CHAPTER 1

CEMENT

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the course, students are able to use their knowledge and skill
learned to:

1. identify the type and chemical composition of cement used as

construction materials. (CLO1, PLO1, LOD1, C3).
2. discuss the procedure of cement testing and the manufacturing process
of cement. (CLO1, PLO1, LOD1, C3).
3. Explain the cement used for high-performance concrete. (CLO1, PLO1,
LOD1, C3).

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

Cement is a manufactured construction material and widely used for structural

constructions such as buildings, bridges, tunnels, dams, factories, pavement
and etc. It is an instant glue and capable to bond mineral fragments into
compact whole. There are variety type of cements can be found in the market.
Each type is manufactured under certain condition depending on its special
properties. However today, Portland cement is the most commonly used as
mortar and concrete in structural construction.

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 • Mortar
The mortar is a mixture of cement, fine aggregates or sand and water
to form a paste.
• Concrete
The concrete ia a mixture of cement, sand, coarse aggregates and
water under certain ratio.

1.1 Types of Cement

Cement is manufactured with two basic raw ingredients called calcareous and
an argillaceous material. The cement in making of concrete has the property
of setting and hardening under water by virtue of chemical reaction with it
and this type of cement is called hydraulic cement.
• Calcareous
The calcareous material is a calcium oxide, such as limestone, chalk,
or oyster shells.
• Argillaceous
Argillaceous is a combination of silica and alumina that can be found
from clay, shale, and blast furnace slag.
• Setting Time
Setting refers to the stiffening of the cement paste or the change from
a plastic state to a solid state. The setting time refers to changes of the
cement paste from fluid to rigid. Setting is usually described in two levels
namely, initial setting and final setting.
• Initial Setting
Initial setting is defined as the beginning of the noticeable stiffening in
the cement paste andit’s corresponding to the rapid rise temperature.
This normally takes about 45 – 175 minutes.
• Final Setting Time
This refers to completion of setting which correspond to the peak
temperature in the cement paste. The stiffening of cement paste

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 increase as the volume of the gel increases and the stage at which this
is completed, the final hardening process begins. It normally takes
between 3 to 10 hours for this to happen.
• Hardening
This is referred to the gained of the strength of the cement paste.
Actually, during the setting time, the cement gained very little strength.
The water causes the hardening of cement through a process called
hydration. Hydration is a chemical reaction in which the major
compounds in cement form chemical bonds with water molecules and
become hydrates or hydration products.

Figure 1.1: Cement hardening process

Different concrete applications require cements with different properties.

Some applications require rapid strength gain to expedite the construction and
other applications require low heat hydration to control volume change and
associated shrinkage cracking. Hence, each type of cement is manufactured
by altering the ratios of four basic compounds namely Tricalcium Silicate,

3
Dicalcium Silicate, Tricalcium Aluminate and TetracalciumAluminoferitteto fit
the applications.

Table 1.1: Main compound of Portland cement

Name of Compound Usual Abbreviation Reaction
Tricalcium Silicate C3S Quick
Dicalcium Silicate C2S Slow
Tricalcium Aluminate C3A Very quick
TetracalciumAluminoferitte C4AF Not very important

Cements can be classified into two categories namely hydraulic cement and
high alumina cement.

1.1.1 Hydraulic Cement

Hydraulic cement is consists of silicates and aluminates of lime. This type of

cement can be classified as;
a) Natural Cement
Natural cements are powders obtained from certain natural rocks (clayey
lime stone type) which are quarried, crushed and processes. Enough heat
is required to dry off carbonic acid gasses. Besides, it is brown in colour
and sets slowly or quickly when mixed with water, depending on the
amount of clay in the limestone. The strength is low and not used for
concrete work.
b) Aluminous Cement
The chief ingredients of aluminous cement are calcareous and aluminious
materials (limestone or chalk and bauxite). These are heated to a
temperature of 1400oC and the whole mass is grinded to powder form.
c) Portland Cement
The hardening of Portland cement is a chemical process during which heat
is evolved. Modified forms of Portland based on different ratio of four main

4
 compositions are made, to suit the varying demands of different kinds of
structural application.

Table 1.2: Classification of Portland cements

Name Application
General concrete work when the special
properties of other types are not needed.
Normal
Suitable for floors, reinforced concrete
structures, pavements, etc.
Protection against moderate sulfate exposure,
0.1-0.2% weight water soluble sulfate in soil or
150-1500ppm sulfate in water (sea water). Can
Moderate Sulfate be specified with moderate heat of hydration,
Resistance making it suitable for large piers, heavy
abutments, and retaining walls. The moderate
heat of hydration is also beneficial when placing
concrete in warm weather.
Used for fast-tract construction when forms need
to be removed as soon as possible or structure
High Early of
need to be put in service as soon of possible. In
Hydration
cold weather, reduces time required for
controlled curing.
Used when mass of structure, such as large
Low Heat of
dams, requires careful control of heat of
Hydration
hydration.
Protection from severe sulfate exposure, 0.2-
High Sulfate
2.0% weight water soluble sulfate in soils or
Resistance
1500-10,800 ppm sulfate in water

d) Cement Hydration
Hydration is chemical reaction between cement particles and water. The
features of this reaction are the change in matter, the change in energy
level, and the rate of reaction. Example: Tricalcium silicate + Water →
Calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) + Calcium hydroxide.
d) Type of cement based on usage
The type of cement used based on usage bellow;
i) Ordinary Portland Cement – OPC (BS 12: 1971)

