Art Therapy will
help fill this gap.
Art therapists have much to offer the on-going advancement of human understand-
ing and knowledge. There is no doubt that the same creative skills art therapists use
in practice can be applied to the design and conduct of research to contribute unique
knowledge about the process, products, and outcomes of art therapy. I hope this text
Introduction to Art Therapy Research xxvii
will serve as a useful companion to that enterprise and will support art therapists
in creating, achieving, and disseminating their work for the collective benefit of the
profession.
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Carolan, R. (2001). Models and paradigms of art therapy research. Art Therapy: Journal of the
American Art Therapy Association, 18(4), 190–206.
Gantt, L. (1998). A discussion of art therapy as science. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art
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Gilroy, A. (2006). Art therapy, research, and evidence-based practice. Thousand Oaks, CA:
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Junge, M. B. (1989). The heart of the matter. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 16, 77–78.
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xxviii Introduction to Art Therapy Research
McNiff, S. (1998b). Enlarging the vision of art therapy research. Art Therapy: Journal of the
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Art Therapy Association.
PART I
Overview of Art
Therapy Research
Art Therapy
Research Ideas,
Tools, and Steps
1
in the Process
… the top of the mountain, the
honorable kill the hunter makes,
or a philosophical problem, or
the quest for peace. One must
enter absolutely into the process
to be capable of enduring it to the
end. To engage in the presence of
the earth, of nature; to seek what
is never easy; to fail as well as
to succeed; to grow weary and
ragged in the search and yet to
persevere because the mountain
does, indeed, have a summit,
the war an end; to enter a depth
and a distance that go so far
beyond the ordinary routines of
a day, or a life, that they bring
you to the beginning, is to hunt.
—R. Rudner (1991, p. 75)
Research means to seek out, to search again; by their very natures humans are seekers
and searchers. When the researcher feels alive with the pursuit of desire to discover
something, the work becomes indistinguishable from the creative process that the art
therapist knows so well (Kapitan, 1998). Research yields knowledge that nourishes
one’s profession, influences its future, opens previously closed minds, and brings forth
new understandings not previously contemplated. Most important, research carries
on a scientific exchange of critical conversations that shape knowledge and skill. Art
therapists who undertake a research project help to advance the collective understand-
ing of art therapy, contribute to the knowledge base of the field, and help to improve
client care, quality, and efficacy of art therapy in the workplace (Anderson, 2001).
3
4 Introduction to Art Therapy Research
Given the creativity that art therapists apply to new directions in their artistic or
clinical work, it is puzzling to find, as Linesch did in 1995, that systematic inquiry is still
regarded by some as incompatible with art therapy. Art therapists may approach research
believing that they must fit into rigid models of social science research, a strategy that
echoes their attempts to fit into the traditional clinical world and underscores a sense of
powerlessness (Kapitan, 1998). The image of the alienated professional mirrors the client
whose actual experience with art therapy might not be located in statistics or be available
for measurement, prediction, and replication. But, as Deaver (2002) observed, art thera-
pists’ fears about research may be ungrounded: “in focusing on our clients and striving to
reason out the most effective approaches to working with them, we have in fact already
embarked on a form of art therapy research” (p. 23). Deaver wrote:
We know that art therapy is a human service profession in which trained art therapists
promote positive change and growth through artmaking. The artworks produced func-
tion as catalysts for self-discovery, thinking about old problems in new ways, interrupt-
ing a cycle of self-defeating behaviors, and other therapeutic or healing outcomes. The
approach, art tasks, and media are carefully chosen according to art therapists’ knowl-
edge of art therapy theory and techniques, psychological development, and the creative
processes involved in artmaking. Those of us with even a few years of experience are
convinced, because of what we see with our own eyes in individual, family and group
art therapy sessions, that art therapy can be effective in helping to resolve the situations
that brought people to us. Sometimes we are amazed by what happens in sessions, even
in awe of the power of art therapy to bring forth the changes we observe … But if ques-
tioned intensely about our work, we can rarely explain with any precision or confidence
how we understand the artwork produced in art therapy; what cognitive, psychological
or creative processes actually occur during the art therapy experience; or what factors
contributed to the successful outcome. Research may provide some answers. (p. 23)
DESIGNING A RESEARCH STUDY

Research planning is a creative process akin to architecture and other fields of design.
Whether planning a building or creating a Website, the designer makes a design that suits
the overall purposes of the project and follows inherent logical principles—such as the
laws of physics in the case of a building or, in the case of a Website, what is known about
the people who will be using it. Research studies aimed at explanation and prediction
require a carefully structured design that allows the data to be tested and logically linked
to the variables being examined. Research that is oriented toward discovery is designed
to maximize a researcher’s interactions with the data; the design is allowed to change in
order to accommodate new understanding as previously unknown variables or informa-
tion emerge.
A research design has to be worked out before conducting a study, but the process and
approach will vary for different art therapists. Sometimes a therapist has a clinical prob-
lem in the workplace that needs a solution or that sparks an interest in studying it more
1 t Art Therapy Research Ideas, Tools, and Steps in the Process 5
intentionally. Or there may be a creative problem that can only be worked out artistically
in the studio. Some art therapists start at the beginning by identifying a question, whereas
other art therapists may read about an existing study that they would like to extend with
their own knowledge and interest. This chapter presents an overview of the logical steps
that are involved in designing research regardless of the point of entry. These are:
1. Identifying the research question

2. Developing the problem statement
3. Reviewing the literature or what is known about it
4. Determining methodology
5. Locating tools and resources for carrying out the study
6. Implementing the study within ethical and other boundaries
7. Reporting and disseminating the results
For art therapists who prefer to use a non-linear thought process to work out a
design, I recommend using a concept map (Figure 1.1) adapted from Maxwell (2005) to
accompany the steps in the process of design. This schema helps you develop a research
plan by tacking back and forth among five interacting, non-hierarchical components.
Researchers may enter at any of these five points and go in either direction to flesh
out the study based on the relationship between purpose, context, questions, methods,
and validity. For example, you may have a good question and can think of methods to
address it, but have no idea why it is worth the time and energy. Paying closer attention to
the context surrounding the question, by reading or reflecting on source knowledge that
inspires it, will help you uncover your purposes. Once you are clear about the purposes
and context, you will be more able to refine the problem precisely and, in turn, be led to
methods that will reveal what you want to find out. The researcher who enters the design
process at the validity point may have access to an important art therapy program, for
example, but wonders about the risks involved for clients who might be asked to partici-
pate in a study. Clarifying these validity concerns and values will suggest methods that
are appropriate for the site and, in turn, will point to a more precise research question.
As you work with each step in this chapter, from research design to actually conducting
the study and reporting results, you may want to return to this conceptual map from time
to time and use it to refine your study.
STEP ONE: IDENTIFYING THE

RESEARCH QUESTION
Research questions usually come from an art therapist’s clinic, studio, or other
environments in the form of a problem or curiosity. Because creative problem solv-
ing is basic to an art therapist’s line of work, potential research questions are always
within reach. Focusing on your daily work, you may wonder why a particular client
Purpose Conceptual Context

What do I need? What is the terrain I am in?
What are the ultimate goals of my study? Where do I locate my hunt?
Why do I want to do this? What ideas, theories and
Why is this worth doing? concepts guide/inform the
Why should anyone care about study? What sources will I
the results? draw on? What do I already
know or have learned
Research Problem or Questions

What am I “hunting” for?
What specifically do I want to understand by doing this study?
What do I not know that I want to learn?
What questions will guide my study?
Name your topic: “I am studying…….

Imply your question: “…..because I want to find out…..
State your rationale: “…in order to understand…
Methods Validity & Ethics

How do I go about obtaining what I need? What makes this a “good” study?
What are the best ways others have used? What will it contribute?
What will I actually do to conduct the study? How will my findings support
What approaches and techniques will I use or challenge my ideas?
to collect and analyze the data? How might I be wrong?
What makes them appropriate? What are the implications of
what I might find out?
Who will benefit?
Why should I do this study?
FIGURE 1.1 Conceptual map for designing the study. [Adapted from Maxwell, J. A. (2005).
Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage]
is behaving differently before or after a particular art therapy intervention. Perhaps

you have discussed a particularly daunting clinical problem with your colleagues
and are considering a different approach. In your studio, your discoveries from an
art process may have given you insights that others might benefit from and want to
try out in their work.
Sometimes research questions appear from reading a study that gets you thinking
about how it might apply to your own practice—or that could be disconfirmed because
of a gap in the researcher’s findings or something that you sense may be true from your
own experience. You may be motivated to replicate the study to show this difference, or
to modify it in a way that captures your own interest. Art therapists who interact with
others in the field, either through reading professional journals, attending conference
presentations, or discussing cases with colleagues, often use these sources to improve
their practices or to follow their own curiosity about how art therapy works. You can
formulate a research question simply by extending or clarifying these reactions and
your interest in them.
IDENTIFYING A GOOD RESEARCH QUESTION

r What is my area of interest? What am I hungry for? What do I want to
know or find out?
r What do I notice? What especially attracts my attention in my work as
an art therapist?
r What is my goal?
r Who is my audience?
Art therapists convert their interests into a “researchable question” usually in stages:
by having an idea, thinking about the idea, exploring the idea in art or in clinical work,
discussing the idea with colleagues, checking it out in the existing literature, deciding
exactly what goals can be achieved through research, and finally, defining the question
precisely in order to create a working hypothesis (Bailey, 1991). In her overview of what
constitutes art therapy research, Deaver (2002) discussed some aspects of art therapy that
uniquely lend themselves to research, given the nearly limitless array of potential ques-
tions. As a springboard for generating research ideas, she organized four broad areas: (a)
the therapeutic relationship, (b) art as assessment or a measure of treatment outcomes, (c)
art as a process or intervention, and (d) art therapy as a profession (Table 1.1).
Deaver’s overview helps us think about possible questions in art therapy and
reminds us that a “researchable” question is one that serves a useful purpose and makes
a contribution to the profession. To be effective, a good research question has the fol-
lowing attributes (Bailey, 1991):
r It rests on a rationale or theory, addressing the question, “How will this

study contribute to the body of knowledge of art therapy?”
r It has significance, addressing the question, “Who cares?” or “So what?”
r It can be studied by identifying specific variables, addressing questions of
purpose such as cause and effect, discovery of meaning, or in-depth under-
standing of a specific condition or perspective.
r It can be conducted with available resources, considering such needs as help from
a research team, statistician, clinical supervisor, software tools, or databases.
r It can be conducted with available access to participants, addressing such
questions as whose participation is appropriate, where the study can take
place, and how consent can be obtained.
Beginning with a desire to know or to find out something, the art therapist gradually
formulates the focal question. In addition to the sources already described, art therapists
frequently use their own artmaking to surface their questions and to clarify their pur-
poses. Rhyne (1992) observed that research ideas come from the minds of people whose
curiosity urges them to question their own observations. Allen and Gantt (1992) encour-
aged the demystification of research by creating an art image of the research concern and
oneself as a researcher. I recommend creating art from the metaphor of research as hunt-
ing (Kapitan, 1998) and studying the image by observing closely its terrain, the various
TABLE 1.1 Developing art therapy research ideas

