Yardstick International College

Research Management Manual

Volume I. Research Management Frameworks

RPC August 2021

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i
Contents

Tables..........................................................................................................................................................iv

Figures........................................................................................................................................................iv

Abbreviations...............................................................................................................................................v

Preface........................................................................................................................................................vi

Introduction.................................................................................................................................................2

Problems Observed.....................................................................................................................................3

The Objective of this Manual.......................................................................................................................4

Evolution of Academic Research.................................................................................................................4

Definitions...................................................................................................................................................4

Definition of Researchby Frascati Manual...............................................................................................4

Types of Research................................................................................................................................5

General Exclusions...............................................................................................................................5

Common Trait......................................................................................................................................5

Definition of Management......................................................................................................................5

Definition of Research Management.......................................................................................................5

RESEARCH MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS - RMFs......................................................................................6

RESEARCH TITLE - A Nightmare of Every Research Student at the Beginning..............................................6

Techniques for Title Generation..............................................................................................................6

Suggested Step........................................................................................................................................6

PROPOSAL FOLLOW-UP...............................................................................................................................8

Architecture of Student Academic Research...........................................................................................8

Horizontal Move....................................................................................................................................11

ANALYTICS – Hypothesis is set on fire test................................................................................................11

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 Findings.................................................................................................................................................11

SYNTHESIS - Upward Move........................................................................................................................12

More on Conclusion Part.......................................................................................................................13

More on Recommendation Part............................................................................................................13

The Research Cycle – Variant Perspective.................................................................................................13

One More Framework...............................................................................................................................15

Summary on RMFs.....................................................................................................................................15

Annex........................................................................................................................................................16

Annex 1: RMF I - Research Title (RT) Generator....................................................................................16

Annex 2: RMF II – Proposal follow-up....................................................................................................17

.Annex 3: RMF III – Analysis follow-up during Research Analysis..........................................................17

Annex 3: RMF III – Analysis follow-up during Research Analysis...........................................................18

Annex 4: RMF IV – Synthesis follow-up after Research Finding.............................................................19

Annex 5: RMF V – Indicator-Question (IQ) Alignment...........................................................................20

Annex 6: Research Defense Evaluation Form........................................................................................21

Annex 7: List of Research Question and Hypothesis Types....................................................................22

Annex 8: Link between Hypothesis (Answers) and Research Question.................................................23

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Tables

Table 1 Research Title (RT) Generator.........................................................................................................7

Table 2. Research Management Framework (RMF II) Before Research Finding........................................10

Figures

Figure 1. Four Tier Architecture...................................................................................................................8

Figure 2. Downward Move..........................................................................................................................9
Figure 3. Horizontal Move - Starting..........................................................................................................11
Figure 4. Upward Move.............................................................................................................................12
Figure 5. Proposed Research Cycle............................................................................................................14

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Abbreviations

IQA Indicator-Question Alignment

RMF Research Management Framework
RMM Research Management Manual
RGL Research Guideline
RPC Research, Publication and Community Service
RQ Research Question
YIC Yardstick International College

v
Preface

In the absence of universally accepted tool of tool, the RM and its strategy, is left to the mercy of
research advisors. Almost all research methodology courses till PhD level do not have a chapter on how
to manage the r itself. All deal on how to do R. But before doing anything and the R, how to strategize or
plan the major activities involved in doing the research. This part is missing. Without a research strategy,
students are required to jump into doing research. Shall we first plan and lay out our strategy? Yes,
there are scholars that might say the research structure put as chapters are the strategy itself though
not specifically explained. Ok, then why we specifically single out this hidden strategy and bring it to the
front? This makes life easier for both the student and advisors. Above all, discussion between student
and advisor lies on objective tool, not on the personal strengthen of the advisor to scrutinize the overall
research and its components. Having a RM protocol or tool makes life easier for all.

The final thesis is the product of implementation. The Remaining plan and control parts are covered in
this manual.RMF is the tool to strategically plan and control the process. The process of developing this
Student RM manual passed through series of roundtable discussions and pilot tests by the academics
especially advisors of student research.

