ETHICS

Course Description: Ethics deals with principles of ethical behavior in modern society at
the level of the person, society at the level of the person, society, and in
interaction with the environment and other shared outcomes. (CMO 20 s
2013). Morality pertains to the standards of right and wrong that an
individual originally picks up from the community.

The course discusses the context and principles of ethical behavior in

modern society at the level of individual, society, and in interaction with the
environment and other shared resources. The course also teaches students
to make moral decisions by using dominant moral frameworks and by
applying a seven-step moral reasoning model to analyze and solve moral
dilemmas. The course is organized according to the three (3) main
elements of the moral experience: (a) agent, including context- cultural,
communal, and environmental; (b) the act; (c) reason or framework (for the
act.

Prepared by:
Calantas, Mychel D.
Francisco, Kim Hannibal B.
Jamile, Juancho F.
Orca, Ferlan Jay E.
Perile, Christopher N.
Reysoma, Ina Joy S.
Vedra, Analie P.

1|P age GEC7

Introduction
Every human being undeniably has the intrinsic desire to the truth or to acquire
knowledge about anything that interests him. The Greek philosopher’s knowledge is not
enough; one has to live to what one knows. But human experiences taught them that many
errors in the solution of problems are due to loose of critical thinking and reason was over
thrown by emotion and it leads to ignorance of the principles of ethical thinking. Critical thinking
is a method by that investigates the ethical meaning, principles and theories “ To think right is
to do right”.
Ethics is the philosophy of life, to live rightfully we must know what we are living for.
This is taught by ethics that investigates meaning and purpose of human life. Life is a “many-
splendored thing.” It is a unity of many aspects:the social, the economic, the moral, the physical,
the religious, etc. Since the rational and moral are the essential distinguishing charcteristics of
man (since this distinguish him from the other animals), it follows that morality is the basic
element of human life and connot be seperated from the other phases of human activity.

Ethics deals with principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of the
person, society at the level of the person, society, and in interaction with the environment and
other shared outcomes. (CMO 20 s 2013). Morality pertains to the standards of right and wrong
that an individual originally picks up from the community. The course discusses the context and
principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of individual, society, and in
interaction with the environment and other shared resources. The course also teaches students
to make moral decisions by using philosophical thinking to evaluate dominant moral frameworks
and by applying a seven-step moral reasoningt model to analyze and solve moral dilemmas.
The course is organized according to the three (3) main elements of the moral experience: (a)
agent, including xcontext- cultural, communal, and environmental; (b) the act; (c) reason or
framework for the act.

2|P age GEC7

 CHAPTER 1:
THE STUDY OF PHILOSOPHY

Starting Accurately:

This chapter examines ethical branches through the lens provided by these classic
thinkers. Because this will be the first introduction for many students to the world of Philosophy
and Ethics, the lessons will focus on learning how to appreciate the importance of Philosophy
and Ethics, its branches and its relationship with other sciences.

Learning outcomes:
Define philosophy Identify the different branches of ethics
Discuss the different branches of philosophy Explain the importance of ethics
Explain the importance of philosophy. Discuss the relationship of ethics and other
Define ethics sciences.

Stimulating Learning:

To motivate you about the importance of Ethics Education in our daily life, click the link
to the TEDx Talk by Dr. Michael Burroughs:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_8juebyo_Z4

3|P age GEC7

Inculcating Concepts:

LESSON 1: The Study of Philosophy

Origins/Meaning of Philosophy
The beginnings of Philosophy is attributed to a thinker called Thales of Miletus
(624- 564 BC) from Greece. Scholars maintain that one’s starts to wonder as they
encounter reality it is also the beginning of philosophizing. The unquenchable thirst of the
human mind for a deeper knowledge of the secrets of the universe. Thales is said to be
the originator of philosophy. The term PHILOSOPHY was coined by Pythagoras (582-507
BC). Philosophy comes from the Greek word (philein/philo) which means to love; and
(Sophia) which means wisdom. Therefore etymologically speaking, Philosophy means
love of wisdom. Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning
matters such as the nature knowledge, truth, justice, beauty, mind and language.

According to Aristotle the natural desire for knowledge is innate to man. Aristotle
viewed philosophy as thinking aims at maximum connected truth about all available
experiences. It implies the interconnectedness of all the experiences. The Medieval
period considers philosophy as the science of the ultimate causes of things. It implies
scientific knowledge of causes of things. These causes are the objects of philosophical
inquiry, and the primary goal is to know these causes with certainties. In the modern
period, philosophy is understood as the study of the nature of being and thinking
particularly the human experiences. It is the science of all things, Things are concrete and
real.
Gilles Deleuze a post-modern philosopher, philosophy is a theory which is
elaborately developed in a form of a question, and nothing else. He argues further that by
itself, philosophy cannot be considered as a resolution to a problem, but only the
elaboration, to the very end, of the necessary implications of a formulated question.
Deleuze holds that philosophy is nothing else but a science of crafting a sound question
that must start from a problem. (Eddie Babor, 2009)

Finally, Philosophy in its real definition begins with a question to search for
meaning. It is a scientific search for meaning and intellectual quest that transcends quest
that transcend the world of science going beyond boundaries of concrete knowledge

4|P age GEC7

 towards abstract knowledge to find its own meaning and essence of a thing. Philosophy is
the critical evaluation of the facts of experience. Philosophy helps to coordinate the
various activities of the individual and the society. It helps us to understand the
significance of all human experience. Philosophy critically evaluates and analyses the
variety of human experiences. It develops a comprehensive system of thoughts about the
universe and the life as a whole.

Importance of Philosophy

Four reasons why philosophy is as important now as ever before.

1. Philosophy is the foundation of critical thinking.

While society is very different today from when the founding figures of Western
philosophy were making their mark, the questions we face today are just as challenging.
Enter modern philosophy, which puts critical thinking and problem-solving at the
forefront in order to make sense of these weighty problems. Writer Alexander Leivesley
explains in the Huffington Post, “Philosophy is not obsolete. Philosophy brings the
important questions to the table and works towards an answer. It encourages us to think
critically about the world; it is the foundation of all knowledge and when utilized properly,
can provide us with huge benefits.”

2. Science can’t answer every question.

We lean very heavily on science today. And with good reason: Thanks to advancements
in science and technology, we live in a very different way to how we would without them.
From fridges for our food to airplanes for travel, there’s no denying that scientific
advancements are vital to our survival as a species. But just because science is
important, that does not negate the value of philosophy. In fact, the two go hand in hand.
“Science, I am sorry to say, does not have all the answers. Just like every other field, it
has its limits. We cannot derive everything from experience, and philosophy is not dead.
For example, science cannot determine human values. Empiricism cannot determine
why we ought to act morally, nor why we ought to value human happiness over human

5|P age GEC7

 misery. We cannot create an experiment that tests the nature of Truth or the obtainability
of knowledge,” contends Gabriel del Carmen for Odyssey.

Blogger David Calhoun adds, “At its core, philosophy is a striving towards figuring out
what is true and worthwhile, and what it means to live a meaningful and worthwhile life.
That’s something off-limits for science, because science can tell us how things are
empirically, but it can’t prescribe how we should then live. In short: science helps us live
longer, whereas philosophy helps us live better.”

3. Philosophy has particular meaning in the business world.

At first pass, a “soft” science like philosophy may not seem especially relevant to
business. However, this couldn’t be further from the truth.

Frankfurt School of Finance & Management professor of philosophy Christine

Tiefensee explains that anyone who wants to succeed in a challenging, leading position
in business, public administration, politics, or the wider society needs a crucial set of
skills. She adds, "You will need to see quickly through complex issues, put together
convincing arguments for or against given proposals, filter relevant from irrelevant
information, check the consistency and soundness of policy papers, decide which
problems are crucial and identify the issues that are still badly understood. These skills
of rigorous analysis, sound argument and critical examination are the bread-and-butter
of philosophy: no subject trains our ability for consistent, systematic thought better than
philosophy.” These skills aren’t limited to the business world, however. They can be
applied in virtually any context -- both professional and personal.

4. Ancient philosophers continue to influence humanity.

While Plato and Aristotle are often credited with shaping future civilizations, and their
influence is still felt today, Publishers Weekly insists, “The ancient Greek philosophers
Plato and Aristotle may seem like the quintessential Dead White Males, but in fact they
are very much alive. Twenty four centuries ago they laid the foundations of Western
culture, and their ideas and insights still dictate essential features of our world right now,
from what we eat to what we see on the internet.” And while you may think of Confucius
purely in terms of sound bites, his work was extremely significant and remains so today.
This is very useful to know, especially for students in fields such as political science,
diplomacy and international politics. For example, according to National Geographic,

6|P age GEC7

 China’s modern government has modeled much of its ethos on Confucius' rhetoric, such
as “obedience to the emperor, hierarchy, and loyalty.” On the other hand, recent
superhero movies Man of Steel (about Superman) and The Dark Knight (Batman)
feature major moral dilemmas based on an age-old philosophical issue known as the
'trolley problem'.

So, while to some people philosophy may not be the sexiest of subjects on paper, it’s
one with extraordinary staying power and potential. It does not just stand to change the
world; it just might change your life. One student, describing being strong-armed by his
father into taking an intro to philosophy college course altered his life’s trajectory, wrote,
“While I once scorned philosophy, I am now majoring in it. I have come to realize that
philosophy provides the tools for us to become good thinkers, which is perhaps the most
important skill there is.”

Branches of Philosophy
1. Metaphysics- Comes the Greek word “metafuisca” means something that goes
beyond. It is the study of reality.
2. Theology/Theodicy- It is the philosophical study of God or BEING in its highest form.
3. Philosophy of Man- It is the philosophical study of the nature of man as person, origin
and destiny.
4. Cosmology- It is the philosophical study of the physical world in its final analysis.
5. Political Philosophy- It is the philosophical study of the state, the ideal form of
government and its basic power.
6. Aesthetics- A philosophical inquiry on beauty and of the beautiful.
7. Epistemology- It is the philosophical study on the principles of human knowledge with
regard to value of human thought.
8. Social Philosophy- It is philosophical study between man and society.
9. Philosophy of Education- It is a philosophical and methodological study of teaching
and procedural process.
10. Ethics/Moral Philosophy- It is philosophical study of the morality of human act that
distinguishes from what is good from evil and right and wrong.

7|P age GEC7

LESSON 2: THE STUDY OF ETHICS

Meaning of Ethics
Ethics comes from the Greek word “ethos” meaning custom or behaviour. Ethics
is the fundamental character and spirit of a culture and custom. Ethics is defined as a
general study of moral life which deals with two types of question, one critically
normative and the other theoretical.
Ethics is a branch of philosophy. It is also called moral philosophy dealing with actions
and values relating to human conduct. (Rightness or wrongness of actions, goodness
and badness of motives and ends of such actions). Ethics is the practical science of the
morality of human actions. It is the scientific inquiry into the principles of morality. It is the
science of human acts with reference to right and wrong. It is the study of human
conduct from the standpoint of morality. Ethics is the science which lays down the
principles of right living. It is a practical science that guides us in our actions that we may
live rightly and well.
Education is the harmonious development of the whole man- of all man’s
faculties: the moral, intellectual, and physical powers in man. How the highest of man’s
power are his reason and will. Hence, the primary objective of education moral
development of the will. Unfortunately, this moral training that the most important to man
is not given due emphasis in our educational system. Our schools train the head more
than the products of our schools today.Knowledge is good, bodily health and strength
are good, but first and above all – good character.
Ethics means right living and good moral character; and it is in good moral
character that man finds his true worth and perfection .All the great teachers of the ages
maintain that the supreme purpose of human living lies not in the acquisition of material
goods or bodily pleasures, nor in the attainment of bodily perfections such as health and
strenght; nor even in the development of intellectual skills but in the development of the
moral qualities which lift man far above brute creation.
According to Socrates, “the unexamined life is not worth living for man.” Now
ethics, as we already said before, is the very investigation of the meaning of life.

