Process Metallurgy - Steelmaking

AThermodynamic Model of the EAF Process for Stainless Steel

Sander Arnout 1), Frederik Verhaeghe 1), Bart Blanpain 1), Patrick Wollants 1), Roel Hendrickx 2), Gert Heylen 2)

1) Dept. of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven / Belgium; 2) Ugine & ALZ Belgium, Genk / Belgium

A time-dependent thermochemical model has been developed for the electric arc furnace (EAF) process for stainless steel production. Time
dependency is implemented by a stepwise input of energy and matter into an equilibrium reactor. The equilibrium calculations are performed
using data from FACT-databases and implemented using the programming library ChemApp. The material input for the model was generat-
ed by reconciliation of industrial data and the energy input is approximated from the industrial data and scaled through an efficiency factor.
The model is used to calculate the evolution of temperature and composition of gas, slag and metal phases with time. Agreement of the end
composition in the metal phase with industrial data is good. In the slag phase, however, Cr, Fe, Mn and Si are oxidized significantly less than
expected due to excess formation of CO-gas. The dynamics of the slag composition are examined in more detail. Here a fair agreement is
reached for the main slag components. However, for Cr, Fe and Mn the model cannot predict the dynamics, which seem to be strongly ki-
netically controlled. The results of the equilibrium model can thus provide some insight into the kinetics of the process.

Keywords: process model, EAF, thermodynamic, stainless steel

Introduction to generate a free energy data file for the used set of ele-
ments and phases. Data reconciliation [11] is used to close
The electric arc furnace (EAF), though quite young as a mass balances, in order not to disturb model results with
metallurgical reactor, has been well-documented [1]. The mass balance errors. Here a procedure is used in which con-
process is ever better controlled and productivity has risen centrations and total masses of all streams are corrected, by
thanks to new techniques like oxy-fuel burning and slag minimizing the weighted sum of squares of the corrections.
foaming. However, process models can further improve A similar procedure has been applied by Eksteen et al. [12]
control. For carbon steel, several models have been devel- to a chromite smelting furnace. The optimization problem
oped. Nyssen et al. [2] developed a basic industrial model can be formulated as:
to predict phase compositions and temperature. Morales et
al. [3] used a mathematical simulator, in which the differ-
ential equations represent physically significant kinetics. min.; L
(m tot,s ~ m)2
tot.s +L L
(c C
el.s ~ el,s
)2) (1)
( s atvt,s s el ael,s
Also several sub-problems have been modelled, like carbon
injection (mathematically [4] and physically [5]) and radia-
tion to the walls [6]. S.t. 'v' el : L mel,s = L mel,s (2)
However, for stainless steel, specific problems arise. The s(in) stout)

slag composition has to be controlled extremely closely to

enable slag foaming [7] and to reduce chromium losses. 'v's : Lmel ,s = mtvt ,s (3)
From this point of view, a thermodynamic model can be in- el

teresting, if it is able to predict the evolution of steel and m o;

slag composition and solid phases in the slag. Ma and Janke
[8] treat the competitive oxidation of carbon and chromium
in stainless steels with thermodynamics. Their work in-
volves the analytical solution of equilibrium equations. Us-
ing this method, it is difficult to take all elements into ac-
count and to develop a process model. Thermodynamic
databases and software allow to take all elements into ac-
count in a clear and flexible way, so time-dependency can
be easily implemented. In this article, a time-dependent
thermodynamic equilibrium model is presented and evalu-
ated. It is shown that some mechanisms are hard to simulate
with an equilibrium approach. The model enables the eval-
uation of the influence of these kinetic mechanisms on the
process.
Modelling Techniques
The model is implemented in Fortran. Equilibrium calcu-
lations are made with the commercially available ChemApp
routine library [9]. Databases from FactSage [10] are used
L mel,s' nel
(4)
el Mel M o
The objective function (1) weighs the corrections of con-
centrations Cel,s of the elements el in the streams s, and of
the total weights of the streams mtvt,s . Cel,s and mtot.s are the
corresponding measured values. atot.s and ael,s are the
weighing factors. The constraints (2) are mass balances.
The total weight of a stream is equal to the sum of the
weights of the elements (3), and the oxidic streams are sub-
ject to stoichiometry constraints (4). Unknowns are the to-
tal masses mtvt,s of the streams S and the masses mel,s of the
elements el in the streams. With this approach the con-
straints are linear.
Taking the concentrations and total masses as unknowns
would yield a least-squares problem, but with non-linear
constraints. This problem is difficult to solve. In our ap-
proach, the objective function is somewhat more complicat-
ed since the corrected concentrations in the objective func-
tion also have to be expressed as functions of the masses:

steel research int. 77 (2006) No.5 317

Process Metallurgy - Steelmaking

mels
Cel S = ' (5)
, mtot,s +£
Herein a small number e is added in the denominator to
prevent division by zero. The reconciliation calculations are
performed in Fortran using the DLCONF numerical opti-
mization routine from the IMSL library [13].
The Model
The EAF furnace is modelled as a homogenous equilibri-
um reactor. At every time step (one minute), the output of
the previous step (solids, fluids, gas) is the input, as Figure 1
indicates. Energy and mass additions (alloys, fluxes, gases),
which were made in this time step according to the indus-
trial data, are also added in the model, except for a few sim-
plifications and corrections. After every equilibrium calcu-
lation, the calculated temperature and phase compositions
are stored. Energy input is approximated as constant during
every arc-on period. Energy losses are split into losses to
I Industrial Data I Energy additions
Mass addition times I with data from In-Ho lung et al. [14]. The liquid steel is a
1 I
IData Reconciliation I
Mass addition
total weights I using equations by Kohler and Toop (QKTO), with data
the cooling water, and other losses. Cooling water losses are
approximated as a constant energy flux. Other heat losses
are considered as a constant fraction of the added energy,
before subtraction of the cooling water loss. This results in
an efficiency factor that has to be fitted to industrial data.
The remaining added energy is the enthalpy difference for
the time step. Together with the pressure, which is fixed at
1 atm, this determines the equilibrium. The output temper-
ature is a result of every time step, and the resulting phases
are entered into the next step at this calculated temperature.
Mass additions are made on the measured time step at
room temperature (25°C). The measured weights are recon-
ciled before using them. The measured amount of oxygen is
added in the model at the time of injection. The mass need-
ed to close the oxygen balance is added as a constant flux
during the heat. In this way the reaction with oxygen from
the surroundings is approximated as a constant input.
Elements considered are Fe, C, Mn, Si, AI, Cr, Mo, Ni,
Ca, Mg, 0 and F. Other elements are ignored. All pure sol-
id phases these elements can form are considered, with data
from FACT [10]. To be able to input scrap, solid fcc and bee
solutions are used, using a sublattice formalism (SUBLM)
with data from SGTE. Some solution models have to be
added to enable a realistic output. The liquid slag phase is
modelled using the quasichemical solution model (QSOL),
Efficiency I solution in liquid iron, using Wagner's interaction parame-
Energy loss
ter (WAGN), with data from FACT. Solid solution monox-
ide and (Ca,Mg)zSi0 4 are modelled by a general formalism
from FACT. The gas phase is ideal, using data from FACT.