Aleazar Tilahun
Director
RPC Directorate, YIC

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1
Introduction

When an MSc student is required to conduct a research to complete the masters program, there is a
strict structure of a thesis work divided into chapters that should be followed. However, how to reach to
this thesis structure through proper research management is a great challenge. In other words, are
there management tools that guide both students and their advisors to follow up and supervise the
research work? How does the Student follow through their research work?

To reach at such a comprehensive research thesis, how do students manage, strategize, step by step
follow-up, monitor, link various components of the research thesis?

This manual is an attempt to fill these gaps by providing the management tools to MSc students and
their advisors that will easily and systematically follow up and supervise the thesis process.

Take an example of building a house. There are at least three parties involved in building a house. Let us
map these stakeholders. The first is you. You set out our needs of the look, form, functions, and all
requirements of the house in trying to answer the challenges or question you have in mind. You provide
tentative solution in your requirement of the house; you say for this challenge, I need the house to have
this functionality.

The second stakeholder is the engineer who materializes your requirements. Some of your requirements
might not be implementable due to various reasons e.g. environment or legal issues. Data on soil, soil
test, house design tests etc are done which follow standards that is your view and requirements are
done i.e. standard statistical tests test your hypos and results are found. However, taking into
consideration what has been possibly build in your area, the engineer will determine the possibilities to
your requirement within the range of possible options so far applied in your area.

The third stakeholder is the legally accepted standards of construction of your local government. Your
requirements of the house should pass through the test of standards and legalities. Once accepted, the
steps forward would follow. The house builder here has no power in changing the test results of the
standards.

In research lingo, you represent the research problem and research questions and their associated
tentative answer or hypothesis. The engineer is the theories and findings so far pertinent to your
research questions which are developed by other researchers in your research area. A theory or find
that has no relationship with your research areas is not dealt here. The standards are the statistical tests
which are out of researcher’s power. Statistical tests are objective tests which are agreed upon by many
and the subjective views of the researcher are out of the picture here has no power to change the test
results of the statistical tools.

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Problems Observed

To start with, most MSc students do not have a solid “problem” at hand from the outset. They submit
research titles to their departments that are mostly slight modification of other works. It is a common
fact that most research students at master level face difficulty mainly in identifying research title,
research problem, research questions and setting hypothesis.

In the process of conducting research, again it is a common problem to see MSc student being out of the
scope of the research. The research slowly creeps out of the scope, which is usually called Scope Creep.

Another common challenge is that the various chapters of the thesis are treated as if they are a full-
fledged and standalone system by their own, as if they are not integrated. This might be due to the fact
that the teaching and YouTube resources treat each chapter of the thesis a comprehensive full package.
This is not practically true. All the chapters are linked and integrated. Since students do not have the
management tool or frameworks of their thesis, they end up in fragmented thesis, which have missing
links among chapters and major components of their thesis. Since they do not have the research
management tools or frameworks, they could not visualize the very existence of either forward linkage
(uncertain where to go) or backward linkage (uncertain where started) of their thesis.

Another common problem is “sweepy conclusion, recommendations”. Especially, in the conclusion and
recommendation part, they provide conclusion and recommendations which have no basis in their
thesis.

What is clearly lacking at higher institutions is the change control and tracking system for advisors to
track changes in the thesis development. During the research development process, advisors lack either
a well developed objective tool as a controlling system or proposed tools as tentative solution. This is
common in the case of Ethiopian Universities.

In general, thought there is research structure with well developed chapters detailed courses over them,
student have difficulties in managing their thesis. There is a need to have a Research Management
Framework or tool. This RMF will therefore, set the fundamental blue print of their research. Therefore,
the problem is there is no universally accepted readymade tool for managing research especially in
areas of research planning and control, which is useful for both students and their advisors.