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 OPC has a medium rate of hardening and is suitable for most type of
work. It is the one most commonly used for structural purposes when
the special properties specified for other four types of cement are not
required.
ii) Rapid Hardening Portland Cement– RHPC (BS 12: 1971)
RHPC hardens rather more rapidly than OPC. It is similar in chemical
composition to OPC but the proportions of the various compounds may
be slightly different, and it is finely ground. Due to its finer grinding, it
will increase the rate of hydration at early ages, and this leads to the
increased rate of early hardening as implied by the name.
This early strength is achieved by increasing C2S and C3A content of
the cement and finer grinding. Since it has high heat evaluation, RHPC
should not be used in large masses. With 15% of C3A, it has lower
sulfate resistance. The may be limited to obtain moderate sulfate
resistance or to 5% when high sulfate resistance is required.
Rapid-hardening Portland cement should not be regarded as quick-
setting cement. The setting time specified in BS 12:1971 for RHPC is
similar as specified for OPC
iii) White and Coloured Portland Cement (BS 12: 1971)
Generally used for decorative work. It is made by using China clay in
place of ordinary clay to exclude impurities, especially iron oxide and
limestone. Coloured cements are made by mixing pigments with
Portland cement.
iv) Low Heat Portland Cement – LHPC (BS 1370: 1974)
LHPC hardens and evolves heat more slowly than OPC. It has slightly
different chemical composition. It is obtained by increasing the
proportion of C2S and reducing C3S and C3A. It thus hydrates more
slowly and evolves heat less rapidly than OPC. The strength of LHPC
is slow developed but the ultimate strength is same. However, the initial
setting time is greater than OPC.

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 Table 1.3: Trace Setting Time for OPC, RHPC and LHPC

Setting Time
Initial Setting Final Setting
Cement
Time, minutes Time, minutes
Type
(min) (max)
OPC 30 600
RHPC 30 600
LHPC 60 600

v) Portland Blustfurnace Cement - PBC (BS 146: 1973)

PBC is made by grinding a mixture of OPC clinker with selected
granulated blast furnace slag. The proportion of slag is limited by the
British Standard to not more than 65% of the finished cement.
The properties of blast furnace cement are very similar to those of OPC
but it hydrates slower than those of Portland cement so this cement
evolves less heat and hardens more slowly than OPC. The resistance
to sulfate is often considered to be intermediate between that of sulfate-
resisting Portland cement.
vi) Sulfate-Resisting Portland Cement – SRPC (BS 4027: 1972)
SRPC is specified where there is extensive exposure to sulfate. Typical
applications include hydraulic structure exposed to water with high alkali
content and structures subjected to seawater exposure. The surface
resistance to SRPC is achieved by reducingtheC3A content to a
minimum since that compound is most susceptible to sulfate attack. It
usually has a higher content ofC4AF. Concrete made with this cement
is more resistant to attack by sulfate compounds which may be found
dissolved in ground water and which are present in sea water. SRPC
tends to be darker in colour than OPC.
vii) High Strength Portland Cement – HSPC
HSPC is produced from the same material as the case of OPC. The
higher strength achieved by increasing C3S content and also by finer
grinding of clinker. The initial and final setting times are the same as

7
 that of OPC. At higher water cement ratios, the HSPC has about 80%
higher strength and at lower cement ratio 40% higher strength than
OPC.
viii) Masonry Cement (BS 5224: 1976)
For hand work such as rendering and bricklaying, mortar composed
only of Portland cement and sand are not ideal. Such mortars harden
too quickly, are too strong, and lack the plasticity and water retention
desirable in a masonry mortar. It has been customary to overcome this
difficulty by mixing lime with the cement mixtures. Masonry cement,
under various brand names consists of Portland cement with a fine inert
admixture and plasticizing agent.

Table 1.4: Minimum compressive strength of concrete cube specified by BS

4550 for Portland cement

Compressive Strength (N/mm2)

Type of Portland
3 days 7 days 28 days
Cement
OPC 13 - 29
RHPC 18 - 33
PBC 8 14 22
LHPC 5 - 19
SRPC 10 - 27

1.1.2 High Alumina Cement

High alumina cement is quite different both in composition and properties from
Portland cement. It is comparatively slow-setting but rapid hardening, thus,
produces very high early strength. As a considerable amount of heat is
generated during the setting and hardening process, it should not be used in
rich mixes or large masses. It is essential that the concrete be kept
continuously wet for at least 24 hours from the time it begins to harden. About
80%of the ultimate strength is developed at the age of 24 hours. High alumina

8
cement has an initial setting time about 4 hours and final setting time about 5
hours. The heat that generated during the hardening period has one
advantage, as it enables the concrete to be placed at lower temperatures than
OPC.

For the same water cement ratio, the alumina cement is more workable than
Portland cement. If high alumina cement concrete is used in place where
moisture and a high temperature present simultaneously, there will be a loss
strength whether these conditions occur early of late in the life of the concrete.
High alumina cement concrete is more resistant than OPC to the action of
sulfates, therefore suitable under sea water applications. The chemical oxide
composition for high alumina cement is as shown in Table 1.5.
The raw materials are limestone or chalk and bauxite which are crushed into
lumps not exceeding 100mm. The materials are heated to the fusion point at
about 1600oC. The solidified material is fragmented and then ground to a
fineness of 2500-3200 cm2/g. The product of very dark grey powder is passed
through magnetic separators to remove metallic iron. The alumina cement is
considerably more expensive.