InPUt: 'II Equilibnum

.
I
I
1I The abbreviations mentioned are used in the FactSage pro-
gram. References for the corresponding solution models
Scrap l Onlputl ~ ~ut2 ;3
.~
can be found in the description of ChemSage [15].
I I
Fluxes
l Equilibrium 21 In the input, 11 streams are considered. Stainless steel is
Oxygen
1output 2 ~ ~ut 3 ~
~ entered as a solid fcc solution, carbon steel as solid bee.
I I Other streams are ferrochromium (solid fcc), coke
·1 Equilibrium 3 I (graphite), ferronickel (solid fcc), ferrosilicon (solid fcc),
.I fluorspar (pure CaF2 ) and oxygen (0 2 ) . Dolomite, calcia
...
'i' and stone are entered as pure oxides.
I In the output, steel, slag and off-gas (CO) are considered
IIE quiilibri
I numn I
for reconciliation. In reality, about 3 tons of dust are formed
I during each heat. The equilibrium model will form the en-
Output ergetically most favourable phases and will not be able to
predict dust, since this is mechanically formed. Therefore,
Figure 1. Diagram of the model. dust is not allowed in the reconciled output. With this ap-
proach the mass is distributed over slag and steel. The con-
centrations of these phases cannot be strongly
Table 1. Operational steps of a heat. affected, because this would strongly raise the
Min. Operation Min. Operation Abbr.
objective function, and because the dust has a
1-6 Charging Ist bucket BI
concentration similar to the average of steel
12 Start of calculations S and slag.
7-26 Arc on 17-20 Calcia additions Ca
18 Dolomite aod chamotte add. D Results
28 Charging 2nd bucket B2
41 Dolomite aod calcia addition Ca,D
49-63 Calcia additions Ca
The model is applied to two llO-ton fur-
29-70 Arc on 55 0, injection 0 naces of Ugine & ALZ Belgium. Losses to
63 C/O, injection C cooling water are measured and averaged out
67 Fe-Si and fluorsoar addition F
at 6 MW. The efficiency factor for the other
74 Tapping T
heat losses is fitted to make the end tempera-

318 steel research int. 77 (2006) NO.5

 Process Metallurgy - Steelmaking

ture match. For each heat the calculation is ex- 180 -r;:::========::::;------------r 1800
ecuted with 5 different efficiencies. Next, for - - Total mass
160 - - Liquid steel mass 1600
each heat the efficiency is fitted for which the
--Temperature (model)
tapping temperature is equal to the measured 140 1400
• Temperature (measured) U
temperature in the transfer ladle. The resulting
-g
l!....
120 1200
...;:,
Ql
efficiencies have a mean value of 63% and a
standard deviation of 7%.
One typical heat will now be examined in
e

III
l:l
100

80
1000 III

800
-...
Ql
Q.
detail. The operational steps of this heat are E
~ Ca,D Ql
given in Table 1. The abbreviations men- 60 ~ 82 600 I-
tioned in this table are used in Fig. 2-5 to ac-
40 400
centuate the effect of the additions.
Figure 2 illustrates the temperature evolu- 20 200
tion in the furnace and the mass of liquid met-
O+-----,--'----r----,------,----,----,------,----\- 0
al. The mass of the total content of the furnace
is shown for comparison. Arrows indicate on
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

which axis the curves should be read. The in- Time (min)
put of mass and energy is summed for the first Figure 2. Evolution with time of temperature, total mass and liquid steel mass.
12 minutes to generate input for the first mod- Ca,D: calcia, doloma. 82: 2nd bucket. 0: O2 . C: C/0 2 . F: Fe-Si and CaF2 ,
elling step, to prevent calculations with too
low temperatures. Since the furnace is mod- 70
elled as a homogenous reactor, the tempera- %Cr
82 Ca, 0
a~ 60 ~
ture is the same throughout the entire content. .!.
c 50
Therefore, the temperature drops when the 0
40
second bucket is loaded. Also the main part of 1!
the molten metal solidifies again. Hereafter,
the temperature rises at an almost constant
-
c
eLI
U
c
30
20 %Si
0 C F

rate, regardless of whether steel is melting or 0 ~

0 10 a~
not. Oxygen injection provides some extra
heat. The difference between the liquid steel 0 4 .!.
c
0
mass and the total mass is now only the slag 3
1!
mass (all oxidic phases). At the end of the
heat, the temperature remains almost constant
%C
2 -
C
eLI
U
C
because the arc is no longer on. Between ~ 0
minute 75 and 80 tapping is performed, and 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
no additions of energy or mass happen, and
therefore no calculations are done. The end Time (min)
temperature level matches the measured end Figure 3. Evolution with time of liquid metal concentrations. The measured values
temperature in the transfer ladle (indicated on after tapping are indicated on the right axis. Ca,D: calcia, doloma. 82: 2nd bucket.
the axis), as a result of the energy efficiency 0: O2 . C: C/0 2 . F: Fe-Si and CaF2 .
fitting procedure. The first temperature meas-
urement is taken by hand in the furnace, with- 100 4.5
Ca, 0
out specific precautions to keep a constant 90 4
sampling depth. The accuracy of measure- 80 3.5
ments inside the furnace is estimated at 20°C. ~