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The Objective of this Manual

The main objective of this manual is to guide both the research student and their advisors on how to
follow through and supervise the research process by setting up clear strategy that will enable the
researchers to achieve the research objectives and understand the building blocks and linkages of their
thesis in a systematic manner. It will also provide a management perspective of the research work for
both students and their advisors. Based on the guidelines that exist especially on formatting and
structure, this manual provides three more parts in three volumes:

Volume I. Setting the Research Management Framework - RMF for better follow-up and management

Volume II. The Head and Tail of Research

Volume III. Beyond Research – Hints for Journal Publication

This manual is helpful both ways: For research student and advisors handling many number of thesis at
once by giving them “bookmarks’’ on where the student is currently doing, the information on backward
and forward linkages of the research components, control capabilities and in general a systematic tool
for managing researches.

Evolution of Academic Research

 The Classification of Research Questions by T. Dillon

 https://www.jstor.org/stable/1170452

Definitions

Definition of Research1by Frascati Manual

Research and experimental development (R&D) comprise creative and systematic work undertaken in
order to increase the stock of knowledge – including knowledge of humankind, culture and society – and
to devise new applications of available knowledge.

To qualify as R&D, an activity must be all of the following:

 novel
 creative
 uncertain
 systematic
 transferable and/or reproducible

1
Source: https://www.research-operations.admin.cam.ac.uk/policies/frascati-definition-research

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Types of Research
The term R&D covers three activities: basic research, applied research and experimental development.

Basic research is experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge of
the underlying foundation of phenomena and observable facts, without any particular application or use
in view.

Applied research is also original investigation undertaken in order to acquire new knowledge. It is,
however, directed primarily towards a specific practical aim or objective.

Experimental development is systematic work, drawing on existing knowledge gained from research
and/or practical experience, which is directed to producing new materials, products or devices, to
installing new processes, systems and services, or to improving substantially those already produced or
installed. R&D covers both formal R&D in R&D units and informal or occasional R&D in other units.

General Exclusions
Reference to the Frascati Manual should be made for detailed analysis of exclusions, but general
exclusions to highlight are:

 education and training other than PhD research

 general purpose data collection (such as recording weather statistics)
 routine testing and analysis of materials, components, products, processes, etc.
 feasibility studies
 policy-related studies
 phase IV of clinical trials (unless they result in a further scientific or technological
advance).

Common Trait
All start from uncertainty or in essence a challenge of technically speaking it is a Research Problem. In
other words, if there is no problem, there is no academic research.

Definition of Management
Management is a process of planning, decision making, organizing, leading, motivation and controlling
the human resources, financial, physical, and information resources of an organization to reach its goals
efficiently and effectively.

Definition of Research Management

This definition is combined from both definitions to fit the context of this manual. Research
Management is a process of planning, decision making, organizing, leading and controlling the research
development process to produce academically accepted thesis reaching its objectives efficiently and
effectively.

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RESEARCH MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS - RMFs

RMF is a research follow-up and control 2 strategy developed by students to guide themselves through
the development of the thesis. RMF is the tool to strategically plan and control the research process.
The RMF is also a systematic tool for advisors to advise the students, follow up changes, comments and
supervise the research work in a very simplified and systematic approach.

RMF the student follows up his or her own performance whereas the advisor controls or supervises the
research in essence its coherence of row wise contents, fulfillment of the research cycle or four tier
loops, row-wise linkages.

The RGL of various universities is the part of implementation on submission of title, generation of
proposal and final thesis.

RESEARCH TITLE - A Nightmare of Every Research Student at the Beginning

Techniques for Title Generation

Identifying research titles is one of the observed challenges among master students. Due to lack of well
developed techniques, students usually pick up a research title from previous works and modify a bit.
The question is what if we develop a systematic technique of reaching at research question and
furthermore to Research Title at one go? This could be done if one starts just from a Research Problem?

Suggested Step
During these initial stages of the nightmare, one could start with the management tool provided in
Annex 1. RMF I – Research Title (RT) Generator. The steps to follow are

1. Identify a problem
2. What do you want to know (bullet points)
3. Change them into questions (WH, Is, Does, etc)
4. STOP!