Art therapeutic relationship
Studies that address such questions as
t What are the actual effects of providing particular art materials and
artmaking opportunities to clients?
t Are important aspects of the therapeutic relationship reflected in the
client’s artwork?
t Is there a way to evaluate the effect upon the therapeutic relationship
of the therapist making art in the session with clients?
t What can we conclude about the client who regularly makes portraits
of the therapist?
t What sense can we make of our own artmaking in terms of our work
with a particular client or group of clients?
t How might regular self-exploration through artmaking be useful
clinically as well as personally?
Assessment: Art as a measure
t Studies on the potential of art to accurately and objectively measure a
range of attributes
t Studies that substantiate anecdotal or unsubstantiated claims with
empirically tested understandings
t Normative data on children’s development as reflected in their
drawings; cultural and developmental differences
t In addition to relationships between psychiatric conditions and their
manifestation in drawing, studies on other variables assessed with art
t Reliability and validity of artwork as a measure of acceptance of
diagnosis, course, and extent of illness and prognosis
Intervention: Art as a process
t Research on particular aspects of art therapy, such as the impact of
certain tasks or theoretical approaches on various kinds of clients, e.g.,
What art experiences may be most effective in an anger management
group for incarcerated youthful offenders?
t Research on the efficacy of particular art therapy applications in
treatment, e.g., What is the impact of media choice on particular art
directives?
t Research on the impact of the setting, the range of purposes or goals,
e.g., What is the impact of an artist-in-residence program on patients,
staff, and administration in a medical setting?
t Research that examines the usefulness of art therapy on such clinical
issues as acceptance of a terminal illness, recovery from surgery or brain
trauma, or in pain management.
Art therapy as a profession
Research that addresses such questions as
t How are multicultural education guidelines being implemented in
graduate art therapy programs?
(Continued)
TABLE 1.1 Developing art therapy research ideas (Continued)

t What are the demographic trends in the membership of AATA?
t What are art therapists’ understandings of the personal experiences
and philosophies that lead them to become art therapists?
t What are the markers of burnout among art therapists and what might
be effective preventative measures?
Source: From Deaver, S. P., What constitutes art therapy research? Art Therapy: Journal
of the American Art Therapy Association, 19(1), 23–27, 2002.
guises and tools of the hunter within that terrain, and the presence or absence of what you
are hunting for. The precision with which the art therapist’s artmaking may guide research
design becomes apparent when research is creatively imagined in these ways.
USING ART TO GENERATE THE RESEARCH QUESTION

r Create an art-based journal that contemplates these or similar ques-
tions: What am I hungry for? What must I have to satisfy my profes-
sional goals or hunger?
r Create in art an image of yourself as a hunter. Journal about what you
look like, the tools you are carrying, and the kind of terrain you are
in.
r Continue your art meditation with a series of images: What are you
hunting? What are the characteristics of the animal or image of the
hunt? How might those features inform your research purpose? Your
question?
r Try other metaphors: Imagine yourself as a miner who is digging for
something precious or essential (Kyale, 1996) or a traveler coming
upon a new land and seeking to understand it.
Clarifying your purpose: Next, you will need to refine the question by precisely
clarifying your purpose. When research is conceptualized within the context of how you
want to use it, you will be able to focus in on different aspects of a question, problem, or
phenomenon, in order to take action and use the information obtained in specific ways
(Kapitan, 1998). This conceptual purpose helps put to rest the assumption that certain
kinds of research are more valid or truer than other kinds. Distinctions of purpose
always drive the choice of question and method. Put another way, if you want fish for
dinner, you need to go to the fishing hole with a pole, bait, and plenty of patience. You
wouldn’t choose a shotgun to fish with or insist that a shotgun is the only way to gather
food. Different researchers have different purposes. These depend upon:
r How you view the phenomenon of interest

r Your background knowledge of the subject
r Your beliefs or assumptions about the inquiry
r How you approach and conceive of the process and implement it
Using the metaphor of the hunter-gatherer as researcher, if your purpose is to

advance the entire art therapy community, you must seek either a very large animal
or many smaller animals combined. A multi-site, national outcomes study is such an
animal. But if your purpose is simply to satisfy your own hunger, a small study will
do (Kapitan, 1998). In surveying the distinctive differences of purpose between, for
example, single-subject quasi-experimental designs and phenomenological studies, an
art therapist may ask, “What am I hunting and why? Which of these methods will work
for what I am hunting? Do I have the resources I need to carry out this kind of research?
What skills and strengths do I have and how can I use them effectively?”
STEP TWO: DEVELOPING THE

PROBLEM STATEMENT
The next step is to convert the question into a functional problem statement. In nar-
rowing in on the problem, the researcher often has to relinquish a broad topic of interest
or divergent pathways for a more specific, focal concern. It is important to consider what
the impact will be to have the problem addressed. Will it be worth the time, energy, and
resources needed to address this particular problem? Is it significant to you and to others?
Is it a real problem worth hunting for or is it a pseudo-problem that you already know the
answer to? A useful template that helps in creating the rationale for the study is to name
the topic by stating, “I want to study [x] in order to [y],” which implies the question, fol-
lowed by, “because … [z],” to surface motivations and purposes. For example, “I want to
study the use of art therapy with people who are visually impaired (x) in order to identify
a range of materials and processes that are most effective (y) because their needs have
been overlooked due to an emphasis on the visual experience in art therapy (z).”
FROM RESEARCH QUESTION TO HYPOTHESIS

r Why does the question excite you? Do you really want to know the
answer?
r Is it a simple question or does it have several parts?
r Is there an obvious theory base for the question?
r What is the specific problem you plan to address? Complete the follow-
ing: “I want to study ____ in order to ____ because ______.”
r What do you hope to accomplish by addressing this problem? Complete
the following: “The purpose of this study is … ”
r Is the problem significant? Why is your study important and to whom?
How will you answer the question, “So what?”
r What do you think might happen as an outcome of your research? The
answer to this question helps you formulate the hypothesis.
Once the problem is determined, it should be further refined so that it is stated as

clearly, precisely, and completely, in as few words as possible. A precise question or
problem functions in research like a laser beam or well-tuned instrument; without it,
your aim will be thrown off, misdirected, or will hit the wrong notes. Look critically
at the problem statement and edit, refine, and clarify that this is exactly what you are
hunting. Can anyone read it and know what it is you are after and why? If this is not the
case, then you probably don’t know what the problem is yet.
Leedy (1997) noted that most research problems are too complex to be solved
without sub-dividing them into smaller chunks. When the problem is correctly writ-
ten, these sub-problems come to light. They function as smaller, interconnected parts
that make up the whole of the main research problem. For example, if the main prob-
lem is
r “I propose to determine the factors that contribute to an art therapist’s effec-

tiveness in a domestic violence shelter.”
The sub-problems might be
1. Analyze how the setting contributes, either positively or negatively, to art

therapy treatment;
2. Identify the key variables that influence how an art therapist assesses, plans
for treatment, intervenes, and measures success in this setting; and
3. Define what is meant by “success” in this context.
Notice that each of these sub-problems is a self-contained, researchable unit and

includes a verb—in this case analyze, identify, or define—that ties the sub-problem
to a method or means for collecting and interpreting data (Leedy, 1997). If the main
problem is carefully stated, there should be no more than two to six sub-problems. (If
there are more than six sub-problems, then the main question is not focused precisely
enough.) Once the problem and sub-problems are identified, a logical structure exists
around which the design can be developed.
Next, the researcher tackles the scope of the search. This sets up the research con-
text of the problem and makes certain that it is neither too broad nor too limiting. Return
to the template, “I want to study ‘x’ in order to ‘y’ … because … ,” and now state not
only what you want to do but also what you don’t intend to do. You want to study art
therapy in a domestic violence shelter, for example, but you don’t want to study everyone
there, only a mother-child art therapy program. You don’t intend to study every shelter
but only a shelter that has a particular population you are interested in. Offer a clear
statement of all the assumptions you have that are taken for granted with respect to the
problem. Finally, re-state the problem as a testable hypothesis or research question. It
helps to have at least one hypothesis or question posed for the main problem and each
sub-problem.
STEP THREE: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Once the purpose, goals, and problems are understood, the researcher should become
familiar with the “terrain” in which the study is located. What do you think is going
on out there that is related to your study? “Out there” means out in the world of art
therapy in “conversations” among your fellow researchers, clinicians, and artists, and
in published accounts in various journal articles, conference presentations, reports, and
abstracts about some of the same things you are thinking about. The context for your
study has to do with the concepts, assumptions, expectations, beliefs, and theories that
support and inform your ideas (Maxwell, 2005). Laying this groundwork saves time in
the end because it keeps you focused and helps you discover how other researchers have
handled similar issues. The quality of your awareness and thinking also is fine-tuned by
doing this contextual review of the literature.
If you are a practitioner, this step may recall images of graduate school and the long
hours spent searching in the library or trying to write a paper under the pressure of a
deadline or grade. It is very tempting, therefore, to skip this step and just start in on the
project. But the literature review is essential to make your study relevant, helpful, and
timely. Consider these good reasons (Bailey, 1991):
r You don’t want to waste your time repeating what someone else has already
done to answer the same research question.
r If someone else has studied the problem, you want to know what the chal-
lenges were, such as not being able to control certain variables or sampling.
r You may discover an existing study on the topic that you could replicate or
use as a model to be more effective in accomplishing your goals.
r Someone may have already studied a component of your question that you
may want to build upon.
r You may want to place your study into the context of similar studies so that
others can know how to perceive your work.
r You may want to increase your understanding of the theoretical base sur-
rounding your study as well as for others who will read about your study.
r You may find excellent reasons in the literature for why your study would be sig-
nificant and how you may want to address the problem or answer questions.
r You may be prompted to change your question, give it a different emphasis,
or change other aspects once you see how others have approached a similar
question.
r You may find some of your clinical impressions challenged or confirmed by
their documentation in the research literature.
To search out the literature, of course, you will have to use a library. But the library of
the 21st century is no longer a building; it has become a portal to vast scholarly informa-
tion systems housed in zillions of electronic bits, pages, files, databases, and consortia of
interlinked library and research holdings. Research literature has been digitized and stored
in massive databases that allow art therapists in Hong Kong to find and access a journal as
easily as students in Chicago. Your local university library has a rich array of powerful tools
to help you find what you need to know quickly and efficiently. Online library databases
(such as PsychINFO, Medline, CINAHL, and ERIC) are organized to locate abstracts,
peer reviewed articles, and research reports tailored to your specific needs. To take one
example, Medline is a database with over a million entries. You can search for classic
and recent research, cross-disciplinary studies, or documents with a limited circulation.
Sources found in scholarly journals like Art Therapy are especially important in conduct-
ing a literature search because the articles have been peer reviewed, meaning that original
research has been checked and verified by expert reviewers who are free of self-interest in
seeing the material published. If you are a student, access to this vast information system is
covered in your tuition; if you are a professional, you can arrange to have library privileges
at many institutions that support research. Other valuable online research tools exist to sup-
port professionals; PubMed is a wonderful online tool that offers access to Medline for free
and without the need of a library (see http://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed).
On the downside of information technology are the shortcuts you may be tempted to
take if you are less familiar with how to use library or online research databases (includ-
ing Google Scholar; see http://scholar.google.com) than you are with general online search
engines like Google. The difference between articles found in PsychINFO or ERIC and
those found on a Web site on the Internet is that the former is more likely to be the product
of carefully reviewed scholarship. These reports also may appear on some Web sites but
usually are found behind the wall of costly pay-per-view access. Thus, it is worth learning
to use the library’s searchable tools for conducting your literature review (Table 1.2).
What should you do if you find only very little or no research literature for your
study? Likely the problem is that you are using keywords that are either too specific or
too broadly topical, for example, looking for research studies that precisely addressed
“studio approaches to art therapy in domestic violence” in the example given earlier.
More possibilities will appear if you unpack this focus and tease out the underlying
issues or approaches that logically fit with studies in closely related areas. One good
strategy for organizing such a search is to start by identifying topics or search terms
found in the professional literature for each of the sub-problems in your research prob-
lem statement (Figure 1.3). In the example above, topics might be domestic violence
treatment issues such as the effects of trauma on child rearing, negotiating the crimi-
nal justice system, or anger management; domestic violence program models in art
therapy; impact of the environment, space, or facilities on therapy; art assessments used
in domestic violence or similar programs; mother-child art therapy programs; treatment
interventions in domestic violence; art therapist self-assessment techniques for improv-
ing treatment effectiveness; and personal characteristics of art therapists working with
mothers and children, among other possibilities. Go to the library with this list and
begin collecting references from indexes, abstracts, bibliographies, and other reference
works. If you follow your research diagram and stick to each of your sub-problems, you
won’t waste time and be distracted with irrelevant literature. Gather together all the
studies that relate to each sub-problem and use these groupings to organize the logic of
the literature review. Later, when writing the review, you will be able to use each sub-
problem as your heading for that section of your discussion.
TABLE 1.2 Online research tools

KIND OF RESEARCH ONLINE LIBRARY WEB SEARCH TOOLS
RESEARCH DATABASES CATALOGS
TOOL
Examples PsychINFO, Medline, Your local university Yahoo; Google
ERIC, CINAHL; library, e.g., OhioLINK
PubMed Library Catalog
Contents Thousands of abstracts Records for books, Links to millions of
and full text articles periodicals, journals, Web pages on the
from hundreds of videos, government Internet
journals or periodicals documents, etc. Often
linked to state,
regional, and academic
library systems
Selectivity Selected and reviewed Selected and reviewed Except for Google
(quality by editors and by editors and Scholar, not
control) publishers, then publishers; then libraries selective. No quality
selected for inclusion make selections for control; anyone can
in databases to which purchase and inclusion put anything on the
libraries subscribe in their system Web
How to Keyword; also author, Author, subject, title, Mostly keyword
search article title, journal keyword, and others
title, subject
Organizing the Literature Search
Write the Problem Statement at the top of

the page
Make a list of Opposite each study

each relevant study you found and listed,
you found in the identify the particular
left hand column sub-problem you have
that it relates to and
why in the right hand
column
Write down the
APA citation
information for
each source
FIGURE 1.3 Organizing the literature search.