8|P age GEC7

Different Branches of Ethics

Metaethics. in Normative Ethics are honesty, lying, and

stealing. The behaviors being judged by
Refers to the nature of ethics, study of
Normative Ethics are actions that have
charateristics and moral reasoning. It
already occurred and are then being
basically takes metaethics to measure and
interpreted by the observer to be "honesty,"
discuss about whether ethics is relative and
"lying," or others. It is a weakness within the
whether we always act from self-interest are
human manner of circular thought to
examples of metaethical discussions. Also,
observe the result of an action, to then
it often attempts to identify the best moral
place a name upon the end-product, and to
values. An example within metaethics is:
then believe that the end-product is a
"How can we know what is right and
singularity that is self-defined by the name
wrong?" There are many different answers
given to the action.
as there are different people answering the
question. Some individuals may say that
right and wrong are dictated by holy books,
Applied Ethics
or philosophy books, or political books, or
by popular speakers, but there is not yet a Is a field of ethics that deals with ethical
good explanation within philosophy that can questions specific to a professional,
illustrate the origins and nature of right and disciplinary, or practical field. Subsets of
wrong that is acceptable to everyone. applied ethics include medical ethics,
bioethics, business ethics, legal ethics, and
others. It also attempts to deal with specific
Normative ethics realms of human action and to craft criteria
for discussing issues that might arise within
Is concerned in determining the content of
those realms. For example, sex before
our moral behavior. Normative ethical
marriage is always an ethical question to
theories seek to provide action-guides;
the public. In ASEAN countries, it may be
procedures for answering the question such
wrong because of religions and culture
as “what ought I to do?”. Examples of
perceptive different but it is right in most of
behaviors that are judged as right or wrong
the western countries.

9|P age GEC7

The Importance of Ethics
1. Helps every student to know the meaning and internalize ethical or moral principles.
2. Students should understand and uphold moral standards.
3. Seeks to inculcate among men the true values of living a good life.
4. Guide students to commit in right living and pursue the development of good moral
character.

Relation of Ethics with Other Science

1. Ethics and Logic. –Logic is a science of right thinking. Ethics is the science of right
living. But right living presupposes right thinking .Doing follows thinking. To think right
often means to do right, as knowledge of right leads to the doing of right. Both ethics
and logic aim to rectitude: the former aims at right doing; the latter, at right thinking.

2. Ethics and Psychology. –Both deal with the study of man, human nature, and
human behavior. There is, however, a basic difference. Psychology is not interested
in the morality of human behavior, unlike ethics. Psychology studies how man
behaves; ethics studies how man ought to behave. The word “ought” is emphasized
to show the difference: Ethics is concerned with moral obligation while psychology is
not.

3. Ethics is related to Sociology. – Ethics deal with the moral order which includes the
social order. Whatever does violence to the social order does violence also to the natural
and moral order.
Sociology deals with human relation in a society, but human relations are based on
proper order and proper order comes only with the proper observance of morals laws
and principles which regulate the actions of men in a community.

4.Ethics and Economics.-Man is also an economic being because he has to support

himself by earning a living. He has to live by bread (though he does not live by bread
alone). Economics and Morality are two aspects of one and the same human nature.
Economics deals with such topics as wages,labor,production and distribution of wealth.
But what will determine the relation between employer and employee,for instance? This

10 | P a g e GEC7
 and all other relations in business must be based on justice and charity which,after all
are moral principles. In order that peace and happiness will prevail in a communiy,the
action of man must be governed by the invariabe principles of morality.

5. Ethics and Education.- Education develops the whole man: his moral, intellectual
and physical capacites. Since man, however, is primarily a rational moral being
(endowed with reason and will, which ranks him above brute creaation), the primary
objecitve of education should be the developments of these power in man,which
consists his true perfection. This is recognized in our constitution when it mentios “moral
character” as the first and primary aim of all education. “All schools should develop good
moral character, personal discipline, civic conciousness, etc.”
Education, a great educator said, is life; it s co-extensive with life. With greater
reason and emphasis we can even say that ethics is life because ethics is the very
science and art of human living, one that gives life its direction. Goal, worth, and
meaning. Ethics is both co-extensive and co-intensive with life.

6. Morality and Law. –Morality and Law are intimately related. Right and wrong, good
and bad in human actions presuppose a law or rule of conduct. Futhermore,the laws of
state are restatements,specification or interpretations of an anterior natural moral. The
legal only covers the external acts of man; the moral governs even the internal acts of
man, such as the volitional and the intentional actvities of the will and mind. Thus, a man
may commit a thousand murders in his mind or a thousand adulteries in his desires, and
is,for these, morally guilty; yet legally, he is not criminally liable or guilty.

7. Ethics and Politics. –Man owes allegiance to the State. Politics aims at good
government for the temporal and the spiritual and eternal welfare there is no conflict.
The two are inseparable in man’s present state of existence, where the material and the
spiritual, the body and the spirit, form one person. Politics has often become very dirty
and the reason is precisely because it is divorced from ethics “ Politics without ethics is
meaningless”.

11 | P a g e GEC7
Evaluating Understanding:

Instruction: True/False. Write TRUE if the statement is correct, if not, write FALSE.

1. Epistemology is the philosophical study of the nature of man as person, origin and destiny.
False
2. Philosophy is an art because the investigation is systematic. False
3. Metaphysics deals with nature, sources, limitations and validity of knowledge. False
4. Philosophy serves as a framework for all knowledge. True
5. Theology is the philosophical study of God or BEING in its highest form. True
6. The ultimate goal of philosophical inquiry is knowledge. True
7. Ethics is the science of the beautiful in its various manifestations. False
8. Philosophy is a way of thinking about the world and is composed of the views of a person.
True
9. Philosophy investigates things not by using any other laboratory instrument but with the aid
of reason. True
10. Human faith is the major tool of philosophers in the pursuit of their ultimate goal. False
11. Aristotle viewed philosophy as thinking aims at maximum connected truth about all
available experiences. True
12. Cosmology is a philosophical inquiry on beauty and of the beautiful. False
13. The beginnings of Philosophy is attributed to a thinker called Aristotle (624- 564 BC) from
Greece. False
14. Aesthetics is a philosophical study of God or BEING in its highest form. False
15. The Modern period considers philosophy as the science of the ultimate causes of things.
True
16. Political philosophy deals with the philosophical study of the physical world in its final
analysis. False
17. Theodicy is a philosophical and methodological study of teaching and procedural process.
False
18. The etymological meaning of philosophy is love of wisdom. True
19. Philosophy critically evaluates and analyses the variety of human experiences. True
20. Metaphysics is the philosophical study between man and society. False

12 | P a g e GEC7
 Upgrading Competence and Expanding Insights:
A. Direction: Explain each questions, before you begin writing, read the passage
carefully and plan what you will say.
Michael had several friends including Roger and Daniel. Roger has recently met
and started dating a wonderful lady named Phyllis. He is convinced this is a long term
relationship. Unknown to Roger, Michael observed them at a restaurant several days
ago and realized Phyllis is the wife of his other friend Daniel.
Michael is deciding whether to tell Roger that Phyllis is married when he receives
a call from Daniel. Daniel suspects his wife is having an affair and since they and
Michael share many friends and contacts, he asks if Michael has heard anything
regarding an affair.
To whom does Michael owe greater friendship to in this situation? No matter who
he tells, he is going to end up hurting one, if not both friends. Does he remain silent and
hope his knowledge is never discovered?

13 | P a g e GEC7
 CHAPTER 2:
Nature of man

Starting Accurately:

By definition, human nature includes the core characteristics (feelings, psychology,

behaviors) shared by all people. We all have different experiences of the humans in our life, and
this is where the disputes begin. Some people will tell you humans are ‘good’ or ‘bad’, or
‘predators’ or ‘capable of great kindness. -Study.com

This chapter shows how Ancient, Medieval, Modern and Contemporary Major Philosophers see
Man as we are, be it good or bad. The origin of our very nature and essences, the kind of living
and thinking of every man's activities.

Learning outcomes:
 Discuss the concept of man according to Ancient, Medieval, Modern and
Contemporary periods.
 Describe the human person in relation to self, to others, to the world.

Stimulating Learning:

Plato’s “The Forms” is very helpful even in the current generation right now. Given that
we search for the meaning of the Nature of Man. Plato gave us a very simple understanding of
how it is to be a true man and what is man itself. And so upon watching the video above, what is
man according to Plato? How did Plato describe man and its nature? (Consider all the examples
presented in the video:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tVSovpPv1Mw

14 | P a g e GEC7
Inculcating Concepts:

Man is defined by traditional scholastic philosophy as a rational animal, or as a composite of

body and soul. Under the aspect of body, he is like any other animal, a substance, mortal,
subject to limitation of time and space. Under the aspect of soul, he is gifted with the power of
reason, free and immortal. Man as Embodied Subjectivity he is a foremost subjectivity, a unique
core or center, source, depth, well spring of initiative and meaning. Man’s body is not an object-
body, a chunk of matter that is the lodging place of the spirit but the human body is a subject-
body, already a meaning giving existence. Embodiment is simply to make incarnate a meaning
which comes from the inner core of man.

Man as Being in the World as embodied subject, man is being in the world. The human
body is the link of man with the world the things around man are structures that articulate a
meaning proceeding from the subjectivity of man. Man as Being-with: the interhuman and the
Social the world of man is not just the world of things but also the world of fellowman the
interhuman is the I-Thou relationship (martin Buber) in contrast to the I- it relationship. It is the
relationship of dialogue in contrast to monologue genuine dialogue is entering into
communication with the other by becoming aware of his totality monologue treats the other as
an object, as something that fills his need of the moment. Dialogue----- unfolding monologue ----
--imposition. Just as there are many definitions of philosophy, so there are as many
philosophical approaches to the study of man.

LESSON 1: Concepts of Man

I..i ANCIENT PERIOD
1. Pre-socratic period
The pre-socratics were primarily concerned with the basic stuff of the cosmos, with what
constituted the universe. The question on man could not be totally divorced from the
cosmological, since man was conceived as part of nature. Man was seen as a microcosm, and
the search for the truth about man was simultaneously the search for the truth about the
universe. Thus, the ancient philosophical approach to the study of man was COSMOCENTRIC.
( they were concerned not with a part of the cosmos but with the totality).

15 | P a g e GEC7
 2. Classical period

Greek wisdom on Man The greek philosphers Socrates, plato and Aristotle taught that the
proper way to solve the problem of man is to first inquire into and discover the true nature of
man. The Greek philosophers believed that man’s soul pre existed his body. In his original ideal
existence as a soul or pure mind in the realm of ideas, man knew all things by direct intuition
and had all this knowledge stored in mind. However because of his banishment into this world of
sense, he blurred or forgot all or most of what he knew.

The solution to his present problems caused mostly by ignorance or lack of knowledge, can be
found by recalling all what he knew clearly in his former existence and finally regain his former
perfections.