The moment you finish the above three steps, the RT Generator should facilitate and support you in
generating the possible titles for each row of “what you want to know”. Now think of the corresponding
research title for each row. The last row could help you to finalize the research title by combining some
of the titles you generated in the previous column. If you mix more than one intentions, your title shows
the various intention loads in the last column. Note that the same problem could lead to various titles
due to your choice of what you want to know (your intentions)

2
The term control rather than monitoring is used since monitoring is more technical term which calls for setting
monitoring indicators. However, in loose sense, RMF is also a monitoring strategy of the thesis development.

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Table 1 Research Title (RT) Generator

In Question form
Final Research
Research Problem To Know (WH-words, Is, Does, Research Title
Title
etc)
There is no Reason why Why such RM tool Assessment of the
universally research (manual framework, reasons why RM Assessment of
accepted management software) is lacking? tools are absent in reasons and
challenges of
readymade tool for tool is lacking academia
research
managing research management
especially in areas challenges for What are the specific Assessment of the
practices of both
both student challenges facing challenges facing
of research students and
and advisors in students and their student and their
planning and advisors with
managing the advisors related to advisors related to
control, which is possible
research process managing research? research
useful for both generation of
management
research
students and their Possible What relevant RM tools Development of
management tools
advisors. solution/s that (manual, framework, possible solutions to
- the case of
could be software) could be RM for each phase
Ethiopia HEIs
proposed designed at each phase of research
of Research process and development
starting from planning to process
control?

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PROPOSAL FOLLOW-UP

Once the Research Title is approved by the institute, students are allowed to prepare their research
proposals. But how much we know this stage of the process is the fundamental stage where the basic
building blocks of the research are laid out. This stage is the blue print or basic architecture phase of the
research before the actual research is built up. Let us see this fundamental architecture in detail.

Architecture of Student Academic Research

The following architecture is an easy representation of how the researcher guides the research through
the various tiers or basic building blocks. There are mainly four tiers identified to begin with. Then the
interim process of data Collection and analytics follows. Later, the reverse four tiers help the researcher
to have the findings on one hand and do comparison for the rest of the research thesis.

Figure 1. Four Tier Architecture

Data Collection & Analytics

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Figure 2. Downward Move

 Identify problem

 Identify research questions

 Identify related theories to each questions

o If question is related to price, identify

relevant price theories

 Identify preferably your or other researchers

assumptions or hypos for each research
questions

The management tool, RMF II is provided in Annex 2.

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Table 2. Research Management Framework (RMF II) Before Research Finding

Title: Assessment of reasons and challenges of research management practices of both students and
advisors with possible generation of research management tools - the case of Ethiopia HEIs

Type of Data Data

Research Research Variable Indicator/
Hypothesis Data Collection Analysis
Problem Questions s Parameters
Collected Methods method
Why such RM H1: student from RDED Qualitative Desk review Descriptive
tool (manual performance on report data of Research statistics on
There is no universally accepted readymade tool for managing research especially in areas of

framework, research planning Defense data from

research planning and control, which is useful for both students and their advisors.

software) is at each phases of Evaluation Likert scale

lacking? title selection, Data RDED,
proposal, FGD
analytics and
synthesis has poor
rate due to lack of
RM tools.
What are the H2: advisor Desk review Descriptive
specific performance on of Research statistics on
challenges research control Defense data from
facing at each phases of Evaluation Likert scale
students and title selection, Data RDED,
their advisors proposal, FGD
related to analytics and
managing synthesis has poor
research? rate due to lack of
RM tools
What relevant indicators of
RM tools planning and
(manual, control
framework,
software)
could be
designed at
each phase of
Research
process and
starting from
planning to
control?

