CIVL 1100

Discovering Civil and Environmental Engineering

2.1 Basic Ideas in Statics (靜力學):

forces, moments, and equilibrium
2.1.1 Free bodies
A structure is designed to take loads.
It can deform but must stay in “static” equilibrium
 Basic Structural Analysis

• In this example, the woman lies on the mattress, and the mattress
rests on the ground
• Another point of view: The woman is supported by the mattress,
and the mattress is supported by the ground
• “Action and reaction” concept

 It is clearer to consider one object at a time  “Free body”

 The woman is a free body and we can consider its (her) equilibrium or
non-equilibrium under the actions of forces (loads) from other bodies
 We can also take the mattress as a free body
 Basic Structural Analysis

• Take the mattress as our free body

• It is exerted a force (load) from above by the woman
• It is also exerted a reaction from below by the ground

 These two forces are “external” forces to our free body

 The combined action of the two forces is to compress the mattress
 To withstand this action, the mattress develops “internal” forces by
deforming (strain and stress)
2.1.2 Forces and Deformation
(1) External and internal forces (外力與內力)

External force
• A given object (free body) is subjected to a force exerted by a
different object.

Internal force
• One part of a given object is subjected to a force by another part
of the same object
• Often arises from deformation of object
(1) External and internal forces (外力與內力)

External force
• A given object (free body) is subjected to a force exerted by a
different object.

Internal force
• One part of a given object is subjected to a force by another part
of the same object
• Often arises from deformation of object
External and internal forces (cont’d)

1) Table top as our free body:

• External forces are weight of the box/girl, and
reactions from the four legs
• Internal forces  ?

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External and internal forces (cont’d)

2) One leg of table as our free body:

• External forces are load transmitted by the
table top, and reaction from the ground
• Internal forces  from compression
(shortening ) of the leg

3) Whole table as our free body:

• External forces are weight of box, and
reactions from the ground at bottom of 4
legs
• Internal forces  deformation of table
External and internal forces (cont’d)

Main types of “forces”

• Tension (pull) In-line force acting along
• Compression (push) axial direction of a structure
• Torsion (twist)
• Shear (cut/tear)
• Bending

 “Forces” = Load action

(2) Tension and compression

Compression

• Tendency to crush a material by squeezing it together (a

pair of forces involved; both pushing into the object)
• When an object is pushed but not allowed to move,
compression develops inside

(free to move)

force movement

(movement restricted)
compression
inside
force reaction
Tension and compression (cont’d)

Compression

• Elastic deformation of material  shortening /

bulging
• Object will return to its original length & shape
when the compression is removed

Force Force (say, reaction

Length of from wall)
structure:
L  LL
 Tension and compression (cont’d)

Structures in Compression

Igloo (snowhouse)
Arch bridge

Elevated
water tank
Tension and compression (cont’d)

Tension
• Stretching an object by pulling its ends apart (a pair of
forces involved; both pulling away from object)
• An object being pulled but not allowed to move: tension
develops inside (otherwise: no tension but movement
results)

(free to move)
force
movement
(movement tension inside
restricted)

reaction force
Tension and compression (cont’d)

Tension
• Elastic deformation of material  Elongation / necking
• Object will return to its original length & shape once the tension
force is removed

Tensile force Tensile force

Length of structure:
L  L+L

 Tension usually exists in ropes, cables and ties

Tension and compression (cont’d)

Structures in Tension

A swing Hanging columns

Tension and compression (cont’d)

Example
• Two stationary blocks of weights 2 kN and 3 kN, respectively, are
suspended by cables. Determine the tensions (拉力) in the two
cables AB and CD.

W1 = 2 kN

W2 = 3 kN
Tension and compression (cont’d)
W

Solution: W is an external force; TAB and TCD internal forces.

W

TCD

TAB W1

W2 W2
1. Isolate the lower block and 2. Treat two blocks and cable
part of cable AB: AB as a single object:
TAB = W2 = 3 kN TCD = W1 + W2 = 5 kN
 (3) Spring force (彈簧力)

A coil spring is a good example of structure with tension / compression

• Consider a coil spring of

unstretched length L0, when
both ends are free.