STEP FOUR: DETERMINING METHODOLOGY

Even in the most open-ended designs, the researcher must have some orga-
nized idea of how the data will be collected and interpreted in order to resolve the
research problem. Leedy (1997) offered four fundamental questions, below, to help
determine methodology.
DETERMINING THE METHOD (LEEDY, 1997)

r What data do I need?
r Where do I find the data?
r How will I get this data?
r How will this data be interpreted? What do I intend to do with this data
to solve the problem?
Although there are many ways to organize research designs, as presented in Part II
of this text, one of the most basic is to decide whether a quantitative or qualitative
approach will best achieve your purpose. As described by Deaver (2002) methods that
require the researcher’s objectivity and are generally concerned with “measuring, con-
trolling for variable, cause-and-effect relationships and seeking patterns or regularities”
(p. 24) are defined as quantitative. Qualitative methods are “characterized by impres-
sions, thoughtful analysis of observed themes, and reflections” and, in general, “by the
subjective responses of the researcher and research participants to the problem or situ-
ation under investigation” (p. 24). Deaver further explained
Quantitative research tends to employ deductive reasoning, proceeding from general

problem areas to specific hypothesis testing, in an effort to support theoretical assump-
tions. For example, an art therapist researcher explores the general theory of projection
by analyzing statistically whether or not a correlation exists between a diagnostic cat-
egory and particular characteristics of specific drawings. If the research is conducted
rigorously enough (i.e., in compliance with the rules of science) and a significant cor-
relation does exist, the researcher may add credence to the theory of projection in
art therapy. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is frequently inductive in nature.
The qualitative researcher examines an existing phenomenon and draws conclusions
about it, building theory as the investigator progresses. For example, an art therapist
researcher systematically investigates a client’s response to working in clay through
means of in-depth interviews. She analyzes both the client’s and her own responses
to therapy sessions and the post-session interviews, discovers consistent themes, and
draws some conclusions about clay work that may add to the theoretical underpinnings
of our clinical practice. (p. 24)
Deaver’s explanation touches upon the interaction of two basic elements: data,
which are the empirical observations made, and theory, which is the organization of
concepts that permit the interpretation of data (Elmes, Kantowitz, & Roediger, 1999).
The process of working from specific data or cases to create a general theory is known
as induction. Deduction moves in the opposite direction, when the researcher empha-
sizes a theory in predicting data or reasons from the general to specific cases. Deaver
also noted the different emphases that quantitative and qualitative methodology put
on objectivity and subjectivity. Research that aspires toward objectivity attempts to
minimize the effect of the researcher on data by controlling the conditions in which the
data are gathered (Carolan, 2001). Qualitative research allows for subjectivity but also
strives to identify the bias of the researcher and its effects.
Table 1.3 provides a general guide for the choice of research approach and design
decisions. Keep in mind that the division of quantitative and qualitative methodology
is somewhat artificial. There are many designs that are not strictly one or the other
approach, and many designs use a mix of methods. There may be crossover in the way
you choose to address certain aspects of the study. The purpose here is to use these
thinking and planning processes to help determine the best methodology that will serve
your purposes.
An important quality of research integrity is validity. In quantitative studies that
are associated with experimentation, validity is related to
r Measurement (Did the study measure what it purported to measure?)

r Internal validity (Did this treatment make a difference in this situation?)
r External validity (Can this study’s effects be generalized to other popula-
tions, settings, treatments, or other variables?)
In qualitative research, validity is based on the
r Context (how a particular piece of data fits with the whole picture)
r Perspective (where valid research is always a matter of relationship or the
standpoints of the participants)
Many problems with validity result from not precisely delineating the research
questions, purposes, and methods. Or the researcher approaches the research with a
desire to confirm the study’s major premises or hypotheses. Art therapists are espe-
cially vulnerable to this validity threat when they lack confidence or have become
somewhat defensive from working in environments where art therapy is devalued or
unknown. They may unwittingly collect data to address questions they already know
the answers to, or they may attempt to create data that will incontrovertibly “prove”
art therapy’s value. To counter this tendency, good researchers in whatever tradition
always adopt a “functionally skeptical” stance toward their research study and data. It
takes courage to not accept findings at face value and to pose potentially disconfirm-
ing questions.
Malchiodi (1992) described experimental biases that appear in the way some
studies are constructed or conducted, in how subjects are selected, and in apply-
ing inaccurate or inappropriately instruments to the research problem. Personal bias
such as the researcher’s unaware projections also may compromise a study’s validity.
TABLE 1.3 Choosing the research approach: quantitative or qualitative?

DESIGN OPTIONS AND CONCERNS
ISSUES QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
What is the nature of Confirmatory, predictive Exploratory, interpretive
your research
question?
What is your goal or To deduce and test implications To induce or reach tentative
purpose? of preformed hypotheses hypotheses based on what is
observed
To explain and predict To describe and explain
To confirm and validate To explore and interpret
To test theory To build theory
What is the scope or To cover breadth To study depth
focus of your Known variables Unknown variables
study? Established guidelines Flexible guidelines
Context-free Context-bound
Detached view Personal view
What people and Individuals, groups, programs or program components, agencies,
environments can clinics and hospitals, organizations, community health centers,
you study? schools, universities, etc.
What tools will be Instrumentation such as physical In-depth interviews
used to collect the tests or assessments Interactive fieldwork
data? Observation Analytic memos
Questionnaire, surveys Observation
Review of records, art, or Questionnaire, surveys
artifacts Review of texts, art,
Patient records or artifacts
Patient and researcher
records of process
What can be studied Independent variable that is Units of analysis (people,
or measured? manipulated to observe its processes, and artifacts) as
effect (change) on the affected by an experience or
dependent variable condition
Fixed variables Unknown variables
Variables that already have Comparison of these units of
occurred analysis
Comparison of one or more
variables
How will you select Random selection Informative, small, or
your participants? Random assignment purposeful sample
Representative, large sample for Multiple cases linked or
generalization nested together
(Continued)
TABLE 1.3 Choosing the research approach: quantitative or qualitative? (Continued)

What type and Fixed, static design to control Open, flexible design to
degree of control variables discover emergent data
will be used? Experiment (control group) Non-experimental
Quasi-experiment (some or Descriptive
partial control)
Non-experimental
How will you Deductive (from general theory Inductive (from particular case
approach data to predict particular trends, or themes to general theory)
analysis or correlations, or causes) Interpretation
interpretation? Computation Content or thematic analysis
Statistical analysis Coding
Rating scales Pattern matching
Coding Explanation building
Time-series analysis
How will you Numbers Words or stories
communicate your Statistics, aggregate data Narratives, individual quotes
findings?
How will you Reliable and valid claims of Valid claims of trustworthiness
address validity? probability of the data and its
Rigor authenticity
Generalizability Triangulation of data
collection, multiple methods,
perspectives, or researchers
When will the study Fixed timelines Fixed vs. open timelines
occur? How much Pretest, treatment phase, Long-term fieldwork
time will you need post-test measures Exploratory vs. confirmatory
and how will phases
research activities
be sequenced?
What resources do People such as a research team, statistician or field supervisor,
you need? instrumentation or assessments; materials; computer programs
for data input and analysis; time; and access
How will the logistics Access to the site, subjects or people, and records
of the site be Need for liaison to the study participants, contracts, training,
handled? availability
How will ethical Informed consent, protection of human subjects, Institutional
issues be handled? Review Board, reactivity, presentation of the researcher’s goals
to participants, etc.
Every time we do research, we produce a disturbance in our own unconscious mate-

rial that may get projected into the world we are studying. Bias also may take the
form of “consensus collusion” (Reason, 1981), whereby a whole group of researchers
engage in groupthink in defense of their anxieties. Groupthink prevents individuals
from looking at certain areas of experience or behaviors that go against the accepted
norms of the group. A researcher in such a position may end up either “preaching to
the choir” in order to gain acceptance from the group, or defying groupthink and get-
ting pilloried as a heretic.
Reason (1981) offers some useful “heuristic guides” for enhancing validity. These
are not methods but simply are good practices or rules of thumb for developing critical
thinking skills. As you design your study, no matter the paradigm or methods used, see
if it can pass these tests, below.
CHECKLIST FOR ENHANCING VALIDITY (REASON, 1981)

–––– My design will produce findings that rest on valid measures or on
high-quality, discriminating awareness on the part of the researcher.
–––– My design requires me to engage in systematic proofs or in personal
and interpersonal development to maintain high quality awareness.
–––– Because valid research is not conducted alone, my study includes a
means to step outside myself and engage with people who will help
me challenge my biases and habits of thinking.
–––– My research is enhanced by systematic analyses or feedback loops.
I have structured my design to counteract cultural expectations/biases
that may get in the way of true scientific discovery.
–––– I have designed for internal and external threats to validity, or for
convergent and contextual validity through multiple methods, theo-
ries, perspectives, and/or comparative processes.
–––– My research can be replicated in some form. Others may build upon
my work and contribute to future knowledge.
STEP FIVE: TOOLS AND RESOURCES

FOR CONDUCTING THE STUDY
Conducting the study is the “hunt itself, using the proper tools, methods, and settings
appropriate for your particular pursuit” (Kapitan, 1998, p. 25). The tools of research are
not the same as its methodology, a point that is frequently confused by those who are
unfamiliar with certain tools and therefore view them with suspicion. A tool is simply
a tool and accessory to the research process, whereas methodology is natural to and
characteristic of the whole project (Leedy, 1997). Every profession has its unique or
specialized tools for carrying out its specific work. In art therapy, these tools include art
processes and products. Added to this toolbox are the general tools that most research-
ers, regardless of their profession, use to derive meaningful and insightful conclusions
from the data (Leedy, 1997). In many studies these tools include statistics and tech-
niques of measurement.
Statistics and the Value of Measurement

Statistics have two principal types of functions: (a) descriptive, which is to illuminate
the “contour” of the data and the relationship between groups of data; and (b) infer-
ential, which means certain inferences or judgments about the data may be suggested
when the data are compared to a model or standard. The researcher uses statistics to
account for the cause of the data’s configuration in terms of the research problem. The
primary service of statistics, in fact, is to help the human mind comprehend disparate
data as an organizing whole (Leedy, 1997).
However, this powerful tool is an abstraction in much the same way that the art
image on the paper is an abstraction and not the reality of a person’s life. We can use
an art image to illuminate the “contour” of a life concern and we can study the image
to infer certain things about the life concern. But we would not want to mistake the
artwork for the life concern to which it points. The same is true for statistics. Statistics
may show that the average U.S. American family has 1.8 children, but everyone knows
there is no such thing as a child whose existence is only 0.8 of a whole. Averages and
other statistical tools are mental constructs only; they provide a hypothetical platform
on which disparate data can become comprehensible and from which a theory can be
developed.
In quantitative models of research, the data usually are converted to numbers and
the results are communicated with statistical analysis. Whereas the language of numeri-
cal measurement may be alien to many art therapists, the practice of translating art
therapy into language and constructs that are accessible to related professionals and cli-
nicians on a treatment team is not. The purpose of mathematical translation in research
is an extension of this idea. By converting different kinds of data into numbers, certain
relationships among them can be more easily seen and interpreted. Measurement in
research is used to limit the data in order to examine them mathematically and according
to an acceptable quantitative or statistical standard (Leedy, 1997). All kinds and variet-
ies of phenomena—whether tangible, like objects, artworks, and natural phenomena; or
intangible, like emotional states, ideas, attitudes, and perceptions—can be “translated”
and measured with statistical tools that capture and make visible their elusive qualities.
When these measurements are seen in terms of mathematical relationships, the data
can be insightfully compared across different sources, timeframes, methods, groups of
people, and newly relevant research questions.
Critics of such measurement in art therapy research have proposed that it does
not yield to the complexity that is art, and that art therapists may prefer “allowing art
expressions to speak in and of themselves as opposed to being quantified and compared
to a pre-established system” (McLaughlin & Carolan, 1992, p. 50). But this misap-
prehends the fact that measurement is simply a tool and not an end in itself. Nor is it a
substitute for the reality of an art therapist’s work. Measurement is a research tool that
offers up information about the data, whether that data is art expression or some other
complex behavior. Behind the statistics are the data themselves to which the statistics
refer. The researcher always is interpreting and giving meaning to this data; statistics
simply are one tool used to do so.
Valid and Reliable Instrumentation

Art therapists have not always approached research with a critical eye toward standard-
ized instruments, preferring informal or self-invented means for collecting and interpret-
ing data. In some respects, this is like creatively re-arranging the words in a sentence and
then expecting people to understand what you are saying. Standard instrumentation is
like standard English: clear communication and shared meaning are only possible when
people use the same rules of grammar. In research, the choice of instrument to guide
data collection should be determined, at least in part, by its validity and reliability. You
want to find and use reliable instruments that will give you similar results consistently
and over time; your choice of a valid instrument is one that measures what it is supposed
to measure. It should measure what you are looking for based on the criteria set forth
in your study. For example, can a single drawing from a particular directive measure a
person’s spiritual beliefs or does it measure something else entirely, like what the person
wishes to be true or wants to be accepted by the evaluator? Standardized instruments
are used to control for these and other instrumentation errors and biases. These are usu-
ally in the form of surveys, checklists and questionnaires, physical measures, published
psychological tests and inventories, and some art assessments.
Art as a Research Tool

As discussed in detail in the following chapters, a unique tool or strategy in art therapy
research involves the art product and process of creating art in service of therapy. In
writing from the perspective of how art therapists may collaborate with social scien-
tists in their research projects, Musham (2001) observed that although the use of art
in research is not new, its promise remains unfulfilled. She stated that the fact that
most social science researchers do not know how to use art in research is unsurprising
because they rarely have a background in art education. Thus, they fail to appreciate
“both the revelatory powers of art and that it can be legitimate data” (p. 210). Musham
proposed that with their specialized training and experience, art therapists can make a
significant contribution to the research studies of social scientists and help them use art
more effectively and responsibly.
The Clinical Research Team