After tapping the temperature is more homo- ~ 70 C F

3
e
0 iii
geneous, and the accuracy of the measured 60
~ 2.5 Q.
value is then estimated at 5°C. C 50 >-
:!:!
GI u
Figure 3 shows some modelled concentra- u 2
c 'iii
0 40 m
III
tions of the liquid steel phase, The measured U
GI
... 1.5
(non-reconciled) values of the end composi- "Cl 30
'iii
tion are indicated on the right axis. The first 0
20
liquid phase is mainly chromium. Silicon also 0 0.5
10
melts selectively in the model, but oxidizes
quickly as more oxygen is added. Carbon in- 0 0
jection mainly increases the carbon content in 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
the metal phase, and to a lesser extent reduces Time (min)
the chromium oxide in the slag, as can be seen Figure 4. Evolution with time of total slag concentrations. The measured values af-
in Figure 4. The differences in end concentra- ter tapping are indicated on the right: basicity on the axis, concentrations off axis.
tion will be discussed later using Tables 2 and Ca,D: calcia, dolorna, 82: 2nd bucket. 0: O2 • C: C/02. F: Fe-Si and CaF 2 .

steel research into 77 (2006) No. 5 319

Process Metallurgy - Steelmaking

3. For this heat, e.g. a good correspondence for the Cr lev- gen without carbon oxidizes chromium, carbon injection re-
el and a lower carbon content in the model can be observed . duces some. Virtually all silicon from the steel is now oxi-
These observations will prove to be systematic. Figure 4 in- dized , so there is no room for further reduction of chromi-
dicates some concentrations of the slag (solid and liquid) in um oxide . The calcium (aluminium-)silicates melt and form
the model, and the measured value at the end. Also the ba- a liquid slag (Figure 5). Whereas in the early stages of the
sicity (CaO/SiO z) is indicated . Again, the differences in end heat chromium oxide is mainly found in chromite phases
concentration will later prove to be systematic. (MgO'CrZ0 3 and CaO'CrZ03), it also appears in the liquid
Figure 5 shows the phases contained in the slag. Before slag at a level of about 4 w% from minute 60 on. When fer-
any fluxes have been added , only chromium has been oxi- rosilicon and fluorspar are added , mostly solid chromium
dized (solid CrZ03, ' Other' in Figure 5). When calcia , oxide is reduced, silicon (from the addition) is oxidized , and
chamotte and doloma are added, silicon is oxidized by all the silicates melt into the liquid slag. Also some MgO
chromium oxide and forms calcium silicates. Alumina from from MgO'CrZ0 3 is taken into the liquid slag.
the chamotte forms calcium aluminates . When the temper-
ature reaches 1000°C, these aluminates melt and form a liq- End composition evaluation. Tables 2 and 3 indicate
uid slag, consisting of about 40 w% CaO, 50 w% Ah03, the relative error between calculated and reconciled final
and 10 w% MgO. When the second bucket is loaded, the concentrations of steel and slag (i.e. all solid and liquid ox-
slag solidifies (Figure 5). As more oxygen is added, chromi- idic phases). The differences with measured (non-recon-
um oxidizes. When the second addition of calcia and dolo- ciled) data are in the same order, but also contain errors due
rna is made, chromium oxide from the chromites is reduced to systematic mass balance errors. There are average errors
again. As Figure 4 clearly shows, the oxidation of silicon for 30 heats in the tables. Significance is evaluated with the
compensates for this reduction once more. Injection of oxy- Student t-test for coupled data [16]. The measured compo-
sitions of both slag and steel were determined by
manual sampling from the centre of the furnace
14000
and XRF (X-Ray Fluorescence). This method has
a high accuracy (in the order of 0.1 w%). Due to
Oxidic Phases C F
12000 the inhomogeneity of the slag however, the accu-
o Liquid slag racy of the slag samples is estimated to be up to
• Ca- (A1)-Silicates
10000
Ca-A1uminal es
I w%.
Ill CaO .Cr20 3
As can be seen in Table 2, the relative errors
Ci
: 8000 • MgO .Cr203 range from I% for the main elements to about
III
III
III
• Ot her 20% for the secondary elements. The signifi-
6000
:::i: cance level of this error is given as the probabili-
4000 ty that the mean error is zero. Most errors are
highly significant, which implicates that the stan-
2000 s dard deviations of the errors are small in compar-
ison to the errors themselves, so the error on all
0 heats tends to be similar. The carbon concentra-
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
80 tion in the steel is significantly lower than ex-
Time (min) pected due to a mean excess formation of CO-gas
Figure 5. Evolution with time of solid oxidic phases and liquid slag. S: start of of about 900 kg.
calculation. Ca,D: caleta, doloma. 62 : 2nd bucket. 0: O2 • C: C/02 • F: Fe-Si and The end composition of the total slag (Table 3)
CaF2 • is calculated with relative errors of about +12%