Table 1.5: Chemical oxide composition for High Alumina cement

Alumina (Al2O3) 39%

Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3) 10%
Lime (CaO) 38%
Ferrous Oxide (FeO) 4%
Silica (SiO2) 6%

1.2 Chemical Composition

Several types of cements can be obtained by changing the percentages of

chemical composition. Table 1.6 shows the chemical composition limit of
Portland cement:

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 Table 1.6: Chemical composition limit of Portland cement
Name of Raw Material Chemical Composition Percentage Limit
Lime
CaO 60 – 67
Silica
SiO2 17 – 25
Alumina
Al2O3 3–8
Iron Oxide
Fe2O3 0.5 – 6
Magnesium
MgO 0.1 – 4
Alkalis (Soda and or/
Na2O,K2O 0.2 – 1.3
potash)
SO3 1-3
Sulphur Trioxide

The interaction of Portland cement raw materials are interacted in kiln by

forming complex chemical compounds. Calcination in the kiln restructures the
molecular composition by producing four main chemical compounds.

Table 1.7: Main compounds of Portland cement

Usual Range by
Name of Compound Chemical Formula
Weight (%)
Tricalcium Silicate 3CaO.SiO2 45 – 60
Dicalcium Silicate 2CaO.SiO2 15 – 30
Tricalcium Aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 6 – 12
Tetracalcium Aluminoferitte 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 6-8

The minor compounds such as magnesium oxide, titanium oxide, manganese

oxide, sodium oxide, and potassium oxide are represented a few percentages
by weight of cement.

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1.3 Testing of Cement

There several type of testing cement have discuss in these chapter.

1.3.1 Vicat Set Time Apparatus

Setting time can be determined with the Vicat apparatus. The Vicat test
requires sample of cement using the amount of water required for normal
consistency according to a specified procedure.

a) Procedure
The 1 mm (0.04in) diameter needle is allowed to penetrate the paste
for 30 seconds and the amount of penetration is measured. The
penetration process is repeated every 15 minutes until a penetration of
25 mm (1in) or less is obtained. By interpolation, the time when a
penetration of 25 mm occurs is determined and recorded as the initial
set time. The final set time is when the needle does not penetrate visibly
into the paste.

Figure 1.1: Vicat set time apparatus

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Exercise 1:

Given the data from a vicat test as in Table 1.8. Estimate the cement initial
set time.
Table 1.8: Time (min) vs penetration (mm)

Time (minutes) 15 30 45 60 75

Penetration (mm) 44 36 28 20 12

Step 1: Plot graph Penetration (mm) vs time (min)

Step 2: Find the initial time (the time when penetration 25 mm occur).
Therefore, the initial set time is about 50 min after batching of the cement
paste

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1.3.2 Gilmore Set Time Apparatus

The Gilmore requires a normal consistency cement paste sample. A pat with
a flat top is molded and the initial Gilmore needle is applied lightly to its surface.
The application surface is repeated until the pat bears the force of the needle
without appreciable indentation, and the elapsed time is recorded as the initial
time. This process is then repeated with the final Gilmore needle and the final
set time is recorded.

Figure 1.2: Gilmore set time apparatus

1.3.3 Soundness

Soundness of the cement paste refers to its ability to retain its volume after
setting. Expansion after setting, caused by delayed or slow hydration or
reactions, could result if the cement is unsound. The autoclave expansion test
is used to check the soundness of the cement paste. In this test, cement paste
bars are subjected to heat and high pressure, and the amount of expansion is
measured. ASTM C150 limits autoclave expansion to 0.8%.

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 Figure 1.3: Cement autoclave expansion

1.3.4 Compressive Strength

Compressive strength of mortar is measured by preparing 50mm (2in.) cubes

and subjecting them to compression according to ASTM C109. The mortar is
prepared with cement, water and standard sand (ASTM C778). Minimum
compressive strength values are specified by ASTM C150 for different cement
types at different ages. The compressive strength of mortar cubes is
proportional to compressive strength of cylinders. However, the compressive
strength of the concrete cannot be predicted accurately from mortar cube
strength, since the concrete strength is affected by aggregate characteristics,
the concrete mixing and the construction procedures.

1.4 Manufacturing of Cement

Production of Portland cement deals with two basic raw ingredients namely
calcareous and argillaceous. These materials are crushed and stored in the
silos. The raw materials, in the desired proportions, are passed through
grinding mill, using either wet or dry process. The ground material is stored

14
until it can be sent to the kiln. Modern dry process cement plants use a heat
recovery cycle to preheat the ground material, or feed stock, with the exhaust
gas from the kiln. Some plants use a flash furnace to further heat and feed
stock. Both the preheater and flash furnace improves the energy efficiency of
cement productions. In the kiln, the raw materials are melted at temperatures
1400oC to 1650oC, changing the materials into cement clinker. The clinker is
cooled and stored. The small amount of gypsum is added to regulate the
setting time of the cement in the concrete. The finished product may be stored
and transported in either bulk or sacks. The cement can be stored for long
periods of time, provided it is kept dry.