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Horizontal Move
This interim stage is a test Time. It is machinery for objective Research. In this sense, the actual analytics
starts here

Figure 3. Horizontal Move - Starting

Data Collection & Analytics

Once hypos are set, the student identifies

1. Data/parameters for each hypothesis

2. Data collection methods
3. Data analysis methods

ANALYTICS – Hypothesis is set on fire test

Now the strategy of research management is set. The researcher is ready to conduct the research.
Once the researcher obtains its findings, he accepts or rejects some or all of his/her initial hypothesis.

The management tool, RMF III – ANALYTICS is provided in Annex 3.

Findings
After test of objective analysis, your hypothetical solution becomes finding. You found your findings!
Let’s call it “findometer” like a thermometer to measure temperature; findometer measures the value of
your finds.

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SYNTHESIS - Upward Move

Figure 4. Upward Move

Finally, the reverse four tiers help the researcher to have

the accepted hypos and findings on one hand and
1. Evaluate each of his/her hypotheses
2. Compare the dis/agreement of findings and hypos
with the theories identified
3. Compare Your find vs Other Research Findings
(support or does not support other finds)
4. Compare Your find vs Theories (support or does not
support existing Theories)
5. Re-Answer the research questions related to
accepted hypotheses and find
6. Confirm the existence and validity of the research
problem itself (reevaluate problem)
7. Conclude so far based on the accepted hypos and
their major findings in relation to the research area
8. Compare Your find vs Research Title (reevaluate
title
9. Provide a general recommendation as a step
forward on the research problem in line with
accepted hypos
10. Provide specific recommendation as a step forward
on the research question in line with accepted
hypos

The management tool, RMF IV – SYNTHESIS is provided in Annex 4.

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More on Conclusion Part
Conclusion helps you to strengthen on your hypothesis, major find, etc. You can conclude so far based
on the accepted hypos and their major findings in relation to the research area. From now on your
findings as a “findometer” is used to review or revisit and conclude on

1. Other precious finds

2. Theories
3. Hypos
4. RQs
5. RPs
7. Title

More on Recommendation Part

Again with respect to findings or findometer like thermometer, put a future time on and recommend on
the above 6 without title components and future research areas. Recommendations are find-centered
recommendations, gaps for future study, etc. Recommendations provide a general recommendation as
a step forward on the research problem in line with accepted hypos. They also provide specific
recommendation as a step forward on the research question in line with accepted hypos. The researcher
should not recommend outside the scope of the research area.

The Research Cycle – Variant Perspective

This cycle shows the starting point of the researcher which is from tentative SOLUTION or hypothesis
and going back to the initial stages with the actual SOLUTION of find at hand.

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Figure 5. Proposed Research Cycle

Your
solution to
RP, RQ is
Sit Back – Have you
discovered a new
hypo or preposition? Others solution/
theories and
others find

Come back to yourself

and conclude your find
with your RP, RQ, and r Test bring in
solution or hypo and even standard tests for
your solution

Compare
Your find is
your find with
found
others
solution and

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One More Framework

Sometimes some research designs may require collection of data using questionnaires, Interviews,
Checklists, FGD, etc. in such a case, how much are you sure that your questionnaire or checklist captures
the parameter or indicators?

This requires alignment between your questions or checklist item and the parameters or indicators of
the research question. Let us call this table a Indicator and Question Alignment (IQ) table. Annex 5
provides this management tool: RMF V - IQ Alignment table for questionnaire and checklists.

The main objectives behind using the IQ alignment tables could be

 To identify which questions align to which parameter

 To evaluate the parameter/questionnaire load by identifying which parameter is represented

more or less

 Eventual get hint on the research title by the parameter load and

 make correction if left our research areas or components are there

Summary on RMFs

The following management tools could be guides to support student researches.

