CEMENT

WHAT is CEMENT

A cement is a binder, a chemical substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and adheres to
other materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used on its own, but rather to bind sand and
gravel (aggregate) together.

HISTORY OF CEMENT

Hydraulic cements have their roots in classical Greece and Rome. The components were lime and a
volcanic ash, which together with water slowly reacted to produce a solid mass. This served as the
cementing substance for the more than 2,000-year-old Roman mortars and concretes as well as later
construction projects in western Europe. Aluminosilicate minerals were particularly abundant in volcanic
ash that was mined close to the present-day Italian city of Pozzuoli, which gave rise to the traditional
pozzolana cement of the Roman era. Pozzolana, or pozzolan, is still used to describe cement or any
finely divided aluminosilicate that interacts with lime in water to create cement. (Cement, meanwhile,
gets its name from the Latin word caementum, which meant stone chippings such as were used in
Roman mortar—not the binding material itself.)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

The physical characteristics of various cement mixtures used in construction are distinguishing features.
The quality of cement is governed by a few important factors. Good cement's physical characteristics are
dependent on:

•Fineness of cement

•Soundness

•Consistency

•Strength

•Setting time

•Heat of hydration

•Loss of ignition

•Bulk density

•Specific gravity (Relative density)

Fineness of Cement

The fineness of cement is determined by the cement's particle size. In the final step of the cement
production process, the clinker is ground to the requisite fineness for excellent cement. The fineness of
cement is crucial because cement hydration rate and cement particle size are directly correlated.

Soundness of Cement

Soundness refers to the ability of cement to not shrink upon hardening. Good quality cement retains its
volume after setting without delayed expansion, which is caused by excessive free lime and magnesia.

Tests:

Unsoundness of cement may appear after several years, so tests for ensuring soundness must be able to
determine that potential.

~Le Chatelier Test

~Autoclave Test

~Standard autoclave test

Consistency of Cement

The ability of cement paste to flow is consistency.

It is measured by Vicat Test.

Strength of Cement

Three types of strength of cement are measured – compressive, tensile and flexural. Various factors
affect the strength, such as water-cement ratio, cement-fine aggregate ratio, curing conditions, size and
shape of a specimen, the manner of molding and mixing, loading conditions and age. While testing the
strength, the following should be considered:

Cement mortar strength and cement concrete strength are not directly related. Cement strength is
merely a quality control measure.

The tests of strength are performed on cement mortar mix, not on cement paste.

Cement gains strength over time, so the specific time of performing the test should be mentioned.

Compressive Strength

It is the most common strength test. A test specimen (50mm) is taken and subjected to a compressive
load until failure. The loading sequence must be within 20 seconds and 80 seconds.

Tensile strength

Though this test used to be common during the early years of cement production, now it does not offer
any useful information about the properties of cement.
Flexural strength

This is actually a measure of tensile strength in bending. The test is performed in a 40 x40 x 160 mm
cement mortar beam, which is loaded at its center point until failure.

Setting Time of Cement

Cement sets and hardens when water is added. This setting time can vary depending on multiple factors,
such as fineness of cement, cement-water ratio, chemical content, and admixtures. Cement used in
construction should have an initial setting time that is not too low and a final setting time not too high.
Hence, two setting times are measured:

Initial set: When the paste begins to stiffen noticeably (typically occurs within 30-45 minutes)

Final set: When the cement hardens, being able to sustain some load (occurs below 10 hours)

Heat of Hydration

When water is added to cement, the reaction that takes place is called hydration. Hydration generates
heat, which can affect the quality of the cement and also be beneficial in maintaining curing
temperature during cold weather. On the other hand, when heat generation is high, especially in large
structures, it may cause undesired stress. The heat of hydration is affected most by C3S and C3A present
in cement, and also by water-cement ratio, fineness and curing temperature. The heat of hydration of
Portland cement is calculated by determining the difference between the dry and the partially hydrated
cement (obtained by comparing these at 7th and 28th days).

Loss of Ignition

Heating a cement sample at 900 - 1000°C (that is, until a constant weight is obtained) causes weight
loss. This loss of weight upon heating is calculated as loss of ignition. Improper and prolonged storage or
adulteration during transport or transfer may lead to pre-hydration and carbonation, both of which
might be indicated by increased loss of ignition.