Socrates
Socrates Man and virtue Since knowledge is inborn, virtue likewise is natural
endowment, not an artificial convention or habit of action to be acquired by education.
Virtue may indeed be taught, but this is to be understood not as introducing something
foreign to the mind but rather as merely awakening the seeds of good deeds that
perhaps lie dormant in the mind and heart of mind. Since virtue is inborn in the mind and
self knowledge is the source of all wisdom, then the only way to acquire virtue is simply
to know what is in the mind, in the self.
Virtue then depended on knowledge could be defined as true knowledge of one’s
self. “knowledge is virtue, ignorance is vice’ True knowledge according to Socrates
includes with it the application of this knowledge. This means that knowledge should not
be merely theoretical or speculative, it should be practical. True knowledge is wisdom
which in turn means virtue. EVIL – is the result of ignorance, the opposite of knowledge.
A man does evil because he does not know any better, or that his knowledge is
imperfect or inadequate.

Plato
Man in his present earthly existence, is only an imperfect copy of his real original
self, the perfect man, in the realm of ideas. By knowing and constantly recalling his
former self and his perfections and by constant imitation of his ideal exemplar by the
practice of virtue, man can regain his perfection which he lost during his long earthly

16 | P a g e GEC7
 exile and his imprisonment in the body as punishment for sin. Man’s perfection consists
in constant recollection and imitation of his former perfect self.
Idealism was fathered and fostered by plato, emphasized on the idea behind the
things that we see. The individual things that we perceive, exist in space-time. These are
not real since they change, pass in and out of existence. It is the idea behind these
changeable, individual and finite things that alone is real. The individual men that we
know and see are, in this sense not real since they come and go. They’re only the
external manifestations, the reflections and replicas of the unseen universal, immutable
an eternal idea. Originally, man existed as a pure mind, an ideal man, with all his pristine
genuine perfections as a perfect man in the realm of ideas.

Man and knowledge As a perfect state as pure mind, man knew all things by
direct intuition. Man was omniscient, all knowing, before he came to be born in this
world. With his separation from the paradise of truth and knowledge and his long exile
on earth, he forgot most of the knowledge he had. However by constant remembering
and doing good, he can regain his former perfections.

Aristotle

Characterizes man as “political animal” this refers to the social nature of man,
social is not something that one enters into by contract to achieve some common aim.
the social is within each man; man does not only live in society, society lives in him.The
things he uses in daily life presuppose contact with fellowman. Even the individual
himself is a product of a social contact.Man as person and his crowning activity is love
which presupposes justice the final aim of education is becoming a person. Person is the
task of becoming oneself. And it consists in integration, in becoming whole, in unifying
his diverse activities of speaking, thinking, willing and feeling. how can he achieve this
self possession? By directing all these activities towards as objective value or realm of
objective values. Objective because they are valuable in themselves.

Mere relative values cannot integrate man because they derive their worth from
man himself. what beings possess inherent worth? Man in his uniqueness and
irreducibility is an objective value. The commitment of love presupposes justice, the true
foundation of social order. Love as the enhancement of the other person requires giving
to the other his due, his basic dignity as a person love is the maximum of justice, justice
is the minimum of love.

17 | P a g e GEC7
i.II MEDIEVAL PERIOD (Theocentric)
With the coming and predominance of Christianity in medieval Europe, philosophy
became the handmaid of theology. reason was the companion of faith, its task was to make
faith reasonable. Man was viewed still as part of nature but nature now was God’s creation, and
man, next to the angels, was the most noblest of God’s creatures, created in his image and
likeness. Philosophy became the search for the ultimate causes of things, eventually leading to
the truth about God. Man’s ideal was to contemplate God and his creation, and his action was to
conform to the natural moral law implanted in his reason. Thus, the Christian medieval
philosophical approach to the study of man was THEOCENTRIC.
St. Augustine
 He is the greatest of all the Christian philosophers and theologians.
 Born near Carthage in North Africa of a pagan father and a Christian mother.
 He was attracted as a youth first to the Manichean religion, a variation of the
Zoroastrianism that had spread through the Roman Empire and later to the
mysticism of the Neo-Platonists, whose influence is discernible throughout his
writings.
 He took a position in Milan as a professor of rhetoric.
 There he came under the influence of St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan who succeeded
in leading him into the Christian fold.
 Augustine devoted the remainder of his life to the strengthening of the church,
especially in North Africa.
 In 395, he was appointed bishop of Hippo.
 He wrote 113 books, 213 letters and 500 sermons, particularly in philosophy and
theology.
 His literary output covers the entire sphere of human thought and ranges from the
psychological complexity of the confessions, to the political insights of the City of
God, to the stridently polemical.
St. Augustine Is the first Christian philosopher and the main authority in medieval
period. God is Absolute Spirit, Absolute Will, Absolute Intelligence, Absolute Freedom,
Absolute Good, Absolute Power, and Absolute Holiness.God is the Creator, He created man
with a mortal body with an immortal soul and gave them freewill.The source of evil is freewill,
God created man good, but the good of man ceases to be good when man turn himself
away from God. Man’s freewill makes him imperfect.Man is capable of reaching perfection
only if he keeps himself good.

18 | P a g e GEC7
 St. Thomas Aquinas
 born in Italy of a noble family
 was the most important intellectual figure of high medieval civilization
 he studied at the famous Abbey of Monte Cassino then at the University of Naples
 In 1243 he joined the Dominican Order, much to the displeasure of his parents.
 They imprisoned him in the family castle, where he remained for two years until his
mother relented, passing him a rope by which he let himself out on window and down
the castle wall.
 Escaping, he rejoined the Dominicans and set out for Cologne, to study under
Albertus Magnus. Then he studied at the University of Paris.
 he became a highly successful teacher
 he wrote selection on ethics on his two important books called The Summa Contra
Gentiles and Summa Theologica
He claims that man is substantially united by the body and soul.Man is the point of
convergence between the corporeal and spiritual substances.The soul is the united with the
human body and it is the principle of life.The souls requires the body as the material medium
for its operation but the soul has operative functions which do not need a material
medium.The soul are man’s intellect and will.Thus, at death the intellect and will remain in
the soul as it is immortal and incorruptible.

i.iii MODERN PERIOD

The most prominent of modern philosophy how people can gather and confirm
knowledge through their own direct experiences and logic instead automatically accepting it. It is
the period of science and technology.
Rene Descartes
The change of focus began with the philosophizing of Rene Descartes (father of
modern philosophy) He view human being is founded on his idea of substance, material
and immaterial.Man as material substance is both thinking (soul) and extended (body)
substanceHuman can know and think apart from his bodyMan is a machine and a
thinking being “ Man is a thing which thinks”.Man as a finite substance and thinking
substance (dualistic)RES COGITANS- human can know and think apart from the body
as an extended substance. RES EXTENSA- refers to the body.
Everything was dubitable, for Descartes, even his own body, all except for one
fact, the fact that he was doubting. He could not doubt that he was doubting. And

19 | P a g e GEC7
 doubting being mode of thinking, brought him to the realization of “ COGITO ERGO
SUM” (I think, therefore I am) with the emergence of Descartes’ cogito, Philosophy
became ANTHROPOCENTRIC. The question of man was now the foreground of other
questioning on nature or on God.

Thomas Hobbes
Everything is fundamentally matter in motion. Hobbes materialism claim that
every event in the world is determined. Since human activity is similar to the events in
nature it follows the behavior is absolutely determined. Human being is essentially anti-
social; essentially egoistic and this egoism makes life difficult in the natural state of
things “LEVIATHAN”

Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Human is essentially good and that good people are made unhappy and
corrupted by their experiences in society. He viewed society as artificial and corrupt that
results to continuing unhappiness of man. The Social Contract is the compact agreed to
among men that sets conditions for membership.

i.iv CONTEMPORARY PERIOD

Karl Marx
 Born in Trier, Germany in 1818
 Marx is widely referred to as a Philosopher, Political-Economist, and a Journalist.
 Studied philosophy in University of Berlin
 He was greatly influenced by the works of German idealist, G.W.F. Hegel
 He wrote his monumental work, Capital
 Died on March 14, 1883
Human nature is derive from labor since nature is the totality of human activity
considering that labor is human activity “Labor Man”.Human nature rests on labor; man should
be productive. An unproductive human person stops to be a human being.

20 | P a g e GEC7
Existentialism

Man shapes his being as he lives. Knowledge is subjected to the person’s decision and
varies from one person to another

Five common features of existentialist thinkers

1. Existentialist thinkers attempt to philosophize from the standpoint of an actor rather than
from that of a spectator. This is due to the fact that the problems considered by
existentialist thinkers arise out of their personal experience. The life of the existentialist
thinker can hardly be divorced from his philosophy.
2. Existentialist philosophies are basically philosophies of man, stressing the subjectivity of
man. They did not deny that man to a certain extent is an object, that he is a thing,
conceptualizable, manipulable and controllable by others, still they hold on to the
subjectivity of man; man as the original center, the source of initiative and giver of
meaning to the world.
3. Existentialist philosophies stress on man’s existence, on man as situated. This
situatedness of man takes on a different shades of meaning for different existentialist.
Soreen Kierkegaard – existence is a religious category; the situation of the single, finite,
unique individual who has to make a decision before the one infinite God in fear and
trembling like the situation of Abraham. Martin Heidegger, man is Dasein, there-being,
thrown into the world to realize himself, doomed to potentialities, the extreme of which is
death.
4. 4. Existentialist thinkers emphasize the freedom of man. Each existentialist has his own
interpretation of freedom
5. Existentialist philosophers propagate authentic existence versus inauthentic existence
Inauthentic existence is living under the impersonal on (they) of Heidegger Keirkegaard
–crowd mentality Albert camus – L’etranger, indifferent ,tranquilized, unable to make a
personal decision of his own Gabriel Marcel – functionalized man living in the mass
society Martin Buber – the man living the life of Monologue.

Authentic existence – is personal and the authentic man is one who freely commits himself
to the realization of a project, an idea, a truth, a value. He is one who does not hide himself
in the anonymity of the crowd but signs himself to what he manifests.

21 | P a g e GEC7
 The question of value for the existentialist cannot be divorced from the more original
question of what does it mean to be? What is the meaning of life? Camus in his myth of
Sisyphus says that the truly philosophical question is the question of suicide, for in suicide
one poses the question of the meaning of life. value then is intimately related to life, and if
human life for existentialist is to be lived freely, authentically, responsibly, personally, then
value is that for which a person lives and dies for. Value is that to which the authentic man
commits himself.

Kierkegaard
(Father of Existentialism)- Philosophy became the search for the meaning of life. The
search for truth was now the search for meaning. The question of what is the meaning of
man’s existence is more important for the existentialist rather than its answer.
Kierkegaard – freedom is that which enables man to pass from the aesthetic state to the
ethical and ultimately to make a leap of faith, the highest act of man’s liberty
Theistic existentialist – Soren Kierkegaard, Karl Jasper, Gabriel marcel, and martin
buber
Atheistic existentialist – Jean Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, and Maurice Merelau-Ponty,

Jean Paul Sartre

To exist is to be condemned to freedom Maurice merleau-ponty – man is condemned to

meaning Albert camus – to exist is to live the absurdity of life. Sartrean freedom –
“existence precedes essence” man first exists and then gradually creates his own
essence. Nothing determines human freedom from creating its own essence except
freedom itself; man cannot help but be free.

Martin Heidegger

Man shapes his being as he lives. Knowledge is subjected to the person’s decision and
varies from one person to another.Heidegger equates freedom with self-transcendence
in time, the being-ahead-of-itself of dasein while having been-been and making present
entities in his world.