1. RMF I - Research Title (RT) Generator

 For title submission

2. RMF II – Proposal follow-up

 For proposal submission right after Title is accepted

3. RMF III – Analysis follow-up

 During analysis

4. RMF IV – Synthesis follow-up

 after Research Findings

5. RMF V - IQ Alignment

 before implementing questionnaire and checklist

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Annex

Annex 1: RMF I - Research Title (RT) Generator

In Question form Final Research

Research Problem To Know Research Title
(WH-words, Is, Does, etc) Title

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Annex 2: RMF II – Proposal follow-up

Title: _________________________________________________________________________________________

Other Type of Data Data

Research Research Theories/ Indicator/ Sample
Research Hypothesis Variables Data Collection Analysis
Problem Questions Practice Parameters Size
Findings Collected Methods method3

3
Note that MSC student benefits from two or more designs and methods therefore focusing on quantitative (distribution based) and qualitative (distribution
free) methods are helpful.

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Annex 3: RMF III – Analysis follow-up during Research Analysis

Title: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Research Research Hypo Test

Hypothesis
Problem Questions (Accept/Reject) Findings

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 Annex 4: RMF IV – Synthesis follow-up after Research Finding
Title: ______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Compare Confirm the Conclusion Recommendation

Compare Re-answer Compare

created of found a new hypothesis

Compare Your find vs existence and (strengthen on (finding centered

Finally, have you discovered or

Findin Your find the Your find
Your find vs Other validity of the your hypos, recommendations, gaps
g vs research vs Research
Hypothesis4 Research research major find, for future study, …)11
Theories6 questions 7 Title 9
Findings5 problem8 etc)10

4
With accepted or rejected hypothesis
5
support or does not support other finds
6
support or does not support existing Theories
7
Preferably related to accepted hypotheses and find
8
reevaluate problem
9
reevaluate title
10
Conclude so far based on the accepted hypos and their major findings in relation to the research area. In addition, could you say something about
your research with respect to the six criterion (uncentanity, novelity, etc) of Frascati definition. Could you evaluate your research title and problem
as before and after your research.
11
Provide a general recommendation as a step forward on the research problem in line with accepted hypos
Provide specific recommendation as a step forward on the research question in line with accepted hypos

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Annex 5: RMF V – Indicator-Question (IQ) Alignment
Title: _______________________________________________________________________________________________

For questionnaires and checklists

Remark on the
Research Variabl Indicator/ Question Number of Questionnaire Load
Hypothesis Research Title vs Q-
Questions e Parameters Item Questions per RQ/Hypo
Load

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Annex 6: Research Defense Evaluation Form

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Annex 7: List of Research Question and Hypothesis Types

Source of Hypothesis: https://www.formpl.us/blog/research-question

The two Types Research Questions are Qualitative and Quantitative Research Questions

Qualitative RQs
Quantitative RQs Hypothesis
(Not non-parametric tests)
1. Ethnographic 1. Descriptive 1. Simple
2. Case Study 2. Comparative 2. Complex
3. Interview 3. Causal 3. Null
4. Relationship 4. Alternative
5. Interpretive 5. Universal
6. Predictive 6. Existential
7. Positive
8. Negative
9. Practical
10. Directional
11. Non-directional
12. Associative
13. Causal
14. Empirical
15. Statistical
16. Substantive
17. Logical

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Annex 8: Link between Hypothesis (Answers) and Research Question
Source of Definition: https://medium.com/vinita-silaparasetty/types-of-hypothesis-6805a3e7cca

Type of Research Questions

Definition
Hypothesis

Simple It shows a relationship between one dependent variable and a single independent variable. For example – If you eat Relationship-based,
more vegetables, you will lose weight faster. Here, eating more vegetables is an independent variable, while losing Quantitative RQ
weight is the dependent variable.
There is one independent variable and one dependent variable. Example eating ice cream leads to running temperature
that is kind of simple hypothesis

Complex It shows the relationship between two or more dependent variables and two or more independent variables. Eating Relationship-based,
more vegetables and fruits leads to weight loss, glowing skin, reduces the risk of many diseases such as heart disease, Quantitative RQ
high blood pressure and some cancers.
In complex hypothesis, we have two or more independent and two or more dependent variable. So, here hypothesis
could be example eating ice cream in cold weather leads to running temperature and absenteeism in school.