Bulk density

When cement is mixed with water, the water replaces areas where there would normally be air.
Because of that, the bulk density of cement is not very important. Cement has a varying range of density
depending on the cement composition percentage. The density of cement may be anywhere from 62 to
78 pounds per cubic foot.

Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

Specific gravity is generally used in mixture proportioning calculations. Portland cement has a specific
gravity of 3.15, but other types of cement (for example, portland-blast-furnace-slag and portland-
pozzolan cement) may have specific gravities of about 2.90.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT

The raw materials for cement production are limestone (calcium), sand or clay (silicon), bauxite
(aluminum) and iron ore, and may include shells, chalk, marl, shale, clay, blast furnace slag, slate.
Chemical analysis of cement raw materials provides insight into the chemical properties of cement

Tricalcium aluminate (C3A)

Low content of C3A makes the cement sulfate-resistant. Gypsum reduces the hydration of C3A, which
liberates a lot of heat in the early stages of hydration. C3A does not provide any more than a little
amount of strength.

Type I cement: contains up to 3.5% SO3 (in cement having more than 8% C3A)

Type II cement: contains up to 3% SO3 (in cement having less than 8% C3A)

Tricalcium silicate (C3S)

C3S causes rapid hydration as well as hardening and is responsible for the cement’s early strength gain
an initial setting.

Dicalcium silicate (C2S)

As opposed to tricalcium silicate, which helps early strength gain, dicalcium silicate in cement helps the
strength gain after one week.

Ferrite (C4AF)

Ferrite is a fluxing agent. It reduces the melting temperature of the raw materials in the kiln from
3,000°F to 2,600°F. Though it hydrates rapidly, it does not contribute much to the strength of the
cement.

Magnesia (MgO)

The manufacturing process of Portland cement uses magnesia as a raw material in dry process plants.
An excess amount of magnesia may make the cement unsound and expansive, but a little amount of it
can add strength to the cement. Production of MgO-based cement also causes less CO2 emission. All
cement is limited to a content of 6% MgO.

Sulphur trioxide

Sulfur trioxide in excess amount can make cement unsound.

Iron oxide/ Ferric oxide

Aside from adding strength and hardness, iron oxide or ferric oxide is mainly responsible for the color of
the cement.
Alkalis

The amounts of potassium oxide (K2O) and sodium oxide (Na2O) determine the alkali content of the
cement. Cement containing large amounts of alkali can cause some difficulty in regulating the setting
time of cement. Low alkali cement, when used with calcium chloride in concrete, can cause
discoloration. In slag-lime cement, ground granulated blast furnace slag is not hydraulic on its own but is
"activated" by addition of alkalis. There is an optional limit in total alkali content of 0.60%, calculated by
the equation Na2O + 0.658 K2O.

Free lime

Free lime, which is sometimes present in cement, may cause expansion.

Silica fumes

Silica fume is added to cement concrete in order to improve a variety of properties, especially
compressive strength, abrasion resistance and bond strength. Though setting time is prolonged by the
addition of silica fume, it can grant exceptionally high strength. Hence, Portland cement containing 5-
20% silica fume is usually produced for Portland cement projects that require high strength.

Alumina

Cement containing high alumina has the ability to withstand frigid temperatures since alumina is
chemical-resistant. It also quickens the setting but weakens the cement.

TYPES OF CEMENT

1. Hydraulic Cement

2. Non - Hydraulic Cement

Other types of Cement:

1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

3. Rapid Hardening Cement

4. Quick setting cement

5. Low Heat Cement

6. Sulphates resisting Cement

7. Blast Furnace Cement

8. High Alumina Cement

9. White Portland Cement

10. Colored Cement

11. Air - Entraining Cement

12. Expansive Cement

13. Hydrophobic Cement

USES OF CEMENT in CONSTRUCTION

The uses of cement in construction discussed are here:

01. Cement is used in R.C.C (Reinforced Cement Concrete)

02. Cement slurry is used for filling cracks in concrete structures

03. Cement mortar is used for masonary work,plastering,pointing,flooring etc.

04. For manufacturing cement piper,garden seats,dust bins, flower pots etc

05. It is useful for the construction of roads, footpaths.

06. It is used in concrete for laying floors,roofs and constructing lintels,beams ,stairs,pillars,column etc.

07. It is used where hard surface is required to protect exposed surfaces of structures against the
destructive agents of the weather and certain organic or inorganic chemicals

08. It is used for pile ,fencing posts,electric poles.

09. It is used in the preparation of foundations, water tight floors, footpaths, courts for various sports
etc.

HOW DOES CEMENT FAIL AND SUCCEED?