Figure 1.4: Portland cement manufacturing processes

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1.5 Cement for High Performance Concrete

High strength concrete will normally contain not only Portland cement,
aggregate and water, but also super plasticizers and supplementary
cementing materials. It is possible to achieve compressive strengths of up to
98 Mpa using fly ash or ground granulated blast furnace slag as the
supplementary cementing materials. However, to achieve the strengths of 100
Mpa, the use of silica fume has been found to be essential.

Table 1.9: Composition of special cement for high strength concrete by

comparison to ordinary Portland cement
Name of Compound OPC(SP30) SP30-4A SP30-4A MOD
C2S(%) 18 28 28
C3S(%) 55 50 50
C3A(%) 8 5.5 5.5
C4AF(%) 9 9 9
MgO(%) 3 1.5-2.0 1.5-2.0
SO3(%) 3.3 2-3 2-3
Na2O(%) 1.1 0.6 0.6
Blaine fineness (m2/kg) 300 310 400
Heat of hydration (kcal/kg) 71 56 70
Setting time (min) : initial 120 140 120
final 180 200 170

1.5.1 Silica Fume

Is a waste by-product of the production of silicon and silicon alloys, and thus
not a very well-defined material. Consequently, important to characterize any
new source of silica fume by determining the specific surface area by nitrogen
adsorption, silica, alkali and carbon contents as well as minimize the crystalline
material. Available in bulk form, its unit weight of 200-250kg/m3, but also more
preferred in the densified form of 400-450 kg/m3. Available in market already

16
blended with Portland cement at 6.7 to 9.3%, by weight of the total mass of
cementitious material.

1.5.2 Fly Ash

Most fly ashes result in strengths of not more than 70 MPa, but sometimes in
conjunction with silica fume can reach to the strength of 98MPa. Generally, for
producing high strength concrete, fly ash uses at 15% of the cement content.

1.5.3 Blast Furnace Slag

Slag used well in ordinary concrete is suitable in high strength concrete. The
dosages rates are between 15 – 30% of cement content. For the design of
more than 98MPa, slag are to be mixed with silica fume.

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Activities

1. Describe cement hydration process?

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2. Discuss the difference between rapid hardening cement to the OPC.

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3. Schedule the maximum and minimum setting time of the following, OPC
(Ordinary Portland Cement) and LHPC (Low Heat Portland Cement)

Setting Time

Cement Initial Setting Final Setting

Type Time, minutes Time, minutes
(min) (max)

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4. Given the data from Vicat Test as in Table below. Estimate the cement
initial setting time.

Time (minutes) 15 30 45 60 75

Penetration (mm) 52 40 29 20 11

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REFERENCES
1. P. Kumar Mehta, P. J. M. Monteiro. Concrete: Microstructure,
Properties, and Materials, 4th Edition. McGraw-Hill Education. 2014.
(ISBN: 9780071797870)
2. T. W. Marotta, “Basic Construction Materials”. Seventh Edition, Prentice
Hall, 2005. (TA403 .M37 2005)
3. S. Somayaji, “Civil Engineering Materials” Third Edition. Prentice Halll,
2005. (TA403 .S66 2001 N1)
4. Hegger [et al.],”Construction Materials Manual”, Basel: Birkhauser,
2006. (TA402.5.G3 .C66 2006)
5. K. W. Day, “Concrete mix design, quality control and specification” Third
Edition, London: Taylor & Francis, 2006. (TA439 .D39 2006)

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 CHAPTER 2
AGGREGATE

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this lesson, students, will be able to:

1. Classify aggregate based on the production method, petrological

characteristics, particle size, unit weight and shape. (CLO1-C3, PLO1-
K)
2. Describe the physical properties, grading, shape and texture of
aggregate. (CLO1-C3, PLO1-K)

CONTENT

2.0 Introduction of Aggregate

In Civil Engineering, the term of aggregate can be described as crushed stone,

gravel, sand, slag and recycled concrete, which is composed of individual
particles. Aggregates are also used as base material under foundations, a
component of composite materials such as concrete and asphalt concrete,
which is normally used in building and road constructions.

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 (a) Railroad Construction (b) Road Construction

(c) Asphalt Concrete (d) Concrete

Figure 2.1: Application of aggregate in civil engineering practice

Aggregates are used as a stable foundation or road/rail base with predictable,

uniform properties (e.g. to help prevent differential settling under the road or
building), or as a low-cost extender that binds with more expensive cement or
asphalt to form concrete. Aggregate is needed for any kind of construction.
Normally, natural sources for aggregates include gravel pits, river run deposits
and rock quarries are crushed to obtain the need of aggregate size distribution,
shape and texture.

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 (a) Rock Block (b) Crushed Machine

(c) Stockpile
Figure 2.2: Rock quarried

2.1 Classification of Aggregates

Aggregate can be classified according to

i. Production Method
ii. Petrological Characteristic
iii. Particle Size
iv. Unit Weight
v. Shape

Classification by Production Method

Natural Aggregate
- Taken from native deposit without any change of in their natural state
during production except for crushing, grading or washing.
- Example: sand, gravel, crushed stone, lime rock
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By-Product Aggregate
- Comprise blast-furnace slag and cinders, fly ash, etc. Cinder are the
residue of coal or wood after burning.

Processed Aggregate
- Heat-treated, expanded material with lightweight aggregate
characteristics.
- Example: Perlite, burnt clay, shale, processed fly-ash

Coloured-Aggregate
- Glass, ceramic, manufactured marble for decorative and architectural
purpose.