22 | P a g e GEC7
LESSON 2: the human person
The fundamental nature of humankind has long challenged the great philosophers.
Are people born inherently good, evil, or somewhere in between? Is human nature
predetermined by a supernatural being or self-directed? These ethical questions are crucial to
systems of government and justice, determining the way people should live together in society,
and when and how punishment should be meted out to those who don’t follow what is
considered the “right” way to behave (Duignan, 2010).
The person is a rational being. His/Her nature emerges and is fulfilled in one’s various
relationship.

In Relation to Self

A. He has intellect and free will.

The human person is endowed and blessed with natural capacities and abilities. He
has the ability to reason and decide freely. He has the ability to grasp, recognize,
and appreciate truth and goodness, and the ability to choose among options to
promote or disregard truth and goodness.
i. The person has the right to seek the truth and act in freedom. He has the
right to free expression, to information, to education, to assembly, to worship
and to collective action to freedom.
ii. With freedom comes responsibility. While a person has rights. He also has
the duty to respect the rights of fellow humans, to promote for his acts.
B. He has dignity.
The human person is bestowed an inherent dignity which demands unconditional
respect. The demand for absolute dignity invalidates all manipulation of person as
justified even if the end is ultimately the person.
C. He is created in the image and likeness of God.
The human person is both mind and spirit. The person is a co-creator, co-worker,
and co-savior of God. Creation and salvation is an ongoing process and all are part
of it. According to Saint Thomas Aquinas, the highest perfection of man is in his/her
wanting to be with God.

23 | P a g e GEC7
 D. He is ambivalent.
The human person has the capacity for both good and evil. He has the ability to go
beyond self interest and work for justice and goodness. On the other hand, he is also
capable of selfishness and oppression. This implies the danger of empowering a
person with absolute authority and influence. There is a need for checks and
balances if we are to help deter a person from succumbing to his natural weakness.
Another implication is that there must be a constant choosing that is opting to do
good. Because of man’s ambivalence, it takes practice to be/do good.
E. He is limited.
The human person’s life is limited. The significance of death is on how life was lived
– whether he opts to do good or not. The person is also limited in his capacity to
know and do good.
F. He is unique.
The human person is different and has his own contribution to society. Because of
this uniqueness, one cannot label or put a stereotype on anybody. The uniqueness
of a person has to be respected.
G. He is an embodied subject.
The human person is in charge of his or her own life. The person is a moral agent
with a certain degree of autonomy, and self determination empowered to act
according to his or her conscience, in freedom and with knowledge.
H. He is a historical subject.
The human person being an embodied subject is necessarily a historical subject.
Being a historical subject is to be temporal and is part of a progressive movement
toward full human development. The moral significance of the personal historical
process is that one’s moral responsibility is proportionate to his or her capacities at
each stage of development. As historical subject, the person’s moral reflection must
be as dynamic as the human life it intends to guide.
The person is a historical being in that he develops personality as he grows up and
circulates within the members of his family, his peer group, his neighbourhood, his
school, his church, and eventually within the society at large.

24 | P a g e GEC7
In Relation to Others
A. Each person is a social being.
Every individual is oriented towards other people and needs their company. He fulfils
himself with and through others. He is a relational being. To be a human person is to
be essentially directed towards others. Human persons need to live in social groups
with appropriate structures which sustain human dignity and the common good.
Since a person is not an island unto himself, he will have to relate himself to society.
For his survival and belonging needs, he is not simply a mere member of a socio-
cultural group – a mere individual – but he cooperates with the members of that
group. In short, he is also a social being.
B. Each person is of equal value with other persons.
God has gifted all with equality, although natural inequalities may exist. All are equal
in basic rights and needs.

In Relation to World

A. Work
The person interacts with the world through his/her work. Work is a means to fulfil
one’s personhood and to glorify God.
B. Caretaker
The things of the world are for all people to use – not adored or amassed. All are
responsible for the preservation and development of the earth.

25 | P a g e GEC7
Evaluating Understanding:

A. Direction: Match Column A (Different Periods) with the correct answer on Column
B (Name of the Philosophers).
Column A Column B
Ancient Rene Descartes, Aristotle, Sun Tzu, William James, Soren Kierkegaard,
Medieval Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Martin Heidegger, Plato, Saint Thomas
Modern Aquinas, Confucious, Saint Augustine, Socrates
Contemporary

Answer:
Ancient – Aristotle, Plato, Socrates
Medieval - Saint Thomas Aquinas, Saint Augustine
Modern - Rene Descartes, Soren Kierkegaard
Contemporary - William James, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Martin Heidegger

B. True or False. Write true if the statement is true. Otherwise, write false in the
space provided.
______ 1. Martin Heidegger is considered the father of existentialism and believed that
individuals were responsible for their own lives and espoused a passionate, irrational faith
based on a eap in the dark. FALSE
______ 2. Rene Descartes is famous for his saying “Cogito ergo sum” (Latin for “I think,
therefore I am“). TRUE
______ 3. Socrates was the most famous student of Plato. FALSE
______ 4. According to Sartre man exercise his fundamental option to choose his motives and
reasons as the situation requires. TRUE
______ 5. According to Saint Augustine, man is neither his soul apart nor his body apart but the
whole which is composed or a unity of body and soul but the body and soul are not matter and
form of the one substance rather, body and soul are two substances. TRUE
______ 6. The slogan, “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity,” became the bible of French revolutionaries.
TRUE
______ 7. William James philosophy begins from the standpoint of faith. FALSE
______ 8. The famous saying “Cogito ergo sum” (Latin for “Man is born free; and everywhere
he is in chains”) FALSE
______ 9. According to Aristotle, man is one substance whose matter is his body and whose
form is his soul. TRUE
______ 10. According to Socrates, man’s body is an unfortunate accident and does not belong
to his essence. FALSE

26 | P a g e GEC7
 CHAPTER 3:
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF
ETHICS:
CONCEPT OF HUMAN ACT
Starting Accurately:

It is important to realize the moral value of our human acts since Christian morality is
concerned not with acts of man but with human acts, that is, actions proper to the human
person. The concept of fundamental option is also taken into consideration in our lesson. the
sources of morality of human acts, which help us judge whether an act is good or bad, will also
be discussed. Lastly, the modifiers of the human acts, which may render the acts as imputable
to the agent or not, will likewise be tackled.
When a human being does such acts, they are called acts of man but not human acts.
Acts of man, therefore, are acts shared in common by man and other animals, whereas human
acts are proper to human beings. Acts of Human is the immediate action or the point where one
does it without much thought and this holds a lot of values within, it clearly shows the strong
morals developed in him. Human act is more of conscience involved , where he knows and
understands the act being performed.

Learning outcomes:
 Describe the concepts of human acts.
 Explain the modifiers of human act.

Stimulating Learning:
Check this out:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZE4WEu-
sAmg&fbclid=IwAR1eo3W2eXV9uU0HeyhT60H7JvwjxDYBVjHXf4BX98EZJIpwCmNuKpj0
P-Q

27 | P a g e GEC7
Inculcating Concepts:

Human Act Act of Man

 The human activity of man as man
 Act of rationality of man
 Involves understanding and free will
 “an act which proceeds from the
deliberate free will of man” (Glenn:3)
 The agent becomes responsible and
accountable of such act
 A human act can be morally good or
morally evil
 The human act is one that is proper
to a human being, an act that
proceeds from the free will of a man.
 Activities of man as animal
 Acts are not deliberately done nor
voluntary
 Performed without the free will of the
agent
 Includes beating of the heart,
dreaming, sensations by the five
sense organs
 Do not demand responsibility from
the agent
 Amoral acts and not subject to
morality

EXISTENCE OF HUMAN ACT- If there is an act, the agent has an objective in mind. ¨ For every
act that is done, there is always a corresponding end, or a goal. ¨ It is this end that gives the act
a reason for its existence.

HUMAN ACT AND RESPONSIBILITY- Responsibility is the ability of a person to respond to a

need or problem in a situation. That ability to respond is an internal quality of a person, which is
free and voluntary yet morally obligatory in himself.

COMPARISON OF CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN ACTS AND ACTS OF MAN

Human Acts Acts of Human

1. The act must be deliberate. 1. They are done indeliberately
2. The act must be free. 2. They are not done freely acts
3. The act must be voluntary. 3. The acts are done involuntarily

CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN ACTS:

A. Elicited acts – these are human acts which find their adequate cause in the will
alone.
1. Wish – the simple love of anything.
2. Intention – the purposive tendency of the will towards a thing.
3. Consent – the acceptance by the will of the means necessary to carry out intention.
4. Election – the selection by the will of the precise means to be employed in carrying out
an intention.

28 | P a g e GEC7
 5. Use – the employment by the will of powers to carry out its intention by the means
elected.
6. Fruition – the enjoyment of a thing willed and done.

B. Commanded acts – human acts that do not find their adequate cause in the simple-
will act, but are perfected by the action of mental or bodily powers under the control
of will.
1. Internal – acts done by internal mental powers under command of the will.
2. External – acts affected by bodily powers under command of the will
3. Mixed – acts that involve the employment of bodily powers and mental powers.

Elements of Human Acts

a. KNOWLEDGE

An act done is knowingly, when the doer is conscious (all senses are active, sensory-
perception if functional) and aware of the reason and consequences on his actions.

b. FREEDOM

An act is done when the doer acts by his own initiative and choice without being forced to do
so by another person or situation It makes the doer the father if his acts and thus, the doer is
responsible for those acts. He can acknowledge that he has done them because he wanted
to and he can explain why he wanted to do. Knowledge is supplied by the intellect and it
directs the will to want the object it proposes.

Our freedom is “situated” or limited by the rights of others, things or persons. Our
environment constricts our freedom. But man remains man despite the limitations of human
freedom. “Man cannot be reduced to historicity, to his environment, to determinism” (Dy,
Jr.:159)

Negative: freedom is the absence of constriction

Positive: freedom is the power to be and to act under free will and choice.

29 | P a g e GEC7
 FREE WILL AND FREEDOM

WILL- It is a man’s natural tendency of being attracted to what is good and beautiful and to
be repulsed from what is evil and ugly, after they have been presented by the intellect. ¨ Will
is the counterpart of intellect.

HUMAN FREE WILL- The will is free when it acts without any pressure from outside. It is
free when it is attracted to or repulses anything on a natural tendency. ¨ Free will makes the
agent become responsible and accountable for his act.

Freedom of the will is the “power which men have of determining their actions according to
the judgment of their reason” - St. Thomas

c. VOLUNTARINESS

An act is done wilfully when the doer consents to the acts, accepting it as his own, and
assumes accountability for his consequences. It is naturally inclined to the good, but man
may sometimes deliberately choose evil.

Upgrading Competence and Expanding Insights:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UHSSVdM7q30&fbclid=IwAR3DxTKOv7LaWCyS2q4TojnD
VdHUBxzVtTqiVpF80cY9UTsAdo7j6-ypsKo

30 | P a g e GEC7
 CHAPTER 4:
MORAL THEORIES
Starting Accurately:

Moral theories determine a theory of the right: they tell us what we ought to do morally.
Furthermore, these are the fundamentals that govern our behaviors and actions in certain
situations.

Learning outcomes:
 Discuss the various moral theories such as natural law or theological tradition,
utilitarianism, deontology, egoism, virtue ethics, oriental tradition, Christian ethics, ethics of
power, Marxism, existentialism, Kohlberg’s moral development.
 Describe Filipino ethics.