• When compressed by a force F,

the spring is shortened to L < L0
• The spring then develops a force
(reaction) to push onto the
external object with F (opposite
in direction)

 The external object exerts an equal

and opposite compression force (壓力) Spring as a
F on the spring
free body
 Spring force (cont’d)

Coil spring of unstretched

length L0

• When stretched, L > L0, the

spring pulls on the object
with a force F.
 The object exerts an equal
and opposite tension force
F on spring.

Always assign the tensile force (拉力) direction

pointing outwards from the spring (or
member in tension).
 Spring force (cont’d)

• Coil springs exert a force which is approximately proportional to the

change in length:
F = k (L – Lo)
or simply expressed by Hooke’s Law,
F = kx
where x is the deformation of spring (m);
k is the spring constant or stiffness (N/m).

• When x << Lo, which is the case of small deformation, the force is a
linear function of change in length: linear spring.
(4) Stress and strain

Similar to a coil spring, a slender structural member will

• be elongated (with possible necking) when subjected to tension forces
• be shortened (with possible bulging) when subjected to compression

• Shortening of table leg is small, of order of mm

• Shortening (thinning) of mattress can be very noticeable
We say: Table leg is stronger, harder, more rigid
Mattress is weaker, softer, more flexible
(4) Stress and strain

But
• Strength of an object is not measured by how much the deformation
(elongation or shortening) alone.
• The original length (or thickness) of the object also matters

So is not the force alone, but also the size of the object the force acts on

Consider: a shorter mattress or a thicker mattress (same woman)

Stress and stain (cont’d)

Stress (σ) = force acting per unit area

• Divide the force F into the (original) cross-sectional
area (A0) on which it acts: 𝐹
𝜎=
𝐴0 A0
Strain (e) = elongation per unit length
• Divide the elongation (L) into the (original) length (L0):
∆𝐿
𝜀=
𝐿0

Modulus of Elasticity (E) / Young’s Modulus

• Within the elastic limit, stress is 𝜎
proportional to strain 𝐸=
𝜀
• The proportionality constant (E) is an
inherent property of a given material
 Stress and stain (cont’d)

Example
• A 10 kN force is applied to a circular rod with diameter 10 mm.
The stress in the rod is:
𝜎 = 10 × 103 N ൗ(𝜋4×(10×10−3 m)2 )) A0
= 127,388,535 N/m2  127 MN/m2

• The rod is originally 2 m long and made of steel. What is

the change in its length? Take E = 200 GN/m2.

𝜎 𝜎 127 × 106 N/m2 −3

𝐸= → 𝜀= = = 0.635 × 10
𝜀 𝐸 200 × 109 N/m2

∆𝐿
𝜀= → ∆𝐿 = 2 m × 0.635 × 10−3 = 1.27 mm
𝐿0

Think: How about if the rod is 1 m long originally?

2.1.3 Moments and other Load Actions
(1) Moment (力矩)

Description of the Moment

(a) Consider a force of magnitude F and a point P on a 2-D plane.

(b) The force tends to cause counter-clockwise rotation about point P :
moment of the force
(c) The direction of this moment is counter-clockwise.
 Moment (cont’d)

• Moment of the force F about point P,

Mp = F × D (N-m)
where D is the perpendicular distance
from P to the line of action of the
force.

 Direction of moment
Positive (+): counter-clockwise
Negative (–): clockwise
 Note: A pivot is not physically need
when considering moments
Moment (cont’d)

 Consider the construction crane.

• The weight of the load (on the left) produces a counter-clockwise moment
about the pivot.
• The moment, of magnitude W1D1, acts to turn the crane counter-clockwise

• The counter-weight (on the right) exerts a

clockwise-acting moment of magnitude W2D2
Moment (cont’d)

 Consider the construction crane.

• Summation of the moments about point P by loads W1 and W2 is

෍ 𝑀𝑝 = 𝑊1 𝐷1 − 𝑊2 𝐷2

• To lift a load of varying weight, the distance D2 is adjusted so that

W1D1 = W2D2. The total moment is zero; hence the crane would
not overturn.
Moment (cont’d)

• If a force is expressed in terms of components, the moment of the

force about a point P is equal to the sum of the moments of its
components about P.