Classification by Petrological Characteristics

There are three types of aggregate based on petrological characteristics as
shown in Table 2.1. Igneous rocks are much stronger than sedimentary or
metamorphic rock in selection of aggregate types.

Table 2.1: Rock Classifications based on Petrological Characteristics

SedimentaryMetamorphic
Igneous Rock
Rock Rock
Rocks formed by Rocks are created
solidification of Rocks formed by changes
Definition cooled magma by from sediments of induced at high
crystallizing into a the earth’s land temperature
mosaic of area and/or high
materials pressure
Environment Underground: and Deposition basin: Mostly deep inside
as lava flows mainly sea mountains chains
Rock Uniform high
Variable low Variable high
strength strength
Major types
Sandstone
with Granite (90 MPa),
(40Mpa), Schist, slate
compressive basalt (160Mpa)
limestone, clay
strength

24
Classification by Particle Size
Coarse Aggregate (Gravel)
- Coarse aggregate includes the particle that retain on 4.75 mm sieve.

Fine Aggregate (Sand)

- Fine aggregate includes the particle that all passes through 4.75 mm
sieve and retain on 0.075 mm sieve.

Silt
- Particle with size from 0.002 mm to 0.075 mm.

Clay
- Particle size smaller than 0.002 mm.

Classification by Particle Size

Aggregates can be classified by based on their unit weight as shown in Figure
2.3.

Aggregate

High-Density Light Weight

Normal Aggregate
Aggregate Aggregate

Natural Aggregate Natural Artificial

Figure 2.3: Classification of Aggregates

25
2.2 Type of Aggregates

2.2.1 High-Density Aggregate (H-DA)

Table 2.2: High-Density Aggregate

Specific Gravity 2.8 to 2.9
Unit Weight 2800 to 2900 kg/m3
Type of H-DA Magnetite, heamatite, limonite and barites
Compressive strength
20 to 21 N/mm2
(in concrete)
i. Produce dense and crack free concrete
Others ii. Not suitably graded and difficult to have
adequate workability without segregation

Magnetite Heamatite Limonite Barites

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2.2.2 Light Weight Aggregate (LWA)

Table 2.3: Light Weight Aggregate

Particle density < 2000 kg/m3
Dry loose bulk density < 1200 kg/m3
Water absorption High
Type of LWA Pumice, expanded shale, expanded clay
i. Quick stiff.
Workability of concrete ii. Aggregate require wetting before mixing in
the mixer
Concrete mixing Water and aggregates are usually premixed
operation prior to addition of cement
i. coarse surface texture
Others (concrete using ii. lower tensile strength
LWA) iii. lower Modulus of Elasticity
iv. Higher creep and shrinkage

Shale Clay Pumice

2.2.3 Normal Aggregate (NA)

Table 2.4: Normal Aggregate

Specific gravity 2.5 to 3.0
Bulk density 1450 to 1750 kg/m3
Classify according to size:
i. Coarse aggregate
ii. Fine aggregate (sand)
MS 29: 1995
iii. All-in aggregate
Grading limit in percentages by weight for
coarse aggregate
BS 812: Part 103: 1985 Determination of particle size distribution

27
 Retain on 5 mm (3/16 inch) BS 410 test sieve
a) Uncrushed Gravel or Uncrushed Stone
Coarse aggregate resulting from natural
disintegration of rock
b) Crushed Stone or Crushed Gravel
i. Coarse Aggregate
Coarse aggregate produced by crushing
hard stone and gravel respectively
c) Partially Crushed Gravel or Stone
A product of blending of uncrushed and
crushed gravel or blending stone

Pass through 5 mm (3/16 inch) BS 410 test

sieve
Sand - Lower size limit of about 0.07mm
Silt - size limit between 0.06 to 0.002mm
Clay - smaller particles
a) Natural Sand
Fine aggregate resulting from natural
ii. Fine Aggregate disintegration
b) Crushed Stone Sand or Crushing Gravel
Sand
Fine aggregate produced by crushing hard
stone or natural gravel respectively
MS 29: 1995; The coarseness or fineness is
indicated by the zone in which the grading falls
Higher zone number indicates a finer material
Compose of a mixture of coarse and fine
aggregate.
iii. All-In Aggregate
Not graded
Used in unimportant work

2.2.2.1 Bulk Density

Bulk density is a property of particulate materials. It is the mass of particles of

the material divided by the volume they occupy. The volume includes the
space between particles as well as the space inside the pores of individual
particles

2.2.2.2 Specific Gravity

Specific gravity (SG) is a special case of relative density defined as the ratio
of the density of a given substance, to the density of water. Substances with a

28
specific gravity greater than 1 are heavier than water, and those with a specific
gravity of less than 1 are lighter than water. Light Weight Aggregates will be
explained more in 2.6.

Example:

Determine the specific gravity of high-density aggregate which the unit weight
is 2900 kg/m3. (ρwater = 1000 kg/m3).

3 3
Specific Gravity = ρa / ρwater = 2900 kg/m / 1000 kg/m = 2.9

2.3 Physical Properties

2.3.1 Strength

Aggregate cannot transmit tensile force from one particle to another, but very
well in resisting compressive forces. In real practice the application of
aggregate such as concrete, foundation and etc. in terms of random
arrangement of particles contribute to spreading of concentrated loading
effectively. However, the aggregate should be compacted for significant
contact between particles in distributing of loading and reducing settlement.