Inculcating Concepts:

LESSON 1:
Natural Law or Theological Tradition

Thomas Aquinas
Key features

1. When we focus on God’s role as the giver of the natural law, the natural law is just
one aspect of divine providence; and so the theory of natural law is from that perspective
just one part among others of the theory of divine providence.

2. When we focus on the human’s role as recipient of the natural law, the natural law
constitutes the principles of practical rationality, those principles by which human action

31 | P a g e GEC7
 is to be judged as reasonable or unreasonable; and so the theory of natural law is from
that perspective the preeminent part of the theory of practical rationality.

Natural law and divine providence

Natural law is a participation in the eternal law (ST IaIIae91, 2)
The eternal law is that rational plan by which all creation is ordered (ST IaIIae 91, 1); the
natural law is the way that the human being “participates” in the eternal law (ST IaIIae
91, 2).

Natural law and practical rationality

Natural law constitutes the basic principles of practical rationality for human beings, and
has this status by nature (ST IaIIae 94, 2).
The notion that the natural law constitutes the basic principles of practical rationality
implies, for Aquinas, both that the precepts of the natural law are universally binding by
nature (ST IaIIae 94, 4) and that the precepts of the natural law are universally knowable
by nature(ST IaIIae 94, 4; 94, 6).

Natural laws are universally binding by nature

The precepts of the natural law are binding by nature: no beings could share our human
nature yet fail to be bound by the precepts of the natural law. This is so because these
precepts direct us toward the good as such and various particular goods (ST IaIIae 94,
2). The good and goods provide reasons for us rational beings to act, to pursue the good
and these particular goods. As good is what is perfective of us given the natures that we
have (ST Ia 5, 1), the good and these various goods have their status as such naturally.
It is sufficient for certain things to be good that we have the natures that we have; it is in
virtue of our common human nature that the good for us is what it is.

Natural laws are also knowable by nature

All human beings possess a basic knowledge of the principles of the natural law (ST
IaIIae 94, 4). This knowledge is exhibited in our intrinsic directedness toward the various
goods that the natural law enjoins us to pursue, and we can make this implicit
awareness explicit and propositional through reflection on practice. Aquinas takes it that
there is a core of practical knowledge that all human beings have, even if the

32 | P a g e GEC7
 implications of that knowledge can be hard to work out or the efficacy of that knowledge
can be thwarted by strong emotion or evil dispositions (ST IaIIae 94, 6).

Basic features of the natural law

That from the God’s-eye point of view, it is law through its place in the scheme of divine
providence
From the human’s-eye point of view, it constitutes a set of naturally binding and
knowable precepts of practical reason

Principle of intelligibility of action

Fundamental principle of the natural law is that good is to be done and evil avoided (ST
IaIIae 94, 2)

But no one can in acting simply pursue good — one has to pursue some particular good.
And Aquinas holds that we know immediately, by inclination, that there are a variety of
things that count as good and thus to be pursued — life, procreation, knowledge,
society, and reasonable conduct(ST IaIIae 94, 2; 94, 3)

Aquinas’s thoughts are along the following lines

first, there are certain ways of acting in response to the basic human goods that are
intrinsically flawed;

second, for an act to be right, or reasonable, is for it to be an act that is in no way

intrinsically flawed (ST IaIIae 18, 1)

We are to look at the features that individuate acts, such as their objects (ST IaIIae 18,
2), their ends (ST IaIIae 18, 3), their circumstances (ST IaIIae 18, 4),

An act might be flawed through a mismatch of object and end.

An act might be flawed merely through its intention: to direct oneself against a good —
as in murder (ST IIaIIae64, 6), and lying (ST IIaIIae 110, 3), and blasphemy (ST IIaIIae
13, 2)

killing of the innocent is always wrong, as is lying, adultery, sodomy, and blasphemy;
and that they are always wrong is a matter of natural law.

Reference:
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/natural-law-ethics/

33 | P a g e GEC7
LESSON 2: utilitarianism
History of Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is one of the most powerful and persuasive approaches to normative ethics in the
history of philosophy. Utilitarianism is generally held to be the view that the morally right action
is the action that produces the most good.
One thing to note is that the theory is a form of consequentialism: the right action is understood
entirely in terms of consequences produced.
The utilitarian view one ought to maximize the overall good — that is, consider the good of
others as well as one's own good.

Classical Utilitarians
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, identified the good with pleasure
They also held that we ought to maximize the good, that is, bring about ‘the greatest
amount of good for the greatest number’.

Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832)

He famously held that humans were ruled by two sovereign masters — pleasure and
pain. We seek pleasure and the avoidance of pain, they “…govern us in all we do, in all
we say, in all we think…” (Bentham PML, 1).

He also promulgated the principle of utility as the standard of right action on the part of
governments and individuals.

Actions are approved when they are such as to promote happiness, or pleasure, and
disapproved of when they have a tendency to cause unhappiness, or pain (PML).

The one intrinsic good is pleasure, the bad is pain. We are to promote pleasure and act
to reduce pain.

When called upon to make a moral decision one measures an action's value with
respect to pleasure and pain according to the following:

a. intensity (how strong the pleasure or pain is)

b. duration (how long it lasts)

c. certainty (how likely the pleasure or pain is to be the result of the action)

d. proximity (how close the sensation will be to performance of the action)

34 | P a g e GEC7
 e. fecundity (how likely it is to lead to further pleasures or pains)

f. purity (how much intermixture there is with the other sensation).

John Stuart Mill (1806–1873)

There are some pleasures that are more fitting than others.

Intellectual pleasures are of a higher, better, sort than the ones that are merely
sensual, and that we share with animals.

There are a variety of parameters along which we quantitatively measure

pleasure — intensity and duration are just two of those.

When a student decides to study for an exam rather than go to a party, for
example, she is making the best decision even though she is sacrificing short
term pleasure. That's because studying for the exam, scores higher in terms of
the long term pleasures doing well in school lead to, as well as the fecundity of
the pleasure in leading to yet other pleasures.

Ideal Utilitarianism
A beautiful object had value independent of any pleasure it might generate in a viewer.
Compare two worlds, one was entirely beautiful, full of things which complimented each
other; the other was a hideous, ugly world, filled with “everything that is most disgusting
to us.” Further, there are not human beings, one imagines, around to appreciate or be
disgusted by the worlds. The question then is, which of these worlds is better, which
one's existence would be better than the other's?

Of course, it was clear that the beautiful world was better, even though no one was
around to appreciate its beauty. If beauty was a part of the good independent of its
effects on the psychological states of others — independent of, really, how it affected
others, then one needn't sacrifice morality on the altar of beauty anymore. Following
beauty is not a mere indulgence, but may even be a moral obligation.

Reference:
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/utilitarianism-history/

35 | P a g e GEC7
LESSON 3: Deontology
The term "deontology" derives from the greek "deon" meaning "obligation" or "duty", and
"logos" meaning "speaking" or "study“. Deontology is an approach to ethics that focuses on
the rightness or wrongness of actions themselves, as opposed to the rightness or wrongness of
the consequences of those actions or to the character and habits of the actor.

Deontologist, whether a situation is good or bad depends onwhether the action that
brought it about was right or wrong. What makes a choice "right" is its conformity with a moral
norm: right takes priority over good.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DEONTOLOGY:

ADVANTAGES:
-It preserves consistency and stability in the moral life and clearly supports the social
fabric of the human community by giving such a prominent place to commonly shared
norms, laws or duties as it points of reference.
-It shows that some aspects of action cannot be sacrificed to consequences.

DIS-ADVANTAGES:
-The insufficient account for the temporality and contextuality of moral living.

-The insufficient account for the complexity of circumstances which can change the
moral reality of an action.

LESSON 4: EGOISM
All forms of egoism require explication of “self-interest” (or “welfare” or “well-being”). Egoism can
be a descriptive or a normative position.
Psychological egoism, the most famous descriptive position, claims that each person has but
one ultimate aim: her own welfare.
Normative forms of egoism make claims about what one ought to do, rather than describe
what one does do.
Ethical egoism claims I morally ought to perform some action if and only if, and because,
performing that action maximizes my self-interest.
Rational egoism claims that I ought to perform some action if and only if, and because,
performing that action maximizes my self-interest.
Psychological egoism claims that each person has but one ultimate aim: her own welfare.

36 | P a g e GEC7
LESSON 5: Virtue Ethics
• Aristotle attempts to identify what are the characteristics of human being that
differentiate it from other species.
• Every species has its own role in the universe.
• It is fulfilling its role well that defines what the ultimate is good of that thing or animal.

LESSON 6: Oriental Traditions and Ethics

The three Oriental Sages:
Buddha - (563-483 B. C.)
Lao Tzu - (circa the 6th century B. C.)
Confucius - (circa 4th century B. C.)

Buddha

There is only one absolute, uni0versal all-pervading Reality, Brahma, in which all things
are one.

Man, therefore, in reality was united originally with Brahma and is called a Brahman.
However, because of the accident of being born into this earthly life, he naturally
acquired an individual self (atman) and identified with a mortal body at birth, and thus
was separated from his universal Brahman self.

According to him, the selfishness and uncontrollable fleshly impulses of a man

endangered by his passions are the root cause of human misery and suffering. Hence,
man, in order to be happy, must liberate himself of this selfishness, subjugate his baser
instincts by self-restraint or denial, and in so doing he acquires virtue.

Lao Tzu

Work the importance of the virtues of humility, self-negation and absolute calm or
quietism in the face of misfortune or calamity or even death.

Man should avoid display and self assertion; he should be humble, modest, calm, ready
to meet misfortunes in life and fearless even in death.

Man rises above his bodily desires because his spirit is stronger than matter.

37 | P a g e GEC7
Confucius

There are a few core values for Confucianism. One is called Jen, it prioritizes Human
Heartedness, goodness, benevolence, dignity for the human life, and last but not least,
characteristics that make humans, humans (something that makes them what they are,
human). Li, the other value, is the principle of gain, benefit, order, priority, and the
concrete guide to human action. There are 2 meaning of Li. The first meaning is the
ways things should be done in one’s social life. For example the relations the father to
son should be that the father loves the son and the respects the father. Other examples
are; elder brother younger brother (gentle/respectful), husband and wife (good/listening),
older friend and younger friend (considerate/deferential), ruler and subject
(benevolent/loyal) Finally, respect for the aged and elderly. The second sense of li is
the principle of social order; comply with the norms of Jen.

Also, another main value of confucianism is yi, another key core value of
confucianism. Yi focuses on the righteousness, which is a necessary condition for a
superior man. Yi implies a moral sense, which is the ability to decide what is right or
wrong. Another idea that yi focuses on is that some actions ought to be performed
for the sole reason that they are right, not for the sake or good of someone or
something else. Another key aspect of confucianism is the hsiao, which keeps its
focus on respect. Parents are to be respected because they are the sources of your
life. One must feel obliged to do well and make the family known and respected, and
giving your parents emotional, physical, and spiritual richness.

Chih is the value of moral wisdom. Chih says that man has the potential to be good
for confucius. Chun-tzu is another value that symbolizes the ideal, superior man. A
man must be intelligent enough to meet anything without fear. The final value of
confucianism is te, which is the power of moral example where men rule. A
government is said to be good if it can maintain economic sufficiency, military
sufficiency, and earn the confidence of the people.

38 | P a g e GEC7
LESSON 7: ETHICS OF POWER
Thrasymachus
Three central claims about justice.
• Justice is nothing but the advantage of the stronger (338c)
• Justice is obedience to laws (339b)
• Justice is nothing but the advantage of another (343c).