Although unfortunately rare in art therapy, much research in clinical and social sci-
ence fields currently takes place through collaborative teamwork funded by aca-
demic and private sector research grants. A clinical research team is another tool
art therapists and practitioners should consider to carry out their projects and to
gain valuable skills that will advance their professional knowledge (Musham, 2001).
The complications of carrying out research in a field setting become manageable
when members of the team are given responsibility for only those aspects that fall
TABLE 1.4 The clinical research team

Psychologist or Research Expert Knows how to design a valid and reliable study
Can apply statistical analysis
Can train other members of the team
Interprets the data
Can lend expertise in writing a scientific paper
and publishing the findings
Art Therapist Designs the intervention
Performs the intervention
Interprets the data
Writes up the artistic aspects of the study
Data Collector Secures signed consent from participants
Conducts the pre- and posttest
Sets up the control
Inputs data into the program
Liaison to the Study Participants Has a formal role of responsibility for the
agency or hospital (usually is a nurse or
doctor)
Has contact with the population under study
Has contact with other clinicians
Can provide access or help find a site where
the study can take place
Can recommend participation in the study
Institutional Review Board Protects the research subjects from harm
Protects the research team from liability
Provides human subject guidelines and rules
for compliance
Determines suitability of the study
Reviews and approves the research study and
team
within their unique expertise. The model described by Nainis (2007) in the model in
Table 1.4 is one example of how a research team may function and is fairly typical
in collaborative research.
In this model, the art therapist may be the one who carries out the experimental
variable or art therapy treatment while other members of the team secure a valid and
reliable study by providing expertise in such aspects as testing, inputting data, statisti-
cal analysis, or selecting the participants. Musham (2001) has described other roles
art therapists can take that are critical to the success of a research study where art is
used, especially when the principal investigator (PI) is not an art therapist. Theoretical
frameworks or the mechanics involved in art therapy may be poorly understood by
PIs, or they may not be aware of the wide range of art strategies that can be used in a
study. Art therapists may provide procedural and ethical oversight for the use of art, or
may offer strategies for helping research participants engage in art processes or handle
emotional reactions.
Participation in a clinical research team in the agency where you work or in col-
laboration with a university is a good solution for art therapists who can’t help but
“raise the image of the irresistible, larger, powerful and noblest of animals or questions”
in their research pursuits (Kapitan, 1998, p. 25). This is the much desired research study
that will bestow respect and recognition to a large audience, proving once and for all art
therapy’s value to a large audience. But in reality the efforts of many people are needed
to successfully pursue such an animal; “it takes a community of hunters collaborating
together to succeed” (p. 25). By taking one role on the research team, usually as the
facilitator of art therapy treatment, you will be able to use the strengths and knowledge
you already possess to satisfy your research goals and to make your study more man-
ageable in scale.
The Use of a Mentor

One other useful tool is having a mentor. “Many art therapists lack education and train-
ing in research methodology and some practitioners may fear that research methods
demand an overly structured or evaluative approach,” stated Deaver (2002, p. 23). By
networking with art therapist researchers or recent doctoral students, or by establishing
a supervisory relationship with an expert, you can be guided past stumbling blocks.
In both research and the hunter-gatherer tradition, working with a guide or “respected
elder” is an important means for passing down valuable knowledge and ensuring greater
success than would ever be possible alone.
STEP SIX: IMPLEMENTING THE STUDY

WITHIN ETHICAL BOUNDARIES
The final step before implementing the research is to describe how you will safe-
guard the rights of those who will participate in your study. This requires writing a
proposal that is submitted to review by a human subjects committee (often called an
Institutional Review Board or IRB) charged with overseeing research in the agency or
institution that you intend to access (see Chapter 8, “Before You Begin: The Research
Proposal and Other Ethical Safeguards”). Most academic and health care institutions
today have their own review boards for this purpose, although art therapy practitioners
may be employed in an agency that does not. In such a case, the art therapist researcher
should use an equivalent review and approval process, such as submitting the research
proposal to the highest-ranking official in the agency, who can affirm in writing that
the agency has reviewed, approved, and will support the study, and that the researcher
will be conducting the study in accordance with ethical guidelines. In addition to a
professional code of conduct, researchers must be familiar with privacy laws and with
federal-mandated rules for research with human subjects that require ethical review.
These forces have made a powerful impact on the ethics of research.
Patton (2002) listed some of the issues that must be brought into awareness before
implementing the study having to do with issues of harm, consent, deception, privacy,
and confidentiality of data:
r Explaining purpose: Can you explain the purpose of your study to others
in a way that is accurate and understandable? What details must you share
with those who will be participating in your study? What makes your study
worthwhile?
r Promises and reciprocity: Can you explain to your participants and
co-researchers why they should participate in the activities you have designed
for them? Have you made any promises in exchange for their participation
and can you honor these promises?
r Risk assessment: Can you explain the risks involved in participating in your
study? To what extent can people decide to opt out? What degree of psycho-
logical risk is involved? Are there other risks, such as possible political or
social repercussions for participating, or risks to participants’ family mem-
bers, peers, employers, etc.? How will you handle unknown risks that may
emerge in the study?
r Confidentiality: Can confidentiality be fully maintained? Are there any cir-
cumstances that limit confidentiality, such as the mandate to report child
abuse? How will the data be kept confidential and what degree and length of
time is involved in storing the data?
r Informed consent: Can you explain the study sufficiently to provide informed
consent? What kind of written consent is necessary to protect the rights of
both the participants and the researcher? What are the requirements of the
Institutional Review Board that will be involved?
r Data access and ownership: Who will have access to data or artworks that
are collected? Who will see the final report? What limitations on access are
necessary to protect participants? How will the data be recorded and stored?
Who owns the data or artworks?
r Safeguarding mental health: How will your participants be affected by your
study? How will you, as the researcher, be affected? Will any debriefing be
necessary after the data collection or analysis?
r Advice: Who will supervise and help you handle any ethical matters that
may arise in the study? Who will you go to for advice or to help deal with
difficulties?
r Data collection boundaries: Are there any conflicts in your role in collecting
data for the study? What limits should you set to protect your participants
from disclosing information beyond their original consent? Under what cir-
cumstances might you have to change or abandon the study?
STEP SEVEN: REPORTING AND

DISSEMINATING RESULTS
After conducting the study and gathering information, you will analyze the data using
the quantitative or qualitative methods identified in your plan. If your project was care-
fully conducted and you have valuable data, you are obligated to disseminate the results.
Two general principles are used to develop a published report: Adequate evidence
should be given to justify your conclusions and the logic of your study, and conclusions
should be transparent or explicit. You may want to refer to Chapter 9 for guidance on
what comprises a good research report, and Chapter 10 on how to publish your study in
a scholarly journal. The point here is that it is a serious responsibility not to end your
study without sharing your findings with others. Like the practical reasons for conduct-
ing any search for knowledge or hunt:
The hunter, though engaged in a quest that is enacted in isolation, knows that the ulti-
mate outcome of the hunt is to replenish the stores of food needed to feed the com-
munity. Likewise, the researcher is motivated not solely by the individual quest for
knowledge, but the recognition of connection to a community of professionals who
will benefit from the renewal of the basic scientific conversation the inquiry brings.
Once data has been collected and interpreted, the researcher must determine the
audience to be addressed, whether that is the self, peer professionals, policy makers,
the community, or other researchers. How the findings are presented can also take
a number of different forms, such as a research article, newsletter report, in-service
presentation, thesis, and so forth. Every hunter-researcher fulfills a larger function
of the community; when it is a matter of food or of survival, it is not a game, and it
is not entered into for power or out of arrogance and a belief in the superiority of the
hunter-researcher over the world of the pursuit … This giving attitude also prepares
the ground for future mentoring of peers and students in their research pursuits.
(Kapitan, 1998, p. 26)
The art therapist, in concluding a research study, usually has benefited from a
number of people who agreed to participate because they believed that doing so would
be worthwhile and would make a contribution to human knowledge. Thus, it is a shame
that so many research studies go unreported and unpublished. Often art therapists only
hear about a study through the good fortune of attending a presentation at a national
conference, a venue that is limited to very few attendees. In and of itself, this is not bad
because conferences are often the first place where research is reported and where art
therapists gather to discuss recent or on-going research activities. But it also happens
that unpublished findings sometimes are used to create theoretical or statistical models
that may or may not be reliable. The problem here is in reporting on studies that have
not been reviewed by independent evaluators for their claims of statistical or clinical
significance.
For art therapy research to benefit the greater good, we need to embrace the under-
standing that our ideas, once widely disseminated, have the potential to transform
knowledge (Kapitan, 2006b). We should not fail to ask, “Who else needs to know my
discoveries?” Research does not stop at generating knowledge in relative isolation, but
extends knowledge into useful practices in a multitude of directions. It does not mat-
ter whether the goal of the “hunt” is the artist’s or the scientist’s discoveries. One must
enter absolutely into the search in order to endure to the end (Kapitan, 1998). In all its
forms, knowledge is about how to act in the face of life’s demands. Such is the contribu-
tion that art therapy research may have in finding better ways of being in the world and
becoming more effective in our pursuits.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Basic steps in research design:
1. ––––– Identify the research question.

2. ––––– Develop the problem statement.
3. ––––– Review the existing literature related to the problem.
4. ––––– Decide on the methodology.
5. ––––– Locate tools and resources for collecting and analyzing the data.
6. ––––– Implement the study within ethical boundaries.
7. ––––– Report on the results and publish/disseminate the findings.
REFERENCES
Allen, P. B., & Gantt, L. (1992). Guidelines for getting started in art therapy research. In
H. Wadeson (Ed.), A guide to conducting art therapy research (pp. 23–27). Mundelein, IL:
Anderson, F. (2001). Benefits of conducting research. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art
Bailey, D. M. (1991). Research for the health professional: A practical guide. Philadelphia, PA: Davis.
Deaver, S. P. (2002). What constitutes art therapy research? Art Therapy: Journal of the American
Art Therapy Association, 19(1), 23–27.
Elmes, D. G., Kantowitz, B. H., & Roediger III, H. L. (1999). Research methods in psychology
(6th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Kapitan, L. (2006b). The multiplier effect: Art therapy research that benefits all. Art Therapy:
Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews: An introduction to qualitative research interviewing. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Leedy, P. (1997). Practical research: Planning and design (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Linesch, D. (1995). Art therapy research: Learning from experience. Art Therapy: Journal of the
Malchiodi, C. (1992). Minimizing bias in art therapy research. In H. Wadeson (Ed.), A guide to con-
ducting art therapy research (pp. 31–36). Mundelein, IL: American Art Therapy Association.
Maxwell, J. A. (2005). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (2nd ed.). Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
McLaughlin, D., & Carolan, R. (1992). Types of research. In H. Wadeson (Ed.), A guide to conduct-
ing art therapy research (pp. 49–54). Mundelein, IL: American Art Therapy Association.
Musham, C. (2001). The potential contribution of art therapy to social science research. Art
Nainis, N. (2007). Developing a scientific research study for expressive art therapy. Presentation
at Northwestern Memorial Hospital, Chicago, IL.
CA: Sage.
Reason, P. (1981). Human inquiry. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
Rhyne, J. (1992). How ideas are generated for art therapy research. In H. Wadeson (Ed.), A guide
Association.
Rudner, R. (1991). The call of the climb. Parabola, 16(2), 73–78.
565B5 35C
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& B9 7695 4 81B 5C 8?=1C
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& B9 7695 4 81B 5C 8?=1C
B1E4 45BC? B1 C 5BC? 1 B5C51B38

=5D8?4C 6?B D85 C?391 C395 35C ? ?B9 7 8E=1
5H 5B95 35 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
1B? 1 ?45 C 1 4 1B1497=C ?6 1BD D85B1 I

B5C51B38 BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I
CC?391D9? L
1 DD 49C3ECC9? ?6 1BD D85B1 I 1C C395 35

BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I
CC?391D9? L
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9 3? D5= ?B1BI 965 5G ,?B; , 1C93 ??;C
9 B?I BD D85B1 I B5C51B38 1 4

5F945 35 21C54 B13D935 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
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CI38?D85B1 I L
E 75 9 5C38 BD D85B1 9CDCN G1I ?6

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3? 4E3D9 7 1BD D85B1 I B5C51B38 L E 45 59
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1BD D85B1 I B5C51B38 2B956 B5 ?BD BD 85B1 I ?EB 1
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D85B1 I B5C51B38 9 D85 8E D9 7 DB149D9? BD 85B1 I
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D85B1 I B5C51B38 L E 45 59 =5B931 BD
85B1 I CC?391D9?
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, &38?3;5 ??;C
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1 389?49 ?5C 1 13; ?6 1BD D85B1 I B5C51B38

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1 389?49 4 1 .& 5391 9CCE5 ? 1BD D85B1 I

1 4 B5C51B38/ BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD
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19 5I 5C51B38 6?B D85 851 D8 B?65CC9? 1

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9 F5CD971D9? C 9 D85 1BD ?6 1 75B BD 85B1 I ?EB 1
?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
1 1 BD C395 35 1 4 1BD D85B1 I