Table 2. Relative error between calculated and reconciled final steel concentrations.

Total Mo Ni Fe Mn Cr Si C
Indicati ve value 110 ton 0.7w% 8w% 71 w% Iw% 18w% 0.3w% lw%
Relative error -0.6% 0.5% -0.6% -0.1% 17% -0.1% 35% -22%
Significance 0.0% 3.1% 0.0% 19.2% 0.0% 99.6% 0.0% 0.0%

Table 3. Relative error between calculated and reconciled final slag concentrations.

Total Fe Mn Cr Ca SI AI M2
Indicative value 13 ton 4w% 2w% 7w% 30w% 12w% 3w% 7w%
Relative error -11% -92% -30% -10% 13% -0.9% -14% 12%
Significance 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 50.7% 0.0% 72.7% 0.0% 0.0%
Indicative oxide
concentration 5.5w% 2.5w% 11w% 43w% 20w% 6w% 12w%

320 ste el research int. 77 (2006) No. 5

 Process Metallurgy - Steelmaking

for AI, Ca and Mg. However, the total slag mass 3.5
exhibits a relative error of -11 %. This means that -model
the amounts of the oxides of these elements are 3
calculated with relative errors of about 1%. The
• • measurements

more easily reducible elements (Mn, Cr, Fe, Si)

are oxidized significantly less than expected -
f!l
::E
2.5

(10-90% on a mass basis). Especially Fe is oxi-

dized less (-93% on a mass basis). -:§
0
~
+ 2

1.5
•
•
•
• •
CII
Dynamic evaluation. For some heats dynamic CIS
measurements of the slag composition are per- al
formed. Slag samples are taken before, during and 0.5
after C/O-injection, after the final addition of fer-
rosilicon and fluorspar (just before tapping), in the 0
ladle just after tapping and 10 minutes after tap- 40 60 80 100 120
ping. The composition is measured using a micro-
probe with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS). Time (min)
To generate input for the model, reconciliation is
Figure 6. Evaluation of the slag basicity (CaO+MgO)/Si02.
performed using the measured slag and steel com-
position in the ladle. This means mass balance er-
rors, especially errors on the weights of the addi-
tions during the measured period, can still have an 14
effect on the dynamic values. Figures 6 to 8 show
o wt% Cr measured
a comparison between industrial slag composition
and modelling results for a typical heat. For this
heat carbon is continuously injected from minute
-~ 12 --wt% Cr modelled
... wt% Fe measured

60 until 72 in reality, but since the industrial data

are indistinct, the whole addition is made at
-c
0
10

8
--wt% Fe modelled

-
:;::;
minute 71 in the model. The final reduction is
l!
done at minute 77. Some trends, like the decrease c 6
of basicity and the increase of the MgO concen- G.l ...
U 0
tration in the slag, are predicted quite well. The c 4 0
0 0
reasons for the differences between the other pre- 0
dictions and the measurements will be discussed 2 ... ...
0

in the next section. ...