Nicollo Machiavelli
End justifies the means. Where end=peace and order and means=force.
Also known as mightism ~ "Might is Right."

Friedrich Nietzsche
Inherent in every individual, regardless of race and clime, is the will to power or the will
to dominate.
All that proceeds from power is good and all that springs from weakness is bad.
Reason is an instrument of the will, and the will is narrowed down to a single purpose:
the will to power.
Culmination of the full development of man's will to power is the state of
SUPERHUMANS or OVERMEN.

LESSON 7: Christian ethics

There are at least six frames of reference within which the term has been used.
(1) the best in the moral philosophy of all ages and places
(2) the moral standards of Christendom
(3) the ethics of the Christian Church and its many churches
(4) the ethics of the Bible
(5) the ethics of the New Testament
(6) the ethical insights of Jesus.

39 | P a g e GEC7
Christian Ethics: Our Common Moral Heritage
. We may define this common moral heritage as anything from an attitude to a
conscience, but however we define it, we are aware that some moral absolutes do exist outside
ourselves.

Christian Ethics: A Common Moral Standard

Christian morality is founded on the conviction that an absolute moral order exists
outside of, and yet somehow is inscribed into, our very being. This morality is not arbitrarily
handed down by God to create difficulties for us.

MAJOR PROPONENTS OF CHRISTIAN ETHICS:

A. St. Augustine (354-430)

His literary output covers the entire sphere of human thought and ranges from the
psychological complexity of the confessions, to the political insights of the City of God, to
the stridently polemical.

B. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

He believed that:
 Every agent acts for an end.
 Every agent acts for a good.
 All things are directed to one end, which is God.
 Man’s happiness does not consist in wealth, worldly power, and goods of the body.
 Human happiness is not seated in the senses.
 Man’s ultimate happiness is not in this life.
If man’s ultimate happiness consists not in external things, which are called goods of
chance; nor in goods of body; nor in goods of soul, as regards the sensitive faculty ; nor as
regards the intellectual faculty, in the practice of moral virtue; nor as regards the intellectual
virtue in those which are concerned about action, namely art and prudence. Thomas
Aquinas concluded the man’s ultimate happiness consists solely in the contemplation of
God who is the truth.

40 | P a g e GEC7
LESSON 8: MARXISM
Karl Marx
Marxism
 Our place in the society determine our consciousness
 Study the relationship between a text and society that reads it.
 Focuses on class relations and societal conflict.
 People’s experiences are responsible for shaping and developing an individual
personal’s consciousness

Karl Marx wrote very little directly in the subject of ethics. His writings on history,
economics, and politics offer a perspective on the nature of society that embodies a conception
of justice highly critical on the practices as well as most of the theories of modern civilization.
The manuscript contain no mention of his solution to the economic, political, and ethical
problems in society; namely the realization following a revolution by the proletariat (workers), of
an ideal classless society. The key concept in his analysis is the notion of alienation or
estrangement.
Marx sees the modern industrial workers as being almost totally alienated and, as result
as living a life that can only be charitably described as human. This deplorable condition is no
fault of the worker but the inevitable result of the entire social structure generated and
maintained by bourgeois capitalism.

Who are the Proletariat?

 The proletariat is basically an all-encompassing term for the working class or more
specifically, anyone who under capitalism has to live by working for a wage. This
includes the unemployed and retired.

Marx articulates his views on the nature of reality in his works.

• Core belief of Marxism
• Marx believed that society had progressed from one economic system to another.
• As society progresses from a feudal system to a more market-based economy, the
actual process from producing, distributing, and consuming goods become more
complex.
• People’s functions within the economic system become differentiated.

41 | P a g e GEC7
Two Economic means of production within a society
1. Base
-Engenders and controls all human institutions and ideologies.
2. Superstructure
-All social and legal institutions, political, and educational system, religions, and art.
Proletariat Bourgeoisie
- Class of society which does not have ownership - Wealthy class that rules society.
of the means of production.

 The Communist Manifest (1848)

- Marx and Hegel further develop Marxism
 States that the history of all existing societies is the history of class struggle.
 They declare that the capitalists, or the bourgeoisie, has successfully enslaved the
working class, or the proletariat through economic policies and production of goods.

 Das Capital (1867)

 History became the basis for 20th century Marxism, socialism, and communism.
 History, an understanding of people and their actions and beliefs is determined by
economic conditions.
 Marx maintains that an intricate web of social relationships emerges when any group of
people engage in the production of goods.
 The ideology of a society such as the beliefs, values and culture is determined by upper
class.
 The rich become richer, while the poor become poorer.

Assumptions
 Marxism is not primarily a literary theory that can be used to interpret a text.
 It is a set of social, economic, and political ideas that its followers believe will enable
them to interpret and more importantly, change the world.
 Marxism is material not spiritual
 The structure if our society is built on a series of ongoing conflicts between social
classes.
 Capitalist control the society’s ideology or social consciousness.

42 | P a g e GEC7
LESSON 8: existentialism

• Existentialism is a philosophy that emphasizes individual existence, freedom and choice.

• It emphasizes that the only route to truth in the sphere of human existence is through the
individual persons own personal participation
• Man must start with his own existence
• Existentialists believe that “existence precedes essence”
EXISTENTIALISTS
• Existentialists stress the possibility of the transition from false to genuine modes of
existence

JEAN-PAUL SARTRE
• Jean-Paul Sartre was in 1905 in Paris.
• He completed his education in France and went to Berlin to study German philosophy
• Sartre was a great thinker who was profoundly sensitive to ontological problems, a
master of dialectic and a really great psychologist
• Sartre was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1964 where he refused to accept.
• Sartre visualized “existence precedes essence”
• His contention was that we have no common human nature or essence but that we were
thrown in the world to make ourselves what we can.

• Man prefers to be what he is by the plan which he has chosen.

GABRIEL MARCEL
• Marcel’s philosophical development has been influenced by a radical rebellion against
the subjectivist and idealistic conceptions of modern philosophy.

• He presented a descriptive insight and sharp analysis on the inauthentic existence of

modern mass society in a “broken world”.

• Marcel believes that the basic human existential are rational in structure. Human
existence is in the world with others, or intersubjective, and constantly in a dynamic
situation.

43 | P a g e GEC7
MARTIN BUBER
• Buber was highly critical of much about modern society. He discarded the dreadful
potentialities of society for denying the reality of personal existence.

• He criticized modern society’s frightful abuse of mass communication and patronizing

industrial techniques which dehumanized and depersonalized him.
Buber states that there are two attitudes toward the world:
1. I-THOU
(THE WORLD OF REALIZATION)
Establishes the world of relation, reciprocity, and mutuality.
2. I-IT
(THE WORLD OF PERCEPTION)
Establishes the world of experience, use, and objects.

MARTIN HEIDEGGER
• For Heidegger, the horizons of pure theory are broader and its structural knowledge
clearer.
ANGST (Dread or Anxiety)
• Anxiety is the most primordial way in which the spirit can relate itself to itself.
• The primary of anxiety is especially adopted to exhibit the analysis of mood’s
authenticity
• It is generally held to be a negative feeling arising from the experience of human
freedom and responsibility.
DASEIN
• Dasein is to be there. To be there is to be in the world. The being of dasein is not “is”
but “to be”
• For Heidegger, the essence of men lies in his existence. He employed the term
“dasein” indicative and is a determinate whatness but rather a mode of being (sein)
always proceeding from a certain position (da) into which he has been thrown.
THE THEY
• Heidegger defines conscience that the dasein issues to itself. It calls itself in the
mode of keeping silent from fallenness into the “they” to it’s own potentiality to being.

44 | P a g e GEC7
 TRUTH (ALETHEIA)
• Truth is centered in a man. Heidegger censures the relational concept of truth as
concurrence of thought or discretion as a thing related to other things.
SORGE
• There are no non conative events in human life as it is lived. Heidegger uses the
term “care” (sorge) to express this this conative structure.
• There is a three-fold order of human existing (the structures of care): first, is ahead of
itself, second, as already in the world ( I myself, and that which I care for, already
exist in the world)
• Heidegger defines care as ahead-of-itself-being-already-in-the-world-as-being
alongside entities which he encounters within the world.

KEY THEMES OF EXISTENTIALISM

THE ABSURD
• The idea here is that there is no meaning in the world beyond what meaning we give it.
• This meaninglessness also encompasses the “unfairness” of the world.
• This contrasts the notion that “bad things don’t happen to good people”
FACTICITY
• Is both a limitation and a condition of freedom. It is a limitation in that a large part of
one’s facticity consist of things one couldn’t have chosen (birthplace, etc.) but a
condition in the sense that one’s values most likely depend on it.
AUTHENTICITY
• Authentic existence involves the idea that one has to “create oneself” and then live in
accordance with this self.
• The role of facticity in relation to authenticity involves letting one’s actual values come
into play when one makes a choice (instead of, like Kierkegaard’s Aesthete, “choosing”
randomly), so that one also takes responsibility for the act instead of choosing either-or
without allowing the option to have different values.
DESPAIR
• Despair, in existentialism, is generally defined as a loss of hope. More specifically, it is a
loss of hope in reaction to a breakdown in one or more of the defining qualities of oneself
or identity.

45 | P a g e GEC7
Lesson 9: Filipino Ethics

What do Filipinos value?

The family
The family is at the center of the Filipino community. Children are not expected to leave
their parents’ house until they themselves get married; and even after then, many
couples opt to stay with or close to their or their spouse’s parents.
They’re expected to care for their ageing parents instead of sending them to a retirement
home.
The value that Filipinos put into caring for one’s family can also be seen as one of the
reasons why nurses and caregivers from the country provide their patients and clients
with a high level of care.

Humor and positivity

In the face of difficult or challenging situations, members of the community are
encouraged to look at the brighter side of things.
The inclination for finding the good in the bad can be traced to the country’s location,
which lies in the path of typhoons and sits along the Pacific Ring of Fire. In a place
where natural calamities are commonplace, humor and positivity work as a coping
mechanism, much like how some children laugh to hide their embarrassment after
slipping or falling.

Flexibility and adaptability

The term “bahala na”, which can be translated to whatever happens, happens, is one of
the more familiar phrases used in the country and is perhaps the most representative of
how Filipinos value adaptability and quick thinking. It exemplifies one’s belief in a higher
power and submitting one’s fate to elements that cannot be controlled.
People who use the term “bahala na” do not see anything wrong with it, as it serves as a
sort of positive affirmation that allows them to deal with a problem right then and there.
However, those who do see it negatively often view it as a form of fatalistic submission
or a way to absolve one from the responsibility of their actions.

46 | P a g e GEC7
Faith and religion
Spirituality is deeply ingrained in Filipinos.
Religion plays a big part in society and in the everyday lives of Filipinos.
The Catholic Church’s views still affect the passing of some laws, most towns still hold
fiestas to honor their patron saints, and many regular non-working national holidays are
dedicated to celebrating various religious activities and events.
Religion helps shape their values and principles.

Filipino hospitality
Filipinos in the country and around the globe can be expected to extend a warm
welcome to their guests regardless of where they come from, how well they know their
host, and why they’re visiting someone’s home.
Hosts typically provide their guest with food and entertainment and, if there’s time, a tour
around the local destinations.
Before they leave, guests are entreated to take home pasalubong or souvenirs, which
often come in the form of delicacies and local sweets.