P kN

Figure 2.4: Force compressed between aggregate

29
The advantage of angular particles and rough aggregates can create better
interlocking system and tendency to resist forces from developed friction
compare to rounded particles with smooth surface contributes to less frictions
resistance and easy to slide. High compressive strength of aggregate is useful
to enhance the capability in resisting compressive force especially for
composite materials such as concrete, asphalt concrete and etc. In normal
practice, the weight of aggregate is stronger than the composite materials.

Example:
Concrete Strength Aggregate Strength
20 N/mm2 to 50 N/mm2 70 N/mm2 to 350 N/mm2

The strength of aggregate is measured by on following tests:

a. Aggregate crushing value (most popular)
b. Aggregate impact test
c. Ten percent fines value

The crushing strength of aggregate cannot be tested with any direct test. There
are some indirect tests to inform us about the crushing strength of aggregate.

Figure 2.5: Apparatus for Aggregate Impact Value Test

30
2.3.2 Hardness

Hardness is defined as the ability of aggregates to resist the damaging effect

of load or applied pressure. This hardness aggregate is depending on the type
of parent rock. The hardness of aggregate can be tested by using abrasion
test as described in BS 812: Part 113: 1990 or ASTM C 131: C535.

Figure 2.6: Los Angles abrasion machine

This test is conducted by placing the blended aggregates in a large drum with
standard sized of steel balls. About 500 revolutions of drum rotation are carried
out, and the aggregates will pass through the sieve.
Satisfactory aggregate < 30% value of abrasion
(use for wearing surface)
< 50% value of abrasion
(use for non wearing surface)

2.3.3 Durability

Durability is defined as the ability of aggregate to withstand external or internal

damaging attack such as weathering effect (also known as soundness). The
soundness test is described in BS 812: Part 121: 1989 or ASTM C88. As
described in ASTM C 88, the soundness of aggregate is tested by simulating
31
the weathering effect by soaking the different sized fractions of oven-dry
sample, in sodium sulfate or magnesium sulfate solution for 16 hours to create
freezing effect. The sample is subjected to five cycles of soaking and drying
procedure. Tested samples were then washed and weighted to determine loss
percentage of entire samples. The results will be compared with allowable
limits to determine whether the aggregate is acceptable.

2.3.4 Toughness

Toughness is defined as the resistance if aggregate to failure by impact. The

toughness of aggregates can be determined by implementing Aggregate
Impact Test according to MS 30: Part 10: 1995. The aggregate impact value
shall not exceed 45% by weight for aggregate used in concrete and 30% for
wearing surface.

2.3.5 Porosity

Porosity is defined as the ratio of the volume of pores in particle to its total
volume (solid volume plus the volume of pores)

Porosity = Volume of pores

Total volume of particles

All aggregates are porous; some are more porous and some are less
depending on types of aggregate. Most of granite and limestone have very low
porosity whereas a large majority of sandstone rocks have high porosity as
high as 13% and 30%.

32
 Table 2.5: Rocks and Porosity (%)
Type of Rock Porosity (%)
Granite 1
Shale 3
Clay 50
Sandstone (fractured) 15
Sand 30
Gravel 25
Limestone (cavernous) 5
Chalk 20

Porosity of natural aggregate can be determined by using following formula:

Porosity = 100xWxGs .
(W + 100) percent
Where:
W : water absorption in percent
Gs : specific gravity on saturated surface-dry basis

A porous aggregate may influence the capability of water absorption when it

is dry. The amount of water absorption is depending on the size and volume
of aggregate. Besides, it is also less resistance to cycles of freezing and
thawing which can cause cracking or fail due to internal expansion, if the
aggregate are not strong enough to withstand the stresses. Porosity of
concrete is contributed by the porosity of aggregate since aggregate
comprises 75% of the volume of concrete. When concrete exposed to cold
temperature and moisture, resistance to freeze-thaw is important to ensure
long service life. Hence, further investigation must be carried out if the
selection of porous aggregate as part of composite materials ingredient has
been made.

33
Example:
Calculate the porosity of the coarse aggregates if the water absorption is 5.5%
and the specific gravity of the aggregates is 2.73.

Porosity =
100  W  Gs
%=
(100  5.5  2.73) = 14.23%
(100 + W ) (100 + 5.5)

Exercise.
Calculate the percentage of water absorption if the porosity is 10 % and the
specific gravity of the aggregates is 2.5.

Example:
Calculate the void content if given the value of aggregates specific gravity is
2.75, density of water is 1000kg/m3 and the bulk density of aggregates taken
as 1745 kg/m3.
ሺ𝑆𝐺 𝑥 𝑊ሻ−𝐵 ሺ2.75 𝑥 1000ሻ−1745
𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100 = 𝟑𝟔. 𝟓𝟓%
𝑆𝐺 𝑥 𝑊 2.75 𝑥 1000

2.3.5 Absorption

Aggregate can capture fluid (water, moisture, asphalt binder and etc) in
surface voids. Voids represent the amount of air space between the aggregate
particles. The amount of void normally expressed as void content and can be
determined by using equation below:

Void content = SG x W – B x 100

SG x W

Where:
SG : specific gravity
W : density of water
B : bulk density

Normally the void content in normal aggregate varies from 30 to 50 percent

depending on size, shape and texture. Typically, fine aggregate indicates 35

34
to 40% of void content while coarse aggregate is about 30 to 50% (depending
on size). The amount of absorption is important to be evaluated for appropriate
amount of fluid to be mixed into composite materials. Highly absorptive
aggregates require greater amount of fluid and making less economical. The
definition of absorption capacity or water absorption or absorbed moisture can
be defined as the moisture content in the saturated surface dry condition.
Further explanation of voids and moisture absorption of aggregate is illustrated
by using following figure.