5 19 D9 7 D85 93DEB5 89 145 891 5CC931
9 7C 5I
1 1 B51C ?6 9 AE9BI 6?B 1BD D85B1 I

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L
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1B; ) (C9 7 1BD 1C 1 7E175 9 1B75 7B?E
491 ?7E5C 85 =?45 BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85
=5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
E= ;9 5 1D9 7 3E DEB1 945 D9DI 1 4 945 D9DI

1C 1BD D85B1 9CD BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD
85B1 I CC?391D9? L
1 389?49 2 =2B139 7 ?EB =9CC9? BD 85B1 I

?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
1 389?49 ED8?B9DI ?B 14F?313I BD D85B1 I 9

C5BF935 ?6 C5 6 ?B ?D85BC BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85
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3 966 & 5 D8 CI38? ?7I ?6 1BD & B9 7695 4

81B 5C 8?=1C
3 966 & BD 1C =54939 5 B51D9 7 1 D85B1 I ?6

D85 9=179 1D9? ?CD? &81=281 1
3 966 & 1 BD 21C54 B5C51B38 89 145 891

5CC931 9 7C 5I
3 966 & 2 1B79 7 D85 F9C9? ?6 1BD D85B1 I

CC?391D9? L
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5CC931 9 7C 5I
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1 B?138 1 4 3 9 931 1BD D85B1 I BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6
D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
&9 F5B 85 &9 F5B B1G9 7 5CD ?6 ?7 9D9? 1 4

=?D9? B4 54 &1B1C?D1 2 9 B5CC
&9 F5B ( 41D9 7 D85 &9 F5B B1G9 7 5CD ?6

?7 9D9? 1 4 =?D9? B4 54 &1B1C?D1 2 9
B5CC
& 1 9? & H8929D9? 1BD 2I 5? 5 G9D8 =5 D1

9 5CC B?35CC 1 4 B9 39 5C BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6
D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
& 1 9? & ?G1B4C 1 5D8 ?7B1 893 1 B?138 D? 1BD

D85B1 I B5C51B38 5? 5 G9D8 CI3891DB93 49C129 9DI 1C
3? 12?B1D?BC BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD
85B1 I CC?391D9? L
& 1 9? & O 85 G9D85B9 7 ?6 D85 5H 5BDP 53?F5BI

D8B?E78 1BD BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD
85B1 I CC?391D9? L
& 1 9? & O 51B 54 8? 56E 5CCP 1BDCL21C54

1 B?138 D? 1BD939 1D?BI 13D9? B5C51B38 BD 85B1 I
?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
&E 9F1 BD B13D935 1C B5C51B38 AE9BI 9

D85 F9CE1 1BDC 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
&G1 85 C13B54 1BD ?6 8E D9 7 9 ?3AE1

9 ?G B55; B5CC
145C? 85 1 D9 1CC5CC=5 D 45F9 NC 14F?31D5

BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I
CC?391D9? L
9H 85 9 D5B CDE49? 9 ?D CDE4I BD

85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
E1 D9D1D9F5 ?45 C ?6 BD 85B1 I
5C51B38
19 5I 5C51B38 6?B D85 851 D8 B?65CC9? 1

B13D931 7E945 89 145 891 1F9C
53; ) 9 4 DB?ED 1B12? 1 L
1= 25 &D1 5I H 5B9=5 D1 1 4
? 5H 5B9=5 D1 45C97 C 6?B B5C51B38 89317? 1 4
3 1 I
1B? 1 ?45 C 1 4 1B1497=C ?6 1BD D85B1 I

BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I
CC?391D9? L
B5CG5 5C51B38 45C97 E1 9D1D9F5 1 4

AE1 D9D1D9F5 1 B?1385C 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
B5CG5 5C51B38 45C97 E1 9D1D9F5

AE1 D9D1D9F5 1 4 =9H54 =5D8?4C 1 B?1385C 4 54
8?EC1 4 1;C &175
91=? 4 85 C9 7 5 31C5 CDE4I 145C?

4 7E945 D? 3? 4E3D9 7 1BD D85B1 I B5C51B38
L E 45 59 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
=5C 1 D?G9DJ ?54975B

5C51B38 =5D8?4C 9 CI38? ?7I D8 54 139693
B?F5 B??;C ? 5
1 DD 12? 5 85 ?B=1 5=5 DC BD

85B1 I &31 5 85 B1D9 7 =1 E1 ?B71 D?G ) 1B7?I 5
B5CC
9 B?I BD D85B1 I B5C51B38 1 4

5F945 35 21C54 B13D935 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
E 91B4 3B51C9 7 385=931 I 45 5 45 D

1D95 DCN 25 956 9 CD5 ? 5 D8B?E78 5H B5CC9F5 D85B1 I
=5B931 ?EB 1 ?6 BD 85B1 I L
E ; 5 9 5B 85 56653DC ?6 9 49F94E1 1BD

D85B1 I E ? 5=?D9? 1 I 49CDEB254 4516 389 4B5 1 4
14? 5C35 DC 9 1B91 & B1=5B ?D8
4C BD D85B1 I &D9 7B?G9 7 B?35549 7C ?6 D85
D8 E1 ? 65B5 35 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I
CC?391D9? L 5H1 4B91 ) =5B931 BD
85B1 I CC?391D9?
554I B13D931 B5C51B38 1 9 7 1 4
45C97 B4 54 ( 5B &144 5 9F5B B5 D935 1
3 5?4 ?9 7 3?E C5 9 7 B5C51B38 8?EC1 4

1;C &175
?B71 ?8 C? (C5 ?6 1 4B1G9 7

D1C; 9 D85 DB51D=5 D ?6 978D=1B5C 9 3?=21D B5 1D54
?CD DB1E=1D93 CDB5CC 49C?B45B BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85
=5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
&1 ;9 4 H ?B9 7 B5C51B38 B4 54 ( 5B

&144 5 9F5B B5 D935 1
1F1 9 1 5 =19 CEBF5I ?6 =5 9 D85 695 4

?6 1BD D85B1 I BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD
85B1 I CC?391D9? L
)93; &DB1ECC & CC5CC=5 D ?6

16653DC ?= 1B9C? ?6 B1D9 7C ?6 B5CDBE3DEB54 9=175C G9D8
CI= D?= 3853; 9CD BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD
85B1 I CC?391D9? L
ED3?=5C 5C51B38 D? 5 5B1D5
F945 35 1C54 B13D935
45BC? 5 569DC ?6 3? 4E3D9 7 B5C51B38

BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I
CC?391D9? L
BB9 7D? 45BC? B1 DC CDBE3DEB5

6?B B5C51B38 145C? 4 7E945 D? 3? 4E3D9 7
1BD D85B1 I B5C51B38 L E 45 59 =5B931
BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
13;?C , 17? 9 49 7 1 F?935 BD

D85B1 I G9D8 65=1 5 14? 5C35 D C5HE1 12EC5 CEBF9F?BC BD
85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
5 ?229 C & 6653D ?6 1BD

B?4E3D9? ? 571D9F5 =??4 B1 4?=9J54 3? DB? 54
DB91 BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I
CC?391D9? L
B?G 85 DB13;5B 1B12? 1 L
81 =1 ?B129D? 141;1;?C &38B595B

E4C? 6653D9F5 5CC ?6 1BD D85B1 I
9 D5BF5 D9? C 9 B54E39 7 ?CD DB1E=1D93 CDB5CC 49C?B45B
& CI= D?=C 9 5491DB93 DB1E=1 1D95 DC BD 85B1 I
?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
? 95 13;?C 1 389?49 & 9575

BD D85B1 I 6?B 3?=21D B5 1D54 &
53?==5 41D9? C 6?B B5C51B38 1 4 B13D935 BD 85B1 I
?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
B5CG5 5C51B38 45C97 C E1 9D1D9F5

AE1 D9D1D9F5 1 4 =9H54 =5D8?4C 1 B?1385C 4 54
8?EC1 4 1;C &175
9C8 ?B=1D9F5 5F1 E1D9? B5C51B38 ?6 1BD 21C54

CE 5BF9C9? 9 1BD D85B1 I DB19 9 7 BD 85B1 I ?EB 1
?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
9 B?I BD D85B1 I B5C51B38 1 4

5F945 35 21C54 B13D935 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
1I5C & &9 7 5 31C5 5H 5B9=5 D1 45C97 1 4

5= 9B931 3 9 931 CDE4I 1J49 4
5D8?4? ?7931 9CCE5C 1 4 CDB1D5795C 9 3 9 931 B5C51B38
L 1C89 7D? =5B931 CI38? ?7931
CC?391D9?
525BD B51D=5 D 1 5 4
( 45BCD1 49 7 851 D8 31B5 ?ED3?=5C B5C51B38 L
19D85BC2EB7 C 5
5BF5I BD9CD93 9 AE9BI 9 41 35 =?F5=5 D

D85B1 I & B9 7695 4 81B 5C 8?=1C
E 91B4 ED3?=5C B5C51B38 9 851 D8 31B5

= 931D9? C 6?B 1BD D85B1 I BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85
=5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
1 5 4 ( 45BCD1 49 7 851 D8 31B5

?ED3?=5C B5C51B38 19D85BC2EB7 C 5
1 9D1 2 85 =E D9 95B 56653D BD D85B1 I

B5C51B38 D81D 25 569DC 1 BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85
=5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
1J49 4 5D8?4? ?7931 9CCE5C 1 4

CDB1D5795C 9 3 9 931 B5C51B38 4 54 1C89 7D?
=5B931 CI38? ?7931 CC?391D9?
554I B13D931 B5C51B38 1 9 7 1 4

45C97 B4 54 ( 5B &144 5 9F5B 5BB9 B5 D935
1
IC81; &D5 J5B &9 75B &D ?8 85=D?2

BD D85B1 I 6?B 14? 5C35 DC G9D8 ?CDDB1E=1D93
CDB5CC 49C?B45B CI= D?=C 9 ?D CDE4I BD 85B1 I
?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
3 966 & 1 BD 21C54 B5C51B38 89 145 891

5CC931 9 7C 5I
? D9 5D5BC? &81;9 E ;5 1E3;

5AE97 ?D 8?45C B19 1B4
B1 4?=9J54 3? DB? 54 DB91 ?6 =9 46E 5CC 21C54 1BD
D85B1 I 6?B G?=5 G9D8 31 35B CI38? 3? ?7I
L
1DD? E1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B38 1 4 5F1 E1D9?

=5D8?4C B4 54 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
513?3; 5BC? 1 3? CDBE3D 1 B?138 D? 1BD

D85B1 I 9 D85 DB51D=5 D ?6 ?CD C5HE1 12EC5 DB1E=1
=5B931 ?EB 1 ?6 BD 85B1 I L
961 ? E 9 7 ?ED D85 D8?B C BD D85B1 I G9D8

C5HE1 I 12EC54 389 4B5 1 4 14? 5C35 DC BD 85B1 I
?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
5I ? 4C 12?BC E9 1 85
56653D9F5 5CC ?6 1BD D85B1 I ?5C 9D G?B; BD 85B1 I
?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
9381B4C? F945 35 21C54 B13D935 1 4 D85

CI38?4I 1=93 CI38?D85B1 95C 1C5 & ??B5I
?25BDC 4C F945 35 9 D85 CI38? ?7931 D85B1 95C
L 5G ,?B; , BE 5B ?ED 5475
?C1 ECDB1D9? C ?6 1BD D85B1 I B5C51B38

145C? 4 7E945 D? 3? 4E3D9 7 1BD D85B1 I
B5C51B38 L E 45 59 =5B931 BD 85B1 I
CC?391D9?
& 1 9? & O 85 G9D85B9 7 ?6 D85 5H 5BDP 53?F5BI

D8B?E78 1BD BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD
85B1 I CC?391D9? L
& 5BBI B9 ?G1B4 B9CC?=

B51D=5 D ?ED3?=5C 9 CI38?D85B1 I 1 4 CI3891DB93
9 D5BF5 D9? C 5G ,?B; , E 5B 1J5
&G597 ?=5 851 9 7 G?=5 9=5 9=9D54

CI38?54E31D9? 1 7B?E D85B1 I 6?B 389 48??4 C5HE1 12EC5
CEBF9F?BC BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I
CC?391D9? L
F5CD971D9 7 D85 95 4
1BD939 1 D 2C5BF1D9?
B7IB9C &38? 85?B95C 9 B13D935

3B51C9 7 B?65CC9? 1 56653D9F5 5CC &1 B1 39C3?
?CC5I 1CC
B7IB9C &38? B71 9J1D9? 1

51B 9 7 D85?BI ?6 13D9? 5BC 53D9F5 5149 7
449C? 5C 5I
5 6EC9 7 B135 9 D? D85 (& 49C3?EBC5 ?