References:

https://www.outsourceaccelerator.com/articles/filipino-traits-and-values/
https://prezi.com/3b5rq3tmiedt/power-ethics/
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/egoism/

47 | P a g e GEC7
 CHAPTER 5:
STANDARDS OF MORALITY
Starting Accurately:

In this topic, students will be introduced to concepts and thrown in at the deep end by
being asked to make decisions on what they would regard as the most ethical solutions to
dilemmas. Students will be guided through various ethical theories and challenged to agree or
disagree with them. Students should not be afraid to take a stance, as this will enhance their
learning and enjoyment of this topic.

Learning Outcomes:
 Discuss moral dilemmas.
 Discuss the nature of moral standard.
 Explain special norms and moral standards
 Discuss legal standards of morality.

Stimulating Learning:

The Heinz Case (Kohlberg, 1963)

“A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug
that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the
same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist
was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and
charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug.
The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, did not have enough money to buy the drug.
He went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together
$1,000. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper. But
the druggist said: ‘No, I discovered the drug and I’m going to make money from it.’ Heinz
got desperate and broke into the ma’s store and stole the drug for his wife.”
Should Heinz have broken into the store and stolen the drug for his wife? Why or
why not?

48 | P a g e GEC7
Inculcating Concepts:

Moral Dilemmas
Concept of Moral Dilemmas

An agent regards herself as having moral reasons to do each of two actions, but doing
both actions is not possible. Ethicists have called situations like these moral dilemmas.

The crucial features of a moral dilemma are these: the agent is required to do each of
two (or more) actions; the agent can do each of the actions; but the agent cannot
do both (or all) of the actions.

The agent thus seems condemned to moral failure; no matter what she does, she will do
something wrong (or fail to do something that she ought to do).

The Nature of Moral standards

Moral standards involve the rules people have about the kinds of actions they believe
are morally right and wrong, as well as the values they place on the kinds of objects they
believe are morally good and morally bad. Some ethicists equate moral standards with moral
values and moral principles.

Non-moral standards
Non-moral standards refer to rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical considerations.
Either these standards are not necessarily linked to morality or by nature lack ethical sense.
Basic examples of non-moral standards include rules of etiquette, fashion standards, rules in
games, and various house rules.

Legal Standards
Legal standards are standards that are set forth in governmental laws. All the statutes
and laws that lawyers point to are legal standards. Legal standards are useful, as they help

49 | P a g e GEC7
people to know what they cannot do. With legal standards in place, authorities are allowed to
enforce rules when people do something illegal.

Ethical Standards
Ethical standards, on the other hand, don't necessarily have a legal basis. They are based on
human principles of right and wrong.

Justice and Fairness

Justice means giving each person what he or she deserves or, in more traditional terms,
giving each person his or her due. Justice and fairness are closely related terms that are often
today used interchangeably.
While justice usually has been used with reference to a standard of rightness, fairness
often has been used with regard to an ability to judge without reference to one's feelings or
interests; fairness has also been used to refer to the ability to make judgments that are not
overly general but that are concrete and specific to a particular case.

Different Kinds of Justice

Distributive justice refers to the extent to which society's institutions ensure that benefits
and burdens are distributed among society's members in ways that are fair and just.
Retributive justice refers to the extent to which punishments are fair and just.
Compensatory justice refers to the extent to which people are fairly compensated for
their injuries by those who have injured them; just compensation is proportional to the loss
inflicted on a person.

Using/Applying Knowledge:
Activity No. 1
Norms: standards of acceptable or proper behaviour.
List key words in the definition: _________________________________
Example of norms: it is a norm in the classroom to listen while others are speaking during
class disscussions.
Example of norms in global affairs: It is a norm to not invade another country without just cause.
Your example of norms: __________________________________________

50 | P a g e GEC7
 Morals: principle of right and wrong in behaviour.
List key words in the definition: ____________________________________
Example of morals: It is moral to help someone in need.
Example of morals in global affairs: Humanitarian aid is a moral cause.
Your example of morals: __________________________________________

Evaluating Understanding:
Moral Dilemmas
1. Your friend has a great sense of humour. However, sometimes his jokes involve making fun of
others in inappropriate ways. He will point out a physical flaw or look for something odd or
different about a person and make an unkind comment. You feel uncomfortable when your friend
does this. Do you say something or just laugh along with him?
2. You understand the importance of team work in your job. You share ideas and responsibilities
with your team members on a daily basis. In your weekly team meeting with your supervisor, one
of your co-workers takes credit for a time and money saving change in operating procedures you
devised. Your supervisor erroneously thinks your co-worker came up with the change and your
co-worker does not correct the misinterpretation, but allows the boss to not only commend him,
but offer a bonus. Do you go to your co-worker and demand he correct the situation, go to your
supervisor and explain you should receive the commendation and reward, or keep quiet as you
do not believe in ownership of ideas?

References:

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-dilemmas/
https://ourhappyschool.com/node/824
https://www.scu.edu/ethics/ethics-resources/ethical-decisi on-making/justice-and-fairness/
http://dameanusabun.blogspot.com/2014/12/normal-0-false-false-false-en-us-x-none.html

51 | P a g e GEC7
 CHAPTER 6:
ETHICAL ISSUES
Starting Accurately:

Learning Outcomes:
 Discuss contemporary ethical issues.
 Explain the pros and cons of the various ethical issues.

Stimulating Learning:

Inculcating Concepts:

Abortion

ABORTION – is the removal of the non-viable human being from the mother’s womb by human
intervention, whether by killing him before removal from the womb, or whether by exposing him
to a certain death outside the womb or by induced termination of pregnancy before the fetus is
capable of surviving and eventually maintaining an independent life outside the uterus.
Kinds of Abortion

A. Spontaneous Abortion (accidental abortion)

Generally, it is a miscarriage. The causes of spontaneous abortions are not clearly
defined. Abnormal development of the embryo or placental tissue, or both, are found
in about half the cases.
Standard procedures / common methods of induced abortion
a. Suction Curretage or Vacuum Aspiration – the cervix is forcibly dilated by
opening gradually a series of dilators and the uterine contents are withdrawn by
means of a small flexible tube called a cannula, which is connected to a vacuum
pump; then a suction curette (tube) is inserted into the uterus and the suction is
turned on to ensure that no fragments of tissue remain.

52 | P a g e GEC7
 B. Direct abortion (induced abortion)
This intentional abortion takes place as a consequence of an affirmative action, the
end of which is to terminate pregnancy. It is classified as murder.

C. Indirect abortion
It is a secondary consequence of an act which is mutually the primary or immediate
act of the will. It is not willed, but is only allowed to take place being an inevitable
effect of a morally permissible act.

PRO CONS
*Values are in conflict *Significant potential for devaluing all human
1. Hiding a promiscuous adulterous life.
lifestyle. 1. Abortion is a symptom of a greater
2. Saving a woman’s life or her feminine systemic illness in a society which uses and
figure. oppresses a person for:
3. Preventing having too many children. a. commercial gain
4. Freedom from an unwanted b. neglects the elderly and the
pregnancy. handicapped.
5. Securing and exercising one’s c. exhibits gender and sexual
reproductive rights. discrimination.
6. Escaping the burden of severe d. spends proportionally more for
handicap. defense than it does to alleviate the
7. Stigma attached to being conceived societal education, medical, and employment
through rape or incest. needs which lessen the quality of life for
many.

Death Penalty
Same Sex Marriage
Same-sex marriage, the practice of marriage between two men or between two women.
Although same-sex marriage has been regulated through law, religion, and custom in most
countries of the world, the legal and social responses have ranged from celebration on the one
hand to criminalization on the other

53 | P a g e GEC7
Euthanasia
EUTHANASIA- is derived from the Greek word “eu” meaning “good” and “thanatos” meaning
“death” ( easy, painless or happy death), more popularly known as “mercy killing.” It implies an
act of inducing painless or gentle death. This is deliberately terminating life to curtail suffering
and pain in agonizing terminal and definitely fatal chronic conditions. Euthanasia is the
intentional killing of a tormented, incurable patient by lethal agents or means.

Types of Euthanasia

a. Direct Euthanasia- is death induced by doing something that entails the patient’s
death as an immediate consequence. Instances would be the patient taking a highly
toxic drug such as potassium cyanide, or the physician’s administering it, or
somebody removing an endotracheal tube from a patient with pulmonary arrest.
b. Indirect Euthanasia- when something is done foreseeably results in death as a
“subsequence” but not the direct consequence. Such would be a patient’s refusal to
eat or if starving the patient to death.
c. Active Euthanasia- when the act of the euthanasia is done by the subject (patient).
For example, by taking an overdose of a barbiturate or opiate.
d. Passive Euthanasia- the act of euthanasia is done by another person for the patient,
whether directly (e.g., closing down a patient’s lungs with a specific for pulmonary
paralysis) or indirectly (e.g., removing the support provided by a respirator).
e. Voluntary Euthanasia- is chosen consciously by the patient, whether in the event or
prior to it. An example would be fulfilling the wishes of patients that treatment be
stopped when to do anything more would be fatuous. Their wishes might be
expressed either at that time or recorded earlier in a living will.

Masturbation
Masturbation is the sexual stimulation of one's own genitals for sexual arousal or other sexual
pleasure, usually to the point of orgasm. The stimulation may involve hands, fingers, everyday
objects, sex toys such as vibrators, or combinations of these. Mutual masturbation is
masturbation with a sexual partner, and may include manual stimulation of a partner's genitals,
or be used as a form of non-penetrative sex.

54 | P a g e GEC7
Masturbation is a common activity. It’s a natural and safe way to explore your body, feel
pleasure, and release built-up sexual tension. It occurs among people of all backgrounds,
genders, and races. Despite the myths, there are actually no physically harmful side effects of
masturbation. However, excessive masturbation can harm your relationships and everyday life.
Other than that, masturbation is a fun, normal, and healthy act. Keep reading to learn more
about the side effects and potential health benefits of masturbation.

Side effects of masturbation.

Masturbation doesn’t have any harmful side effects. However, some people may feel
guilty about masturbating or have issues with chronic masturbation.

Masturbation and guilt

Some people may feel guilty about masturbating because of cultural, spiritual, or religious
beliefs.Masturbation is neither wrong nor immoral, but you may still hear messages that self-
pleasure is “dirty” and “shameful.”

If you feel guilty over masturbating, speak with someone you trust about why you feel this way
and how you can move past that guilt. Therapists that specialize in sexual health may be a good
resource.

Addiction to masterbation

Some people can and do develop an addiction to masturbation. You may be spending too much
time masturbating if masturbation causes you to:

 skip your chores or daily activities

 miss work or school
 cancel plans with friends or family
 miss important social events

Addiction to masturbation can harm your relationships and other parts of your life. Masturbating
too much may interrupt your work or studies, which can lower productivity. It may also hurt your
romantic relationships and friendships, because you don’t spend as much time with your loved
ones as you used to, or don’t pay attention to their needs.

55 | P a g e GEC7
If you’re worried you may have an addiction to masturbation, speak with your doctor or a
counselor about ways to cut down on masturbating. Talk therapy can help you manage your
addiction. You could also cut down by replacing masturbation with other activities. Next time you
have an urge to masturbate, try:

 going for a run

 writing in a journal
 spending time with friends
 going for a walk

Does masturbation cause a decrease in sexual sensitivity?

For women who have sexual dysfunction, enhanced stimulation — including masturbation —
can help increase sexual desire and sensitivity. In fact, two 2009 studies found that vibrator use
among women and men has been linked to an increase in desire, arousal, and overall sexual
function. Women also reported an increase in lubrication, while men reported better erectile
function, according to the studies.