Null It provides the statement which is contrary to the hypothesis. It’s a negative statement, and there is no relationship Relationship-based,
between independent and dependent variables. The symbol is denoted by “HO”. Quantitative RQ
Null Hypothesis (also called statistical hypothesis) states that there is no relationship between two variables.
Example: We can take an example of ice cream. Child has formulated null hypothesis to his father stating that eating ice
cream has no relation with running temperature, i.e., null hypothesis.

Alternative Associative hypothesis occurs when there is a change in one variable resulting in a change in the other variable. Relationship-based,
Whereas, causal hypothesis proposes a cause and effect interaction between two or more variables. Quantitative RQ
But father is trying to say that eating ice cream has relation with running temperature, i.e., alternative hypothesis.

Universal In universal hypothesis, we try to explain that all variables are true at all times or at a given point of time Descriptive,
Example: eating ice cream in winter leads to a temperature that could be a kind of universally accepted statement that Quantitative RQ
is true always because eating ice cream might lead to temperature in cold weather.

Existential However, in existential statement we try to explain that they should exist at least for one particular case. Descriptive,
Example eating ice cream leads temperature for some children would be a kind of existential hypothesis because if one Quantitative RQ
child catches fever because of eating ice cream that could be an existential hypothesis.

Positive Positive hypothesis would explain that eating ice cream leads to fever. This is a kind of positive hypothesis. Descriptive,

23
 Quantitative RQ

Negative In negative hypothesis, eating ice cream does not lead to good health, so it could be a kind of negative hypothesis. Descriptive,
Quantitative RQ

Practical This is a statement that describes the practical question to be answered by the test. It phrase as a question.
Example: Eating ice cream leads to absenteeism in the school so, that would be one kind of practical outcome because
of eating ice cream the child is not well, and child is not able to go to school. So, ultimate practical outcome would be
absenteeism to school that would be kind of practical hypothesis

Directional It shows how a researcher is intellectual and committed to a particular outcome. The relationship between the Predictive,
variables can also predict its nature. For example- children aged four years eating proper food over a five-year period Quantitative RQ
are having higher IQ levels than children not having a proper meal. This shows the effect and direction of effect.
One tailed hypothesis. It indicates towards one variable. For example- Urban area is more prone to disease in
comparison to rural area.

Non- It is used when there is no theory involved. It is a statement that a relationship exists between two variables, without Relationship-based,
directional predicting the exact nature (direction) of the relationship. Quantitative RQ
Two-tailed hypothesis. This hypothesis does have fixed direction. In this hypothesis researcher does not make any
statement about the direction of any variable eg. There is a difference between the development level of rural and
urban areas.

Associative Associative hypotheses state that there is a relationship between two variables. It looks at how specific events co-occur. Relationship-based,
Quantitative RQ

Causal Causal hypotheses state that any difference in the type or amount of one particular variable is going to directly affect the Causal, Quantitative
difference in the type or amount of the next variable in the equation. It looks at how manipulation affects events in the RQ
future.

Empirical It is also called a ‘working hypothesis’. It is an only an assumption during the formulation phase, but when it is tested it is
no longer just an idea or notion. It’s actually going through some changes around those independent variables.
Example: Cotton clothes are better for summer than velvet clothes.

Statistical The statement could be logical or illogical but if statistic verifies it, it will become a statistical hypothesis.
Vitamin C is good for skin. You would have to test this hypothesis on a group of people to verify it. This is a statistical
method of verifying the statement.
In statistical hypothesis, hypothesis formulated here has a statistical significant relation between eating ice cream and
suffering from fever and that is operationalized by means of statistical parameters, this could be done using t-test ...so
on.

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Substantive Substantive hypothesis is not operationalized and it explains a kind of expected relationship between the variables that
exists.
So, if we want to lay down hypothesis with the example of eating ice cream and suffering from fever, it has some kind of
relation.

Logical As the name suggests, it is verified logically. The process of verification involves:
 Agreement
 Disagreement
 Difference of opinion.
Example:
Hypothesis statement: An animal cannot survive without water.
Logical verification: This is true because all living beings need water.

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