/' 0
0
Discussion 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min)
End composition. The model predicts the steel
composition quite well. This composition is above Figure 7. Evaluation of the concentrations of Fe and Cr in the slag.
all determined by mass balances. In this process
with many elements, many additions and many 9
--wt% Mg modelled
scrap qualities, it is hard to follow up the mass
balances for all elements closely. Therefore, large
errors can be encountered on balances based on
industrial data. Without a reconciliation proce-
-~ 8

7
• wt% Mg measured
--wt% Mn modelled
A wt% Mn measured

dure, errors on the input would have a larger effect

-6
• •
c
on the end concentration than the deviation from 0 5

-
:;::;
equilibrium. The slag composition, however, is l! 4
•
more easily affected by kinetics. Due to an excess C
G.l
formation of CO-gas and a fixed oxygen balance, o 3
C
the modelled concentrations of Fe, Mn, Si and Cr 0 2 A
A
A
in the slag are lower than the reconciled concen- 0 A

trations. This lowers the total amount of slag, so 1 A

A
the concentration of Ca and Mg is higher, which 0
further increases the basicity compared to the
40 60 80 100 120
measured value.
Time (min)
Dynamics. The dynamic behaviour of the fur-
nace is less easy to evaluate, due to the large Figure 8. Evaluation of the concentrations of Mn and Mg in the slag.