Masturbation can affect sensitivity during sex for men because of their technique. Research has
shown that too tight of a grip on a penis during masturbation can decrease sensation. Sexual
health experts recommend changing your technique during masturbation to restore sensitivity
levels during sex.

Pornography
Divorce
Divorce is generally understood as the dissolution of a marriage.

The debate on whether or not divorce should be legalized in the Philippines involves
moral, social, economic, and psychological issues. These issues pose valid considerations in
resolving the debate, given that our Constitution holds sacred the dignity of every human
person, the sanctity of family life, the protection of the youth’s moral, spiritual, intellectual and
social well-being, as well as the fundamental equality of men and women before the law.

A bill was proposed, the legalization of divorce in the Philippines was approved by the
Committee on Population and Family Relations of the Philippine House of Representatives.
Currently, the Philippines and the Vatican are the only two sovereign states in the world that still
prohibit divorce.

56 | P a g e GEC7
 Various concern groups passionately argue and defend their respective viewpoints. The
proponents of divorce are led by groups advocating women’s rights. They are supported
primarily by women who are abused by their husbands, women whose Filipino husbands have
divorced them in other countries and remarried, and spouses (husbands and/or wives) who find
their respective interests mutually exclusive and their differences irreconcilable. There are also
individuals who sympathize with the plight of these men and women.

On the other hand, those opposing the legalization of divorce in the Philippines include
the Roman Catholic Church and individuals who believe that divorce is unconstitutional, that it is
anathema to Filipino culture, that it is immoral, that it will destroy the Filipino family, that it will
legalize promiscuity, that it will contribute to the increase in broken families, that it will be
abused by spouses who find it easier to give up on their marriage rather than try to reconcile
their differences, that it will lead to custody battles, and that it will be detrimental for the children.

A US Supreme Court case, Maynard vs. Hill, is often referred to as a basis for the
Philippine Supreme Court to side with the validity of marriage every time there is a declaration
of a nullity case that reaches it. In this case, the US Supreme Court said that marriage is more
than an ordinary contract but an institution of society, regulated and controlled by public
authority.
“Marriage is something more than a mere contract, though founded upon the agreement
of the parties. When once formed, a relation is created between the parties which they cannot
change, and the rights and obligations of which depend not upon their agreement, but upon the
law, statutory or common,” according to the ruling.
In a highly conservative country, the legalization of divorce is still a fight fought by many
who say choosing to end one’s marriage is a civil and political right.
Who knows, divorce will be passed into law by congress. Time can only tell what the
future holds regarding the issue of divorce.

57 | P a g e GEC7
Mass Media and Morality

Mass media is communication—whether written, broadcast, or spoken that reaches a large

audience. This includes television, radio, advertising, movies, the Internet, newspapers,
magazines, and so forth.

Also mass media are the transport forms of mass communication, which can be defined as the
dissemination of messages widely, rapidly, and continuously to large and diverse audiences in
an attempt to influence them in some way.

On the other hand, media ethics is the best division of applied ethics dealing with the specific
ethical principles and standards of media, including broadcast media, film, theatre, the arts, print
media and the internet.

The connection between media and morality is almost taken for granted. The thinkers have, for
the most part, agreed with Plato way back, as the moral panics that have greeted new media
over the centuries, from novels to comic books to video games, can attest; as well as ongoing
concern about the possible negative moral effects of media, there’s also a long tradition of
works created specifically to teach the morals we consider to be desirable. But while there’s
been a lot of research done on how media exposure affects specific behaviours, relatively little
has focused on how it influences our judgment of right and wrong.

Facebook as Mass Media

As the new kind of media platform we build technology and we feel responsible for how it’s
used. Somehow, we may or may not the main source of information that people read on the
platform. But at the same time we also know that we do a lot more than just distribute
information, and we’re an important part of the public discourse.
Facebook is the most popular social networking site of all time, it has helped a lot to cut
down the physical boundaries, it has its many benefits for personal or for the business
purposes, Facebook is free and it’s one of the best media for communication, It can help
you connect to different people from anywhere in the world as almost every people
around the world use it. But it is always been the problem that how we will able to be a
responsible social media users.
There’s no doubt that Facebook has completely revolutionized the way people interact. But
there’s a dark side to the world’s love affair with social media. Criminals are finding new ways to

58 | P a g e GEC7
utilize Facebook to commit new and disturbing crimes that authorities don’t necessarily know
how to police.

The most common are Cyberbullying and Defamation:

Cyberbullying is a common occurrence among teenagers on Facebook and one that can result
in serious criminal charges if it goes far enough. Cyberbullying on Facebook has contributed to
the deaths of several teens who either committed suicide or were killed by a peer. Cyberbullying
that involves hacking or password and identity theft may be punishable under state and federal
law. When adults engage in this kind of online behavior it is called cyber-harassment or
cyberstalking.

An individual commits the crime of defamation when they communicate a false statement to a
third party that paints another individual or entity in a negative light. Facebook makes
communicating defamatory statements frighteningly easy, and the exposure Facebook provides
makes it more likely that businesses or individuals will be harmed by the defamatory statement,
and thus more likely to pursue legal remedies. Be careful what you say on Facebook; you may
be committing a crime without even knowing it.

Using/Applying Knowledge:
 Sight a specific personal situation you have encountered or committed on
facebook that you think it might have a negative impact to others or to yourself.

References:

https://unstats.un.org/unsd/vitalstatkb/KnowledgebaseArticle50645.aspx

https://www.loc.gov/law/foreign-news/article/philippines-house-bill-on-divorce-approved-in-
committee/

https://www.healthline.com/health/masturbation-side-effects

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musterbation

https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/sex-matters/201805/the-ethics-masturbation

https://www.britannica.com/topic/same-sex-marriage

59 | P a g e GEC7
 CHAPTER 7:
Environmental ethics
Starting Accurately:

When we see land as a community to which we belong, we may begin to use it with love
and respect. That land is a community is the basic concept of ecology, but that land is to be
loved and respected is an extension of ethics. Leopold, A. (1949)

Learning Outcomes:
 Discuss environmental ethics.
 Illustrate their perception on the protection of the environment.

Stimulating Learning:

Show student the video, “ killing one owl to save another owl” in the link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YGFPsgQzeds After watching the video, reflect on the video
watched and answer the question. “ The question is not Can they reason? nor Can they talk?
but Can they suffer?”

Inculcating Concepts:

The Environment and its Value

Environmental Ethics: Definition
 The moral relationship of human beings to and the value and moral status of the
environment and its non-human content.
 Study of the ethical basis of environment or discussion of the ethical basis of
environmental protection.
 The study of man’s moral obligation to preserve the environment and the natural order of
things.
 They are moral principles governing the human attitude towards the environment, and
the rules of conduct for environmental care and preservation.

60 | P a g e GEC7
Why need to study Environmental
ethics?
To overcome the following questions:
1. What are the environmental damage
produce by the present generation?
2. What acts must be give up to slow
such damage?
Environmental damage
1. Pollution:
o Air pollution
o Water pollution
o Land pollution
2. Resource depletion:
o Depletion of species & habits
o Depletion of fossil fuels etc.
Human Role in Environment
 Humans both the problem and
solution for the environmental
crisis.
 Human values can play a great
role in solving environmental
issues.
 Values can show a path to not
exploit the environment beyond
the limits.
 Famous Gandhi quote- “There is
enough for everyone’s need but
not to everyone’s greed”.
Environmental Ethics Principles
 Local and indigenous environmental knowledge should be respected.
 We must plan for the long term.
61 | P a g e
Intrinsic and Instrumental Value
 Intrinsic Value- the value of things as
ends in themselves regardless of
whether they are also useful as
means to other ends. Examples are
happiness, Love, Honor, Family,
Health, and Freedom.
 Instrumental Value- the value of things
as means to further some other ends.
Example: A certain wild plant may
have instrumental value because it
provides the ingredients for some
medicine or as an aesthetic object for
human observers. But if the plant also
has some value in itself independently
of its prospects for furthering some
other ends such as human health, or
the pleasure aesthetic experience,
then the plant also has intrinsic value.
Value of Environment
 Instrumental value
The environment has value because
it helps people to reach some end
 Food
 Shelter
 Clothing
 Medicine
 Entertainment
GEC7
The Ethical Values for Pollution Control
 We should recognize our moral duty to protect the welfare not only human beings but
also other nonhuman parts of this system.
 Usefulness of nonhuman world for human purposes.
 Humans have no rights to reduce this richness & diversity expect to satisfy vital needs.
 The ideological changes is mainly that of appreciating life quality, rather than to increase
higher standard of living.

The Ethical Values for Conserving Depletable resources

 Proper utilization of resources i.e. the people should maintain ecological balance.
 We should adopt voluntary measures to conserve the resources.
 If we are to preserve enough scarce resources, so that future generation can maintain
their quality of life at a satisfactory level.

Various World Views and Ethical Perspectives

 ANTHROPOCENTRISM
- the idea that the earth and its resources exists for human consumption. People who
hold this view believe that we ought to protect the earth for future generations.
Anthropocentrism often focuses on fixing the problem of limited resources through
the use of technology rather than a reduction in consumption.
- We can best protect nature by looking out for human needs. Example: saving the
rainforests will provide Oxygen and medicines for humans.

 ECOCENTRISM
Ecosystem centered morality
- Non- individuals (the earth as an interconnected ecosystem, species, and natural
processes) have moral standing or intrinsic value and are deserving of respect.
- Individuals must be concerned about the whole community of life / nature
- Humans should strive to preserve ecological balance and stability.

62 | P a g e GEC7
  DEEP ECOLOGY
- Deep ecology is a somewhat recent branch of ecological philosophy (ecosophy) that
considers humankind as an integral part of its environment.
- The philosophy emphasizes the interdependent value of human and non-human life
as well as the importance of the ecosystem and natural processes.
- It provides a foundation for the environmental and green movements and has led to
a new system of environmental ethics.
- The phrase "deep ecology" was coined by the Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess
- Ecological science, concerned with facts and logic alone, cannot answer ethical
questions about how we should live. For this we need ecological wisdom. Deep
ecology seeks to develop this by focusing on deep experience, deep questioning and
deep commitment. These constitute an interconnected system. Each gives rise to
and supports the other, whilst the entire system is, what Næss would call, an
ecosophy: an evolving but consistent philosophy of being, thinking and acting in the
world, that embodies ecological wisdom and harmony.

Principles
- Proponents of deep ecology believe that the world does not exist as a resource to be
freely exploited by humans. The ethics of deep ecology hold that a whole system is
superior to any of its parts. They offer an eight-tier platform to elucidate their
claims:[11]
- The well-being and flourishing of human and non-human life on Earth have value in
themselves (synonyms: intrinsic value, inherent value). These values are
independent of the usefulness of the nonhuman world for human purposes.

 ECOFEMINISM
- Rejects Patriarchal Dualisms
o The domination of nature by men is wrong (is similar to and related to the
domination of women by men).
o Must break the pattern of “power over relationships” (will benefit both women
and the natural world).

Upgrading Competence and Expanding Insights:

Killing One Owl to Save Another Owl? | National
Geographichttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YGFPsgQzeds&fbclid=IwAR0GwR_Pjl0Hhy
Y_qSFtbfWMFzEuaPGUSsGiTyIr4XP72AqU3l9UqJ7UucE

63 | P a g e GEC7