Figure 2.7: Voids and moisture absorption of aggregates

a) Bone dry
The aggregate contains no moisture; this requires drying the aggregate
in an oven to a constant mass.
b) Air dry
The aggregate may have some moisture but the saturation state is not
quantified.
c) SSD (semi-saturated dry)
The aggregate’s voids are filled with moisture but the main surface area
of the aggregate particles is dry.
d) Moist
The aggregate have moisture content in excess of the SSD condition
e) Free moisture
The difference between the actual moisture content of the
aggregate and the moisture content in the SSD condition.

35
Determination of moisture content (MC) can be calculated by using following
equation:

MC = Weight of moisture x 100%

Oven-dry weight

The water added to the concrete mix must be adjusted to take account on
water absorption of aggregates when making concrete, to obtain constant and
required workability and strength of concrete. The determination of MC of an
aggregate is necessary to determine the net water cement ratio for a batch of
concrete. High moisture content will increase the effective water-cement ratio
to appreciable extent and make the concrete weak unless a suitable allowance
is made. BS 812: Part 109: 1990 and MS 50 described method of
determination of moisture content and absorption of aggregate. They are:

a) Displacement method
It gives the moisture content as a percentage by mass of saturated
surface dry sample

b) Drying method – i. Oven drying method

ii. Modified drying method
Where, total moisture content due to free plus absorbed water.

Concrete mix proportion are normally based on the weight of aggregate in their
saturated and surface dried condition and any change in moisture content
must be reflected in the adjustment to the weight of aggregate and the mix.

Example:
Determine the moisture content of the sample of fine aggregates if their weight
in moist condition found to be 4.52 kg (with tray) and the dry weight after 24
hours in oven was 4.23 kg (with tray). The weight of the tray is 0.2 kg.

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 4.52 − 4.23

𝑀𝐶 = × 100% = × 100 = 𝟕. 𝟐%
𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 4.23 − 0.2

36
Exercise
Calculate the moisture content of the sample of coarse aggregates if their
weight in moist condition found to be 8.65 kg (with tray) and the dry weight
after 24 hours in oven was 7.16 kg (with tray). The weight of the tray is 0.5 kg.

2.4 Grading of Aggregates

Sieve analysis test is used in grading of aggregate. Sieve analysis consists of

determining the proportionate amounts of particles retained or passing through
each of a set of sieves arranged in decreasing sizes. It is expressed in terms
of percentages.

Figure 2.8: Table-top sieve’s Figure 2.9: Various size opening

Shaker and sieves of sieve

37
 Table 2.6: Sieve Designation

The grading curve can be drawn from this analysis and the curve showing
cumulative percentages of the material passing the sieves. The grading curve
indicates whether the grading of a given sample conforms to that specified, or
is too coarse or too fine or too deficient in particular size. The reading of the
grading curve will indicates the followings:

a) If the actual grading curve is lower than specified grading curve, the
aggregate is coarser and segregation of mix might take place.
b) If the actual grading curve lies well above the specified curve, the
aggregate is finer and more water will be required, thus increasing the
quantity of cement also for a constant water cement ratio. Therefore, this
is uneconomical.
c) If the actual grading is steeper than specified, it indicates an excess of
middle-size particles and leads to harsh mix.

38
d) If the actual grading curve is flatter than specified grading curve, the
aggregate will be deficient in middle size particles.

The grading of aggregates has considerable effect on the workability and

stability of concrete mix. Besides it is also important factor in concrete mix
design. Uniform size of particle will contain more voids after compaction,
whereas various particle sizes will give a mass containing lesser voids. Proper
grading of aggregate comprises of coarse and fine aggregate are needed to
produce good quality of concrete. The grading of fine aggregate has a much
greater effect on workability of concrete than does the grading of the coarse
aggregate. Too fine an aggregate requires too large water cement ratio for
adequate workability. Meanwhile, larger size of aggregate will reduce the
cement requirement for a particular water-cement ratio.

Example 1: Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregate (According to ASTM

Standard)
Sieve analysis for 3/4-in stone
Mass Mass
%
Sieve Retained Retained % Passing
Retained
(lb) (kg)
1 in (25mm) 0 0 0.0 100.0
3/4 in (19mm) 719.8 328.7 6.0 94.0
1/2 in 2999.2 1369.7 24.9 69.1
(12.5mm)
3/8 in (9.5mm) 4318.8 1972.3 35.8 33.3
No. 4 3110.1 1420.3 25.8 7.5
(4.75mm)
No. 8 608.8 278.0 5.0 2.5
(2.36mm)
No. 16 165.4 75.5 1.4 1.1
(1.18mm)
Pan 138.8 63.4 1.1 0
Total 12060.9 5507.9 100

% Retained in 3/4 in sieve: (719.8 x 100)/12060.9 = 6.0%

39
 Sieve # % Passing

1 in 100

3/4 in 94

1/2 in 69

3/8 in 33

No. 1 7.5

No. 8 2.5
No. 16 1

Table 2.7: Grading Limit for Course Aggregates (Derived from BS 882)

40
 Table 2.6: Grading Limits for Fine Aggregate (Derived from BS 882)

Figure 2.10: Typical Grading Curves for A Zone 2 Fine Aggregate and A
Graded 20 mm Coarse Aggregate

41
Aggregate Graded
- Gap grading is a grading in which one or more intermediate size
fractions are omitted (limited sizes, good interlock, low permeability)
- Well graded/Combined gradation means sizes within the entire range
are in approximately equal amounts (friction at many points, excellent
interlocking, very few voids or low permeability & economical)
- Uniform gradation means a large percentage of the particles are of
approximately the same size (poor interlocking, high percentage of
voids, friction at few points of contact)

Figure 2.11: Aggregate Graded

Figure 2.12: Aggregate distribution of various grade.