13D9? B5C51B38 51C? B142EBI 4C
1 42??; ?6 13D9? B5C51B38 L 8?EC1 4 1;C
&175
?741 9; 5 & E1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B38 6?B

54E31D9? 9 DB?4E3D9? D? D85?BI 1 4 =5D8?4C ?CD?
I 1 4 13?
1 D5B1 5 D5B 6?B ?==E 931D9? 1 4 ? E 1B 4E31D9? ?6

931B17E1 8? 1B5 G5 5DB95F54 52BE1BI
6B?= 8DD GGG 31 D5B1 931B17E1 ?B7 5 031 D5B1 8D=
1B? 1 ?45 C 1 4 1B1497=C ?6 1BD D85B1 I

CC?391D9? L
1BD5B ?H 1 4 8?E 4C 1B12? 1 L
81=25BC 954 5D8 ?7B1 8I 5 J9

, & 9 3? 4C 1 42??; ?6 AE1 9D1D9F5 9 AE9BI 4
54 L 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
81D1G1I 57?D91D9 7 D85 ?2C5BF5B ?2C5BF54

B5 1D9? C89 1BD939 1D?BI 13D9? B5C51B38
? =1 1 4 BI4? 9 5B 4C B?= CE2:53DC D?
CE2:53D9F9D95C 81 42??; ?6 9 D5B B5D9F5 1 4
1BD939 1D?BI =5D8?4C L 5G ,?B; 5G ,?B;
( 9F5BC9DI B5CC
? 95 E2B1 93 1BD D85B1 I C? ED9?

D? 1 D5 5851 D8 B?2 5= BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85
=5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
B5CG5 E1 9D1D9F5 9 AE9BI 1 4 B5C51B38

45C97 8??C9 7 1=? 7 69F5 DB149D9? C 8?EC1 4 1;C
&175
B5CG5 5C51B38 45C97 C E1 9D1D9F5

AE1 D9D1D9F5 1 4 =9H54 =5D8?4C 1 B?1385C 4 54
8?EC1 4 1;C &175

CC?391D9? L
5 1 D 5 1 D 1BD939 1 D
?2C5BF1D9? 7E945 6?B 695 4G?B;5BC 1 ED B55;
D1 9B1 B5CC
93;9 C? 4 ?==E 9DI 1 4 D85 G?B 4

1BD939 1D9 7 9 C?391 381 75 1E 1E75 , ?F1
&395 35
=5BC? B5DJ &81G B9D9 7

5D8 ?7B1 893 695 4 ?D5C 89317? ( 9F5BC9DI ?6
89317? B5CC
1I B9D931 C?391 C395 35 D8131 ,

?B 5 ( 9F5BC9DI B5CC
9 5 ?BB5 ?E49 ?G5 1B;

I D? Q ( 57E9 1BD939 1D?BI 13D9?
B5C51B38 B?= G9D89 1 4 25I? 4 B9C? 21BC
1=93 8?45C ,1B4 5I 4C E1 9D1D9F5
B5C51B38 9 CI38? ?7I H 1 49 7 5BC 53D9F5C 9
=5D8?4? ?7I 1 4 45C97 L 1C89 7D?
=5B931 CI38? ?7931 CC?391D9?
9 ;5 CD59 9D8 ? 49B53D9? 8?=5 ?=5 5CC

I?ED8 ? D85 B?14 1 4 9 D85 CDB55DC 5 =? D 8?=C?
14CG?BD8
9DJ 1DB93; C51B38 6?B 8?=5 85 B? 5 ?6 1BD

D85B1 I 9 E 45BCD1 49 7 D85 5H 5B95 35C ?6 ?C 91
B56E755C 9 5CD5B ECDB1 91 BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85
=5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
B954=1 ) 3D9? C395 35 B51D9 7

3?==E 9D95C ?6 9 AE9BI 9 3?==E 9D95C ?6 B13D935
51C? B142EBI 4C 1 42??; ?6 13D9? B5C51B38
L 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
B95B5 5417?7I ?6 D85 ? B5CC54 5G ,?B; ,

5 E= B5CC
B95B5 ?B5G1B4 & &=9D8 ?8 C?

4C EBDEB54 2I ; ?G 5475 51B 9 7 D? 4?
1BD939 1D?BI 13D9? B5C51B38 H9LH99 5G ,?B; ,
5H B5CC
? E2 &?391 13D9? 1BD D85B1 I BD 85B1 I

?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
?B4? &8? DJ 1 9F9 7 G9D8 D85 C

F9BEC B5 B5C5 D1D9F5 31C5 CDE4I ?EB 1 ?6 ?E C5 9 7
1 4 5F5 ? =5 D L
?B4? &8? DJ 2 5 B5C5 D1D9F5 31C5

B5C51B38 G1I ?6 ; ?G9 7 ?EB 1 ?6 ?E C5 9 7 1 4
5F5 ? =5 D L
E21 9 3? , & ?= 5D9 7 1B1497=C

9 AE1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B38 5 J9 , & 9 3?
4C 85 1 4C31 5 ?6 AE1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B38 85?B95C 1 4
9CCE5C L 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
E5BB5B? & 5 45B C5 C9D9F5 1 4 65=9 9CD

=5D8?4? ?795C 81 42??; 6?B 851 D8 1 4 C?391
B5C51B385BC E5J? 9DI ( 9F5BC9DI ?6 D85 89 9 9 5C
5 D5B 6?B ?=5 NC &DE495C
1 1BD939 1D?BI B5C51B38 ? E 1B ; ?G 5475

1 4 ?G5B 5BC? 1 B56 53D9? ? F5B75 35
L
5 5I 1=9 7 D85 5 5=I 1BD D85B1 I

9 D5BF5 D9? 6?B 389 4B5 G9D8 29 ? 1B 1 4 3?=?B294
49C?B45BC BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I
CC?391D9? L
5B? 51C? 85 B13D935 ?6

3? ? 5B1D9F5 9 AE9BI 5C51B38 MG9D8N B1D85B D81 M? N
5? 5 51C? B142EBI 4C 1 42??; ?6
13D9? B5C51B38 L 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
?66=1 1F9C 1 1 39 7 D85 G8? 5 ?BDB19DEB5

1C =5D8?4? ?7I 1=93 8?45C ,1B4 5I
4C E1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B38 9 CI38? ?7I H 1 49 7
5BC 53D9F5C 9 =5D8?4? ?7I 1 4 45C97 L
1C89 7D? =5B931 CI38? ?7931 CC?391D9?
1 5C93; ) O&DB5D389 7P 5H5B39C5C 6?B

AE1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B385BC 4 54 8?EC1 4 1;C
&175
1 9D1 1 ?21 5BC 53D9F5C ?6 B13D935 BD

85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
1 9D1 2 85 O=E D9 95B 56653DP BD D85B1 I

B5C51B38 D81D 25 569DC 1 BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85
=5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
1B; ) (C9 7 1BD 1C 1 7E175 9 1B75 7B?E

491 ?7E5C 85 =?45 BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85
=5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
1GB5 35 978D6??D & ?66=1 1F9C & 85 1BD

1 4 C395 35 ?6 ?BDB19DEB5 &1 B1 39C3? ?CC5I
1CC
I;5C 3D9F9CD 1BD939 1D?BI B5C51B38 1 4

D85 1BDC G9D8 BEB1 1I1 G?=5 D5B3E DEB1 9DI 1 4
C9DE1D54 =51 9 7 =1;9 7 ? =1 BI4? 9 5B
4C B?= CE2:53DC D? CE2:53D9F9D95C 81 42??; ?6
9 D5B B5D9F5 1 4 1BD939 1D?BI =5D8?4C L 5G
,?B; 5G ,?B; ( 9F5BC9DI B5CC
17E9B5 ?9 7 1BD939 1D?BI B5C51B38

65=9 9CD 1 B?138 =85BCD 85 5 D5B 6?B D5B 1D9? 1
4E31D9? ( 9F5BC9DI ?6 1CC138EC5DDC
1B9 3?G9DJ ?G D? EC5 1BD939 1D?BI

13D9? B5C51B38 9 B9=1BI 31B5 1=9 I B13D935
L
?BC5 95 4 E1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B38

=5D8?4C 6?B 851 D8 B?65CC9? 1 C 4 54 8?EC1 4 1;C
&175
1 5C 5=9 9C= 1 4 =5D8?4 D8 ?7B1 8I

49C3?EBC5 1 1 IC9C 1 4 13D9F9CD B5C51B38 5G ,?B; ,
?ED 5475
5C? ) 5=9 9C= 1 4 =?45 C ?6 AE1 9D1D9F5

B5C51B38 5 J9 , & 9 3? 4C 1 42??;
?6 AE1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B38 L 8?EC1 4 1;C
&175
1B; ?G 5475 1 4 1BD939 1D?BI B5C51B38

51C? B142EBI 4C 1 42??; ?6 13D9?
B5C51B38 L 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
1DD? E1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B38 1 4 5F1 E1D9?

=5D8?4C B4 54 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
51C? B142EBI 4C 1 42??; ?6

13D9? B5C51B38 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
& 1 9? & ?G1B4C 1 5D8 ?7B1 893 1 B?138 D? 1BD

3? 12?B1D?BC BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD
85B1 I CC?391D9? L
& 1 9? & O 51B 54 8? 56E 5CCP 1BDC 21C54

?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
& 9 4 5B & 9 4 5B D5B B5D9F5

5D8 ?7B1 8I ?6 54E31D9? D 8?=5 1 4 12B?14 9 C41 5
1GB5 35 B 21E=
& B14 5I 85 5D8 ?7B1 893 9 D5BF95G ?BD

?BD8 ? D 9 581BD 1 4 9 CD?
& B14 5I 1BD939 1 D ?2C5BF1D9? ?BD

?BD8 ? D 9 581BD 1 4 9 CD?
&D13I 1 D85B5 25 1 65=9 9CD 5D8 ?7B1 8I

& E3; 1D19 4C ?=5 NC G?B4C
L 5G ,?B; , ?ED 5475
&D1;5 1C5 CDE495C 5 J9 , &

9 3? 4C 1 42??; ?6 AE1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B38
L 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
&D1;5 85 1BD ?6 31C5 CDE4I B5C51B38

8?EC1 4 1;C &175
&E 9F1 BD B13D935 1C B5C51B38 AE9BI 9

D85 F9CE1 1BDC 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
&E 7 81 5 5B1D9 7 B13D935 ; ?G 5475 6?B

C?391 G?B; 54E31D9? D51385BNC 5H 5B95 35 9 ? 7
? 7 &?391 ?B; 4E31D9? L
?B25BD 85 B13D935 ?6 13D9? 9 AE9BI

51C? B142EBI 4C 1 42??; ?6 13D9?
B5C51B38 L 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
9 D5B 51B 9 7 6B?= 5H 5B95 35 B9 39 5C 1 4

B13D935C 9 13D9? B5C51B38 89 145 891 1 =5B
B5CC
? 3?DD B1 C6?B=9 7 AE1 9D1D9F5 41D1

5C3B9 D9? 1 1 IC9C 1 4 9 D5B B5D1D9? 8?EC1 4 1;C
&175
,1D5C EG141 ?DD5B 1=5B? ?C89 ?

=175 =1;9 7 1 4 5BC? 1 1BB1D9F5C G9D8
1 1 5C5 =5B931 CEBF9F?BC ?6 ?B 4 1B 9 D5B =5 D
31= BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I
CC?391D9? L
5C51B389 7 D85 85 ?=5 1 ?6 ? C39?EC
H 5B95 35
1B255 F9CE1 1BB1D9F5 1 B?138 D?

E 45BCD1 49 7 DB1 CC5HE1 945 D9DI BD 85B1 I ?EB 1
?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
??=71BD5 5DJ5B )1 941D9 7 1BD

D85B1 9CDCN D139D ; ?G9 7 85 85EB9CD93 5H 5B95 35 BD
85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
B1E4 45BC? B1 C 5BC? 1 B5C51B38

=5D8?4C 6?B D85 C?391 C395 35C ? ?B9 7 8E=1
5H 5B95 35 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
1BB 9=5 1BB1D9F5 1 4 89CD?BI ??=9 7D?