Although concrete is one of the most durable man-made materials, it is not without flaws.

Concrete failure can be caused by exposure to harsh weather, reactivity with common elements, and
faulty construction.

1. Steel reinforcement corrosion is most likely the most frequent type of deterioration in cold
temperatures. The deterioration happens because the by-product of this electrochemical process (rust)
takes up many times the volume of the original uncorroded steel. The resulting pressure inside the
concrete will cause cracking and significant deterioration of the structure over time.

a. Fortunately, there are numerous methods for protecting steel reinforcement from corrosion. First,
ensure that at least 1 ½ to 2 inches of concrete cover the reinforcement. Create a highly impermeable
concrete mix by utilizing a mix with a low water-to-cement ratio (usually no more than 0.40), "so that
the chlorides or carbonation take longer to reach the steel."

2. Sulfate attack occurs when concrete is exposed to water with a high concentration of dissolved
sulfates. Physical sulfate attack occurs when sulfate-containing water enters the surface of the concrete,
crystallizes, and expands, breaking the hardened concrete; and chemical sulfate attack occurs when
sulfate salts react with the portland cement paste, causing it to disintegrate, soften, and erode. Internal
sulfate attack is another type of sulfate attack that occurs mostly in precast concrete and has been
linked to high curing temperatures or cement chemistry.

a. To reduce the risk of sulfate attack, assess the sulfate content of the soil or water that will come into
contact with the concrete and specify a resistant concrete mixture using the published criteria. Limit the
water/cement ratio to 0.45 for structures with significant sulfate exposure, demand a minimum
compressive strength of 4,500 psi, and utilize Type V cement or Type V cement in combination with
other cementitious materials such as slag or fly ash.

3. Finish-related delamination can develop when water or air becomes trapped and accumulates just
beneath the concrete's surface. Water accumulation raises the local water-to-cement ratio, lowering
concrete strength in that location. Furthermore, the finishing process might elongate and connect air
bubbles, resulting in a weakened horizontal plane in that location. Trapped water/air and elongation of
air voids typically occur when finishers apply a finish to the slab before all the bleed water can reach the
surface. It can also occur when the ambient conditions of temperature, wind, and humidity result in a
high evaporation rate for the bleed water, which causes premature drying and stiffening of the near-
surface layer and traps bleed water and air below the surface.

a. Building Teams recommends specifying an air content of no more than 3% for slabs having a trowel
finish and testing the fresh concrete to ensure the maximum air content is not exceeded. Contractors
should also avoid finishing the concrete slab prematurely if the ambient conditions do not allow for
rapid evaporation of bleed water.
FIELD TEST OF CEMENT

It is often necessary to undertake cement quality tests at a site in a relatively short amount of time in
order to evaluate the condition of the provided cement. Most of the time, it is not possible to conduct a
laboratory test in a timely manner. As a result, certain basic field tests are used to accomplish the quality
check. Although these tests are not very accurate, they do provide the civil engineer with a general
notion of the cement's quality.

Field tests of cement:

1. Date of Manufacturing

The date of manufacturing bags should be checked to ensure the strength of the cement.

2. Cement color

The color of the cement is a consistent, gray color with hints of light greenish shadows.

3. Whether hard lumps are formed

A consistent type of cement does not have and is free from hard lumps. These lumps are caused by the
moisture from the atmosphere.

4. The temperature inside the cement bag

The temperature inside the cement bag should be cool, when you touch it with your hands, and should
not be warm. A warm temperature means the hydration reaction takes place.

5. Smoothness test

When cement is touched or poured, it should give a smooth feeling and appearance. If it felt rough, that
means the cement is mixed with a poorer quality of cement or sand.

6. Water sinking test

If the cement is thrown in the water, it should float for some time before it starts sinking.

7. The smell of cement paste

A paste of cement should feel sticky. It will give an earthy smell when it’s mixed with too much-pounded
sand and silt.

8. Glass plate test

A thick paste of cement is made on top of a glass plate, after 24 hours, it should set and not crack.

9. Block test

A cement block of 25mm x 25mm x 200mm (1"1"8") is created with water. After that, the block is
immersed in water for three days. After removal, it is supported 150mm apart and a weight of 15kg is
evenly distributed over it. The cement is good if it exhibits no signs of failure.