steel research into 77 (2006) No.5 321

Process Metallurgy - Steelmaking
amount of interfering mechanisms. Certainly some low
temperature effects are unphy sical. The selective melting of
Cr and Si in the early stages of the melt would require un-
physically large diffusion in the solid steel. Also the first
liquid slag, consisting of mainly Al z03 and CaO, is unreal-
istic. No fluidity has been observed in practice, nor is a slag
of this composition mentioned in literature [17]. Most like-
ly this is an artefact of the used slag data files. In this mul-
ti-component compositional area, little constitutional data is
known. Only ternary and quaternary phase diagrams are op-
timized at this moment [14 , 18, 19].
The general evolution of the slag composition (basicity,
MgO content), as illustrated in Figures 6 to 8, shows a fair
agreement with measurements in industry. However, as
seen earlier for the end concentrations, the easily reducible
elements, Cr. Fe and Mg, show very low levels in the mod-
elled slag (Figures 7 and 8).
Carbon injection raises the carbon level in the steel, leads
to formation of CO-gas, and reduces some chromium. The
reduction is however much less than observed, due to a
much lower level of crO x and FeO to start with . These low
levels are due to formation of CO-gas and probably a low-
er input of oxygen into the model than reacts in reality . The
oxygen input is distributed equall y over the duration of the
heat in the model, whereas in reality most oxygen probably
reacts with the scrap in the early stages of the heat.
In the measured data most of the FeO is reduced during
carbon injection. Most of the CrO, reduction is established
during tapping. This is a delayed effect of the added fer-
rosilicon , which dissolves in the steel and reduces crOx
during the intense steel-slag contact during tapping .
The solid phase obser ved in the slag is a
(Mg,Ca)O'(Cr,Al,Feh03 spinel. Figure 9 shows a scanning
electron microscope picture of the microstructure of a
quenched slag sample, using back-scattered electrons. In
the modelled slag, the solid phase is pure MgO'Crz03 for
most heats, and/or (Ca,MghSi04 for some. The discrepan-
cy can be explained by the absence of a solid solution mod-
el for this spinel composition in the FACT-database. How-
ever, the lower content of chromium oxide in the slag also
explains part of the difference .
Figure 9. Electron microscope image of a quenched slag sample .
The lighter, angular phase is spinel. The darker phase is amorphous
slag .
322
The higher oxidation of carbon instead of Cr and Fe is
probably due to the homogeneity of the model. The slag
layer is as well in contact with the gas phase as the steel is.
The oxygen partial pressure in the model is approximately
1O- 1Z atm . This is probably a good estimate of the average
conditions in an EAF, which are strongly reducing. Howev-
er at the top of the slag layer, the oxygen pressure might be
substantially higher in reality, and at the steel level it might
be lower. Hence , carbon in the steel would be less easily ox-
idized. Furthermore, the chromium oxidized in the early
stages of the heat is not easily reduced in reality, while in
the model it is reduced at the moment this is energetically
more favourable, as can be seen in Figure 7. This also im-
plicates that, when looking from an equilibrium point of
view, further reduction of Cr could be reached in an EAF in
comparison to Ugine & ALZ Belgium.
Another unrealistic homogeneity of the model is the con-
stant temperature throughout the furnace. Spatial deviations
in the equilibrium compositions, e.g. because of a higher
temperature in the injection zone , are thus neglected.
Also a remark has to be made about the numerical stabil-
ity of the calculations. For certain heats , the results (e.g. the
mass of molten metal, or of the gas) swing up and down be-
tween a very high and a very low value, simply because of
the addition of some energy . It seems that the equations for
the calculation of equilibrium involving many species ,
which describe a non-linear minimization of the free ener-
gy, can contain more attractors than physically relevant.
Kinetics. The previous comparison with industrial data
shows that to predict the dynamics of the process, the ki-
netics have to be taken into account explicitly. The follow-
ing mechanisms have a significant influence:
- The scrap melting is non-selective, which means the liq-
uid phase has an average composition of the solid scrap
types. This situation deviates from thermodynamical
equilibrium.
- During carbon injection, carbon and CO-gas are in direct
contact with the slag, and not with the steel.
- Reaction with oxygen from the air in the furnace is not
constant with time . More oxidation happens in the begin-
ning of the heat when the scrap is not protected by a slag.
- Slag-steel interface reactions are very difficult except
during tapping.
- The formation of CO-gas is hindered by the protective
slag layer, which probably exhibits a gradient in oxygen
partial pressure .
Conclusions
A time-dependent thermodynamical equilibrium model
for a stainless steel electric arc furnace is presented. The
model is applied to industrial data, of which the mass bal-
ance errors are corrected using data reconciliation. The end
composition of the metal phase is calculated with a relative
error from 1% for the main elements to about 20% for the
secondary elements. The end composition of the slag phase
is calculated with relative errors of 1% for AI, Ca and Mg.
For the more easily reducible elements Fe, Cr, Mn and Si, a
lower oxidation than measured is reached. This is due to the
steel research into 77 (2006) No.5

production of a higher amount of CO-gas, which is possible
because of the homogeneity of the model and the absence
of kinetic restrictions. Also the incompleteness of the ther-
modynamical data for the slag system may have an influ-
ence. The dynamics can partially be predicted by an equi-
librium model, but are strongly influenced by kinetics.
Chromium reduction and gas formation are both too preva-
lent in the model. Some insight into the mechanisms that
control the kinetics in the furnace can be gained from the
equilibrium model results.
Acknowledgments
This research was funded by the IWT (Institute for Sci-
ence and Technology Vlaanderen) grant no. 030880. F.v.
would like to acknowledge the support of the Research
Foundation-Flanders (FWO-Vlaanderen) through the schol-
arship of Research Assistant of the Research Foundation-
Flanders (FWO-Vlaanderen). The authors wish to thank
Rik Baeten, Geert Ercken and Raf Janssen ofUgine &ALZ
for the nice cooperation.
(SJM 5808; originally submitted to Scandinavian Journal
of Metallurgy, received on 14 March 2005,
accepted in revised form on 19 August 2005)
Contact: Sander Arnout
Dept. of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
Kasteelpark Arenberg 44
3001 Leuven / Belgium
E-mail: sander.arnout@mtm.kuleuven.be
steel research int. 77 (2006) No.5
Process Metallurgy - Steelmaking
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