491 1 ( 9F5BC9DI B5CC
B5CG5 E1 9D1D9F5 9 AE9BI 1 4 B5C51B38

45C97 8??C9 7 1=? 7 69F5 DB149D9? C 8?EC1 4 1;C
&175
9 D85I &5 53D54 GB9D9 7C 93;=1 4

B1 C 1=2B9475 1=2B9475 ( 9F5BC9DI B5CC
9 D85I ?5DBI 1 4 5H 5B95 35 &5 53D54 G?B;C

F? B9 35D? B9 35D? ( 9F5BC9DI B5CC
?E7 1CC ?ECD1;1C 5EB9CD93 9 AE9BI

85 9 D5B 1 C51B38 D? ; ?G ?EB 1 ?6 E=1 9CD93
CI38? ?7I L
55 1 971 ? CDBE3D9 7 B?65CC9? 1

945 D9DI 9 1BD D85B1 I D8B?E78 C5BF935 51B 9 7 1 4
B13D931 BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I
CC?391D9? L
5 5B 5EB9CD93 B5C51B38 CDE4I &5 6 D85B1 I

EC9 7 D85 2B956 9=175 =1;9 7 5H 5B95 35 85 BDC 9
CI38?D85B1 I L
141=5B 89 ?C? 8931 85B=5 5ED93C

5B;5 5I ( 9F5BC9DI ?6 1 96?B 91 B5CC
5 4 9 H 5B95 39 7 1 4 D85 3B51D9? ?6

=51 9 7 89317? B55 B5CC
9 B?I BD D85B1 I B5C51B38 1 4

5F945 35 21C54 B13D935 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
9?B79 9?B79 85 45C3B9 D9F5
85 ?=5 ? ?7931 CI38? ?7931 =5D8?4 1=93
8?45C ,1B4 5I 4C E1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B38 9
CI38? ?7I H 1 49 7 5BC 53D9F5C 9 =5D8?4? ?7I 1 4
45C97 L 1C89 7D? =5B931
CI38? ?7931 CC?391D9?
5945775B 59 7 1 4 D9=5 5G ,?B; , 1B 5B

1 4 ?G
5 5I 1=9 7 D85 5 5=I 1BD D85B1 I

9 D5BF5 D9? 6?B 389 4B5 G9D8 29 ? 1B 1 4 3?=?B294
CC?391D9? L
5I 5=1 85 5F5B 351C9 7 41 35 1B12? 1

L
19C5B 4931D9? C ?6 1DD138=5 D C53EB9DI 9

1 4B1G9 7 D1C; 85 BDC 9 CI38?D85B1 I L
1 9D1 1;9 7 ?B 2B51;9 7 BD D85B1 I 9 1

F9? 5 D 3E DEB5 BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD
85B1 I CC?391D9? L
1 9D1 BD9CD 49C5 381 D=5 D 1 4 3? 12?B1D9F5

G9D 5CC B?:53D 85 ?EB 1 ?6 5417?7I EB1 9C= 1 4
B13D935 5DB9F54 6B?=
8DD GGG 5C 5I 54E :?EB 1 C : 9 45H 8D=
1 9D1 85 ?G5B ?6 1BD D85B1 9CDNC

AE1 9D95C ?6 =9 4 BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931
BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
1 1 BD C395 35 1 4 1BD D85B1 I

5 19 D9 7 D85 93DEB5 89 145 891 5CC931
9 7C 5I
1E6=1 BD 9 2?H5C 5H ?B1D9? ?6

=51 9 7C 85 BDC 9 CI38?D85B1 I L
F1 5 & 85 CI38?1 1 ID93 9 D5BF95G 1C

9 C 9B1D9? 6?B AE1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B38 1=93
8?45C ,1B4 5I 4C E1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B38 9
CI38? ?7I H 1 49 7 5BC 53D9F5C 9 =5D8?4? ?7I 1 4
45C97 L 1C89 7D? =5B931
CI38? ?7931 CC?391D9?
5DD 5C51B389 7 5H 5B95 D91 C5 6 ; ?G9 7

85 BDC 9 CI38?D85B1 I L
9 5C38 D5B B5D1D9? 9 1BD D85B1 I B5C51B38

1 4 B13D935 85 85B=5 5ED93 39B3 5 85 BDC 9
CI38?D85B1 I L
9 5C38 BD D85B1 I B5C51B38 51B 9 7 6B?=

5H 5B95 35 BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD
85B1 I CC?391D9? L
3 966 & BD 1C =54939 5 B51D9 7 1 D85B1 I ?6

D85 9=179 1D9? ?CD? &81=281 1
3 966 & 1 BD 21C54 B5C51B38 89 145 891

5CC931 9 7C 5I
5B 51E ? DI 85 B?C5 ?6 D85 G?B 4 F1 CD?

?BD8G5CD5B ( 9F5BC9DI B5CC
9 971 =?D85BNC :?EB 5I ?6 851 9 7 85 1

389 4 381 75C 75 45B BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931
BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
?? 91 ?7E9 7 G9D8 4B51=C 9 5H9CD5 D91

1BD D85B1 I BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD
85B1 I CC?391D9? L
?ECD1;1C 5EB9CD93 B5C51B38 5C97

=5D8?4? ?7I 1 4 1 931D9? C 5G2EBI 1B; &175
?ECD1;1C 85 ?=5 ? ?7931 B5C51B38 =5D8?4C

8?EC1 4 1;C &175
1DD? E1 9D1D9F5 5F1 E1D9? 1 4 B5C51B38

=5D8?4C B4 54 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
E19 51FI ) 85 ?=5 ? ?7931

B5C51B38 CDE4I ?6 1 3 95 DNC 5H 5B95 35 9 1BD D85B1 I
85 BDC 9 CI38?D85B1 I L
93?5EB 5B=5 5ED93C 1 4 D85 8E=1 C395 35C

1=2B9475 1=2B9475 ( 9F5BC9DI B5CC
9 5I & E5CD9? C D? G8938 O ?D ; ?G9 7P 9C D85

1 CG5B 5H ?B1D9? ?6 1 O9 F5 D54 B51 9DIP 31 54 1BD
D85B1 I 1 4 D85 CE ?BD9 7 CDBE3DEB5 ; ?G 1C D85
O B?65CC9? P ?6 1BD D85B1 I BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85
=5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
&85 5B & ( 45BCD1 49 7 9 C53EB5 1DD138=5 D

CDE4I EC9 7 389 4B5 NC 29B4 5CD 9=175BI BD 85B1 I
?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
&E 9F1 BD B13D935 1C B5C51B38 AE9BI 9

D85 F9CE1 1BDC 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
1 1 D5B B5D9F5 CI38? ?7I &D?B95C

39B3 5C 1 4 E 45BCD1 49 7 9F54 5H 5B95 35
? =1 BI4? 9 5B 4C B?= CE2:53D D?
CE2:53D9F9D95C 81 42??; ?6 9 D5B B5D9F5 1 4
1BD939 1D?BI =5D8?4C L 5G ,?B; 5G ,?B;
( 9F5BC9DI B5CC
)1 1 5 5C51B389 7 9F54 5H 5B95 35 ? 4?

&D1D5 ( 9F5BC9DI ?6 5G ,?B; B5CC
BD 1C54 AE9BI =5B79 7 1B1497=
9 BD 85B1 I
5 BD 9C 1 G1I ?6 ; ?G9 7 ?CD?

&81=281 1
B 859= )9CE1 D89 ;9 7 5B;5 5I ( 9F5BC9DI

?6 1 96?B 91 B5CC
E25 5145 15E38 5 85 1BD ?6 1BD

D85B1 9CDC 45 D9DI 1 4 F9C9? ?CD5B B5C5 D54 1D D85
E1 ? 65B5 35 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
5G B 51 C
1B255 F9CE1 1BB1D9F5 1 B?138 D?

?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
1B? 1 ?45 C 1 4 1B1497=C ?6 1BD D85B1 I

CC?391D9? L
? 5 ?G 5C 4C 9F5C 9
3? D5HD 85 1BD ?6 965 89CD?BI B5C51B38 1 ED B55;
D1 9B1 B5CC
?B3?C O B?= G85B5 G5 CD1 4P 52 21C54 1BD

9 D5BF5 D9? 9 B5C ? C5 D? D5BB?B ?CD5B B5C5 D54 1D
D85 E1 ? 65B5 35 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I
CC?391D9? 5G B 51 C
C9;CJ5 D=981 I9 ?29 C? 85 1BD ?6

C559 7 9 D5B B5D1D9? ?6 D85 15CD85D93 5 3?E D5B
1 92E 5DDI B5CC
5 J9 5B6?B=1 35 5D8 ?7B1 8I B9D931

5417?7I 1 4 D85 ? 9D93C ?6 3E DEB5 8?EC1 4 1;C
&175
9C 5B D85 49665B5 35C 25DG55 C395 D9693

1 4 1BD9CD93 1 B?1385C D? AE1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B38
4E31D9? 1 5C51B385B L
9C 5B 85 5 978D5 54 5I5 E1 9D1D9F5 9 AE9BI

1 4 D85 5 81 35=5 D ?6 54E31D9? 1 B13D935 5G ,?B; ,
13=9 1
9C 5B 85 ;9 4C ?6 C38?? C G5 554 5BC? 1

5CC1IC ?BDC=?ED8 554 C5F95B
9C 5B 85 1BDC 1 4 D85 3B51D9? ?6 =9 4 5G
1F5 ,1 5 ( 9F5BC9DI B5CC
9C 5B D85 1BD 1 4 C395 35 ?6 AE1 9D1D9F5

B5C51B38 9 CI38? ?7I 1=93 8?45C
,1B4 5I 4C E1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B38 9 CI38? ?7I
H 1 49 7 5BC 53D9F5C 9 =5D8?4? ?7I 1 4 45C97
L 1C89 7D? =5B931 CI38? ?7931 CC?391D9?
F1 C E2?GC;9 BD D85B1 I G9D8 389 4B5

? D85 1ED9CD93 C 53DBE= 5I? 4 G?B4C 89 145 891
5CC931 9 7C 5I
9C8 =175 21C54 1BB1D9F5 9 AE9BI ?B979 1

AE1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B38 =5D8?4 1 5B B5C5 D54 1D D85 E1
? 65B5 35 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? 5G
B 51 C
1B?91 5B6?B=9 7 5417?7I ?G1B4 1 1BD

?6 ? 9D93C 21 I &D1D5 ( 9F5BC9DI ?6 5G ,?B;
5BF5I BD9CD93 9 AE9BI 9 41 35 =?F5=5 D

D85B1 I & B9 7695 4 81B 5C 8?=1C
9779 C B?1385C D? B5C51B38 81 42??; 6?B

D8?C5 GB9D9 7 1 49CC5BD1D9? ? 4? 7 1 4 5CC931
9 7C 5I
1 9D1 1 5 5 381 D9 7 1BD D85B1 I

& B9 7695 4 81B 5C 8?=1C
1 9D1 5G8?EC5 1I9 7 381?C 9 D?

3?85B5 35 4E31D9 7 D85 ?CD=?45B 1BD D85B1 9CD BD
85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
1 1 BD C395 35 1 4 1BD D85B1 I

5 19 D9 7 D85 93DEB5 89 145 891 5CC931
9 7C 5I
944 9H =175C ?6 D85 851BD B385DI 1

9=175BI 9 D85B1 5ED93 1BDG?B; BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6
D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
554I B13D931 B5C51B38 1 9 7 1 4 45C97

B4 54 ( 5B &144 5 9F5B B5 D935 1
9 5C38 D5B B5D1D9? 9 1BD D85B1 I B5C51B38

1 4 B13D935 85 85B=5 5ED93 39B3 5 85 BDC 9
CI38?D85B1 I L
1 9C D5B EB9 & ,?E 7 =179CD93
5H381 75 ?==E 931D9? 9 D85 =?D85B 41E78D5B
B5 1D9? C89 ?6 1BD9CDC 1 5 B5C5 D54 1D D85 E1
? 65B5 35 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? 5G
B 51 C
3 966 & 5 D8 CI38? ?7I ?6 1BD & B9 7695 4

81B 5C 8?=1C
3 966 & BD 1C =54939 5 B51D9 7 1 D85B1 I ?6

D85 9=179 1D9? ?CD? &81=281 1
3 966 & 1 BD 21C54 B5C51B38 89 145 891

5CC931 9 7C 5I
?? 85 B? 5 ?6 B5C ? C9F5 1BD =1;9 7

85 1BD9CD 1C D85B1 9CD G9D8 14? 5C35 DC L
& B9 7695 4 81B 5C 8?=1C
?? 85 D51BC =1;5 =5 19 D 85 B? 5 ?6
B5C ? C9F5 1BD=1;9 7 9 14? 5C35 D 1BD D85B1 I BD
85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
?? 85 13?ECD93 =5=?BI B?:53D .