42
Fineness Modulus (FM)
- The Fineness Modulus (FM) used to determine the aggregate
distribution.
- The lower the Fineness Modulus the smaller the average particle size
and the larger the fineness modulus the larger the average particle size.
- Fineness modulus is the sum of the cumulative percentage retained on
the sieves of the standard test sieves. Fineness modulus (FM) = (Cum.
percent retained / 100)

Limit for Fineness Modulus

Fine aggregate: 2.3 - 3.0

Coarse aggregate: 5.5 - 8.0
Combined aggregate: 4.0 - 7.0

2.5 Particle Shape and Surface Texture of Aggregate

Aggregate has three dimensional of masses namely shape, size and surface
texture. Shape and surface texture are considered as external characteristic.

43
The shape and surface texture of fine aggregate govern its void content and
thus affect the water requirement of mix significantly. Crushing rock produces
angular particles with sharp corners. The corners of aggregates break down
due to weathering effect and creating sub-angular particles. When the
aggregate being transported in water, the corners become completely
rounded.

Aggregate particles which have sharp edges or rough surface such as crushed
stone used more water than smooth and rounded particles to produce
concrete of same workability. About 5 – 10% of water content can be reduced
by using rounded aggregate. However, the angular aggregates will be more
difficult for them to slide across each other.Besides, the interlocking between
aggregates particle, and stronger mortar bond, for crushed aggregate is higher
than smooth or rounded aggregate in concrete with same water cement ratio.
This increase in strength may be up to 38% for concrete having-cement ratio
below 0.4. Rough texture generally improves the bonding, inter-particle friction
but more difficult to compact into a dense configuration.

2.5.1 Particle Shape of Aggregate

The particle shapes of aggregate are round, irregular, angular, flaky,

elongated and rough.

a) Rounded
Full water-worn or completely shaped by attrition
or abrasion. E.g. river or sea shore gravel
b) Irregular
Naturally irregular or partly shaped by attrition and
having rounded edges. E.g. Other gravel land or dug
flint
c) Angular
Processing well defined edges formed at the

44
 Intersection or roughly planes faces. E.g. Crushed
rocks of all types
d) Flaky
A material of which the thickness is small relative
to other two dimensions. E.g. Laminated rock
e) Elongated
The aggregate is usually angular, is shape, and the
length is considerably larger than the other two
dimensions.
f) Flaky and Elongated
Material having the length which is considerably
larger than the width, and the width is considerably
larger than the thickness

2.5.2 Surface Texture of Aggregate

Surface texture is a measure of the smoothness or roughness of the

aggregate. The strength of the bond between aggregate and cement paste
depends upon the surface texture. The bond is the development of mechanical
anchorage and depends upon the surface roughness and surface porosity of
the aggregate. An aggregate with rough and porous texture may increase the
aggregate-cement bond up to 1.75 times, in which may increase the
compressive and flexural strength of concrete up to 20%.

The surface pores help in the development of good bond on account of suction
of paste into these pores. Aggregate with polished surface do not produce
such strong concrete compared to those with rough surface, The more angular
the aggregate, the more surface area it will produce, thus, result in greater
bonding.

45
Activities

1. Define the following types of rock.

i. Igneous rock
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
ii. Metamorphic rock
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
iii. Sedimentary rock
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

2. Calculate the porosity of the coarse aggregates if the water absorption

is 4.5% and the specific gravity of the aggregates is 2.92.

3. Calculate the void content of a sample of aggregate based on the given

data:
Specific gravity, SG = 2.63
Density of water, W = 1000kg/m3
Bulk density of aggregates, B = 1528kg/m3

46
4. Sieve analysis results for aggregate sample is as follows:
Sieve size
Retained mass (kg)
(mm)
25 0
19 350.6
12.5 1370.5
9.5 2162.4
4.75 1546.7
2.36 368.8
1.18 120.5
pan 80.5
Total 6000

Plot the grain size distribution curve and classify the aggregate.

47
REFERENCES

1. P. Kumar Mehta, P. J. M. Monteiro. Concrete: Microstructure,

Properties, and Materials, 4th Edition. McGraw-Hill Education. 2014.
(ISBN: 9780071797870)
2. T. W. Marotta, Basic Construction Materials. Seventh. Edition,Prentice
Hall, 2005. (TA403 .M37 2005)
3. S. Somayaji, Civil Engineering Materials. Third Edition, Prentice Halll,
2005. (TA403 .S66 2001 N1)
4. Hegger et al. Construction Materials Manual. Basel: Birkhauser, 2006.
(TA402.5.G3 .C66 2006)
5. K. W. Day. Concrete mix design, quality control and specification. Third
Edition, London: Taylor & Francis, 2006. (TA439 .D39 2006)

48