B53?B49 7/ E 45 59 ED8?B
?? )?935C 6B?= ?G85B5 . B53?B49 7/

E 45 59 ED8?B
?? 2 89C DB55 81C ? B??DC =175C ?6 1

121 4? 54 14? 5C35 D 5B6?B=1 35 B5C5 D54 1D D85 E1
? 65B5 35 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? 5G
B 51 C
?229 C 85 1BD D85B1 9CDNC 9=175BI 1C 1

B5C ? C5 D? 1 D85B1 5ED93 491 ?7E5 BD CI38?D85B1 I
L
?229 C 85 CI38?15CD85D93 5H 5B95 35 5G

,?B; , E=1 &395 35C
&E 9F1 BD B13D935 1C B5C51B38 AE9BI 9

D85 F9CE1 1BDC 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
1I ?B 9 45B & 5 =C
1 ;9 7 G9D8 1 78?CD BDC 21C54 B5C51B38 =EC93 F945?C
1 4 D85 B5 5B6?B=9 7 2?4I D5B 1D9? 1 ?EB 1 ?6
4E31D9? 1 4 D85 BDC L
525B & 9D385 2?ED 1BD 21C54 B5C51B38
5DB95F54 52BE1BI 6B?=
9 C? & BD 1C B5C51B38 5DB95F54 52BE1BI

6B?= 8DD EC5BGGG C6CE
54E KCG9 C? 1 5BC 1BD9CD B5C51B385B 8D=
56?B5 ,?E 579 85 5C51B38 B? ?C1
1 4 D85B D8931 &1657E1B4C
5IB5B 1CC E=1 B978DC ? 9D93C 1 4

B5F95GC ?6 B5C51B38 5D893C 1 35D L
B?E4I & BED8 1 4 3B54929 9DI D85 39D9J5 NC

49 5==1 5G ,?B; , ? 7=1
1 C 85 1BD939 1 D ?2C5BF5B 1C 1 8E=1 259 7

2C5BF1D9? C ? D85 5BC? 1 1C 53DC ?6 695 4G?B;
EB75CC 4 95 4 B5C51B38 C?EB352??; 1 4 695 4
=1 E1 L ? 4? 7 1 4 5?B75 5 1 4
( G9
5CC5 925B & 51FI 85 B13D935 ?6

AE1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B38 8?EC1 4 1;C &175

?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
?3;5 & 9B4EC? &9 F5B=1 & B? ?C1 C

D81D G?B; 7E945 6?B 1 9 7 49CC5BD1D9? C 1 4 7B1 D
B? ?C1 C B4 54 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
14C? 85 G9 45B 5CC G9D89 1B12? 1

L
1HG5 E1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B38 45C97

9 D5B13D9F5 1 B?138 4 54 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
3 966 & 1 BD 21C54 B5C51B38 89 145 891

5CC931 9 7C 5I
9 7B1= & 581F9?B1 CDE4I ?6 ?ED3?=5C ?EB 1

?6 2 ?B=1 1 4 &?391 CI38? ?7I L
1D9? 1 CD9DED5C ?6 51 D8 B?D53D9 7 5BC? 1

851 D8 9 6?B=1D9? 9 B5C51B38 ( 45BCD1 49 7 D85
B9F13I E 5 5DB95F54 52BE1BI 6B?=
8DD B9F13IBE 51 4B5C51B38 98 7?F B0 1C
5 C? H ?B9 7 D85 51B 1D 81 4 1B12? 1

L
BD571 I 1CC5DD 549D1D9? C ? 8E D9 7

5C3?DD B1 C 5G ,?B; , 81B 5C &3B92 5BNC &? C
B979 1 G?B; E2 9C854 9
1DD? E1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B38 1 4 5F1 E1D9?
=5D8?4C B4 54 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
E 38 ? 9D93C 1 4 5D893C 9 AE1 9D1D9F5

B5C51B38 5 J9 , & 9 3? 4C 1 42??;
?6 AE1 9D1D9F5 B5C51B38 L 5G2EBI 1B;
&175
( & 5 1BD=5 D ?6 51 D8 1 4 E=1 &5BF935C ?45

?6 6545B1 B57E 1D9? C 9D 5 E2 93 G5 61B5 1BD
B?D53D9? ?6 8E=1 CE2:53DC 5DB95F54 52BE1BI
6B?=
( & 5 1BD=5 D ?6 51 D8 4E31D9? 1 4 5 61B5

B9 85 5 =? D B5 ?BD 5DB95F54 52BE1BI
6B?=
8DD GGG 88C 7?F ?8B 8E=1 CE2:53DC 7E941 35 25 =? D 8D=
?45 C ?6 ??4 5C51B38 ? 4E3D9 7 D85
&DE4I 1 4 5 ?BD9 7 5CE DC
=5B931 4E31D9? 1 5C51B38 CC?391D9?

&D1 41B4C 6?B B5 ?BD9 7 ? 5= 9B931 C?391 C395 35
B5C51B38 9 E2 931D9? C 4E31D9? 1 5C51B385B
L
45BC? 5 569DC ?6 3? 4E3D9 7 B5C51B38 BD

85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
1B255 F9CE1 1BB1D9F5 1 B?138 D?

?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
1CC 8I 8E D 1B12? 1 L
53;6?B4 8?E78DC ? 8E D9 7 9 1 C5B95C ?6

61=9 91B 5DD5BC D? 1 6B95 4 ? 4? 7 1 4 5 BI
?8
? 95 E2B1 93 1BD D85B1 I C? ED9?

D? 1 D5 5851 D8 B?2 5= BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85
=5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
??=1B1CG1=I 85 EC5 ?6 1BD 1B12? 1

L
1 5I E1 9D1D9F5 =5D8?4C 6?B 61=9 I CDE495C

1 4 8E=1 45F5 ? =5 D 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
?B93 5 BI ?DD5BI 1C 1BD D85B1 I G9D8 5 45B I

EBC9 7 8?=5 B5C945 DC BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85
=5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
5 5I 1=9 7 D85 5 5=I 1BD D85B1 I

9 D5BF5 D9? 6?B 389 4B5 G9D8 29 ? 1B 1 4 3?=?B294
CC?391D9? L

?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
51B C BD D85B1 I G9D8 1 389 4 5H 5B95 39 7

C5 C?BI 9 D57B1D9? 496693E DI BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6
D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
?3;5 &9 F5B=1 & & 9B4EC? 5149 7
1 4 E 45BCD1 49 7 B5C51B38 4 54 8?EC1 4 1;C
&175
?3;5 & 9B4EC? &9 F5B=1 & B? ?C1 C

D81D G?B; 7E945 6?B 1 9 7 49CC5BD1D9? C 1 4 7B1 D
B? ?C1 C B4 54 8?EC1 4 1;C &175
? D9 5D5BC? &81;9 E ;5 1E3;

5AE97 ?D 8?45C B19 1B4
B1 4?=9J54 3? DB? 54 DB91 ?6 =9 46E 5CC 21C54 1BD
D85B1 I 6?B G?=5 G9D8 31 35B CI38? 3? ?7I
L
?B71 ?8 C? (C5 ?6 1 4B1G9 7

D1C; 9 D85 DB51D=5 D ?6 978D=1B5C 9 3?=21D B5 1D54
?CD DB1E=1D93 CDB5CC 49C?B45B BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85
=5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
961 ? E 9 7 ?ED D85 D8?B C BD D85B1 I G9D8

C5HE1 I 12EC54 389 4B5 1 4 14? 5C35 DC BD 85B1 I
?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
961 ? BD D85B1 I G9D8 C5HE1 I 12EC54

389 4B5 1 4 14? 5C35 DC HD5 454 B5C51B38 CDE4I BD
85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
5=45 ?C5 D? D85 51BD8 1B12? 1

L
& 1 9? & ?G1B4C 1 5D8 ?7B1 893 1 B?138 D? 1BD

3? 12?B1D?BC BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD
85B1 I CC?391D9? L
& 1 9? & O 51B 54 8? 56E 5CCP 1BDC 21C54

?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD 85B1 I CC?391D9?
L
&E J25B75B &?=5 ?D5C ? B12 31 97B1 8I

1B12? 1 L
? =1 BI4? 9 5B B?= CE2:53DC D?

CE2:53D9F9D95C 81 42??; ?6 9 D5B B5D9F5 1 4
1BD939 1D?BI =5D8?4C 5G ,?B; 5G ,?B; ( 9F5BC9DI B5CC
)1 9D8 85 ?=5 ? ?7931 9 F5CD971D9? ?6

1BD D85B1 I D? 1CC9CD DB1 C9D9? D? 1 CI38?C?391
B5C945 D91 C5DD9 7 BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931
BD 85B1 I CC?391D9? L
)93; &5HD? 145; D5B 1I ?6

1BD =1;9 7 B13D935C 1 4 =97B19 5 85141385 19 5H 5B95 35
5141385 E1BD5B I EBB5 D B51D=5 D 1 4 5C51B38
L
)93; &5HD? 145; BD 1 4 =97B19 5

5C51B389 7 D85 B5 1D9? C89 25DG55 1BD=1;9 7 1 4 19
5H 5B95 35 BD 85B1 I ?EB 1 ?6 D85 =5B931 BD
85B1 I CC?391D9? L
1DC? B1 C 85 3?= 5D5 G?B;C ?6 8E1 7

JE 5G ,?B; , ? E=291 ( 9F5BC9DI B5CC
B9D9 7 6?B E2 931D9? 9 BD 85B1 I
1 4 D85B &38? 1B I ?EB 1 C
=5B931 4E31D9? 1 5C51B38 CC?391D9?

&D1 41B4C 6?B B5 ?BD9 7 ? 5= 9B931 C?391 C395 35
B5C51B38 9 E2 931D9? C 4E131D9? 1 5C51B385B
L
=5B931 CI38? ?7931 CC?391D9? E2 931D9?

=1 E1 ?6 D85 =5B931 CI38? ?7931 CC?391D9? D8
54 1C89 7D? ED8?B
CC?391D9? ?6 ? 575 1 4 5C51B38 92B1B95C

B9 39 5C 1 4 CDB1D5795C 9 D85 B56?B= ?6 C38? 1B I
3?==E 931D9? . 89D5 1 5B/ 5DB95F54 52B1EBI
6B?= D85 =5B931 92B1BI CC?391D9?
131 & 135 D? CD1 4 5G ,?B; , B?F5

B5CC
??D8 ? ?=2 9 91=C 85

3B16D ?6 B5C51B38 89317? ( 9F5BC9DI ?6 89317?
B5CC
1= 25 85 85B? G9D8 1 D8?EC1 4 6135C 4

54 B9 35D? B9 35D? ( 9F5BC9DI B5CC ? 975
&5B95C )
B5CG5 5C51B38 45C97 C E1 9D1D9F5

AE1 D9D1D9F5 1 4 =9H54 =5D8?4C 1 B?1385C 4 54
8?EC1 4 1;C &175
9 5 EB45; 56 53D9? C ?
45D5B=9 9 7 1ED8?BC89 3B549D 1 4 1ED8?BC89 ?B45B ?
613E DI CDE45 D 3? 12?B1D9? C =5B931 CI38? ?79CD
L 5DB95F54 ? B9 6B?=
8DD GGG 1 1CDI 5 ?B7 1ED8?BC89 8D=
5 5I 1=9 7 D85 5 5=I 1BD D85B1 I

9 D5BF5 D9? 6?B 389 4B5 G9D8 29 ? 1B 1 4 3?=?B294
CC?391D9? L
19C5B E 5 1 389?49 55 ?G95

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Introduction

New York London

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2011.

International Standard Book Number: 978-0-415-87147-1 (Hardback)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

ISBN 0-203-85513-2 Master e-book ISBN

I dedicate this book to my students, who taught me to be courageous in heart and

Barbee, M. (2002). A visual-narrative approach to understanding transsexual identity. Art Therapy:

About the Author xiii

Introduction to Art Therapy Research xvii

PART I OVERVIEW OF ART THERAPY RESEARCH 1

1 Art Therapy Research Ideas, Tools, and Steps in the Process 3

2 How Art Informs Art Therapy Research 29

The Place of Art in Research Methodologies 35

PART II ART THERAPY RESEARCH METHODS 49

3 Quantitative Models of Art Therapy Research 51

4 Outcomes Research to Generate Evidence-Based Practice 73

5 Investigating the Field: Participant-Observation 95

6 Researching the Phenomena of Conscious Experience 135

7 Art-Based Inquiry: An Emerging Paradigm in Art Therapy 161

Artmaking as the Presentation of Findings 172

PART III DOING ART THERAPY RESEARCH 183

8 Before You Begin: The Research Proposal and Other Ethical

9 Models of Good Research: Conducting the Study and Reporting

10 Writing for Publication in Art Therapy and Other Scholarly

1. Research originates with a problem or question.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF ART THERAPY RESEARCH

CONVERSATIONS BETWEEN SCIENCE AND ART

most pressing questions. Obstacles tend to be a lack of confidence, lack of knowledge

5. Consider adding a control group to your design: On a similar note, many

4. Report research more clearly and completely: Reporting or publishing your

unfamiliar with the requirements of a readable scientific report. A standard report

2. Partner up—collaborate: So much research doesn’t happen because those

DESIGNING A RESEARCH STUDY

1. Identifying the research question

STEP ONE: IDENTIFYING THE

Purpose Conceptual Context

Research Problem or Questions

Name your topic: “I am studying…….

Methods Validity & Ethics

is behaving differently before or after a particular art therapy intervention. Perhaps

IDENTIFYING A GOOD RESEARCH QUESTION

r It rests on a rationale or theory, addressing the question, “How will this

TABLE 1.1 Developing art therapy research ideas

TABLE 1.1 Developing art therapy research ideas (Continued)

USING ART TO GENERATE THE RESEARCH QUESTION

r How you view the phenomenon of interest

Using the metaphor of the hunter-gatherer as researcher, if your purpose is to

STEP TWO: DEVELOPING THE

FROM RESEARCH QUESTION TO HYPOTHESIS

Once the problem is determined, it should be further refined so that it is stated as

r “I propose to determine the factors that contribute to an art therapist’s effec-

The sub-problems might be

1. Analyze how the setting contributes, either positively or negatively, to art

Notice that each of these sub-problems is a self-contained, researchable unit and

STEP THREE: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

TABLE 1.2 Online research tools

Organizing the Literature Search

Write the Problem Statement at the top of

Make a list of Opposite each study

FIGURE 1.3 Organizing the literature search.

STEP FOUR: DETERMINING METHODOLOGY