Example: Four forces act on the machine part.

What is the sum of the moments of these forces about the origin O?

 To find the moment

produced by the 4 kN
force about O, it may be
? hard to find the
perpendicular distance..
Moment (cont’d)

Solution:
Resolving the 4-kN force into its x-component and y-component.

Hence, M  F D i i

 (3)(0)  ( 2)(300)  (5)(0)  ( 4 cos30 )(300)  (4sin 30 )(700)

 239 kN-mm  239 N-m
(2) Load actions

Main types of load actions on a civil engineering structure

• Tension (pull)
• Compression (push)
• Bending
• Torsion (twist)
• Shear (cut/tear)
 Load actions (cont’d)
Bending F
Object will rotate if it has a For a structure with fixed
pinned end (e.g. door with end  cannot rotate
hinge)
F
F

D
D

M
• “Bending moment”: M = F x D (in kN-m)
Pinned end (free to rotate) (relative to base support)
• Bending stresses occur if fixed end
 Load actions (cont’d)

Deformation by bending
• When bent like these, compression
occurs on one side and tension on
other side of object

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compression

tension

pin roller
fixed end
Load actions (cont’d)

Structures in Bending

“Cantilever structures”: only supported on one end

“Simply supported beams”

Load actions (cont’d)

Torsion

Free to rotate
if unrestrained
T = Torsion force at other end

T
If refrained from
rotation at other
T end, torsion
develops in the
object
Load actions (cont’d)

Deformation by torsion:
• Rotation (twist)

• Object will return to its original shape when torsion forces are removed
 Load actions (cont’d)

Structures in torsion

Drill pipes

Tall buildings

Power transmission shafts

Load actions (cont’d)

Shear
• Created by opposite forces not acting on the same line

Force

• Usually caused by shear forces acting on surface of an object

Shear damage of road

surface due to braking of
heavy vehicles or fast
running rain water
2.1.5 Supports and Reactions (支座與反力)
Supports
Supports and reactions

• Supports: Devices to hold the object concerned in place

Support types: Roller, Pinned, Fixed
Supports and reactions

• Supports: Devices to hold the object concerned in place

Support types: Roller, Pinned, Fixed

(a) (b) (c)

Supports and reactions (cont’d)

• Reaction: Forces and moments exerted on an object by its supports.

Support reactions (Friction is normally neglected):

1. Roller support: One force component. The reaction force is

perpendicular to the support surface.

Ry Ry
Supports and reactions (cont’d)

2. Pinned support: Two reaction force components in x and y

directions. The resultant force could point to any direction.

Rx Rx

Ry Ry
Supports and reactions (cont’d)

3. Fixed support: Three reaction force components in x and y

directions and a moment.

Rx

Rx
Ry M
Ry
Supports and reactions (cont’d)

• Summary:
Supports and reactions

• Supports in civil structures

2.1.6 Static Equilibrium Principle of Rigid Bodies
(剛體靜力平衡原理)
The static equilibrium principle

• When the loads and reactions on an object in equilibrium form a

two-dimensional system of forces and moments, they are related
by three equilibrium equations:

෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 0, ෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 0, ෍ 𝑀any point = 0

• At most 3 unknown forces and moments from a 2-D free-body

diagram can be solved.
 Static equilibrium principles (cont’d)

Three equilibrium equations (平衡方程式) in a 2D free-body diagram

• Example: A beam, supported by a pin and a roller, is acted upon by two
external forces and an external moment (applied by some external bodies – no
need to know what or who):

A B

x1 F1
M1 Note:
RA,x F2 F1, F2, and M1 are
A L B external loads, acted
RA,y RB,y upon the beam by some
external bodies; while
 F  F  R  0
x 2 A, x
the reactions are
produced by the supports
 F  F  R  R
y 1 A, y B, y 0 (also external to the
M  M  F x  R
A 1 1 1 B, y L0 beam)
2.2.4 Forces and Moments of
a Two‐dimensional System
 (1) Example 1: Spring-mass system

The two linear springs are identical, with unstretched lengths 250
mm. Suppose that their spring constant k is unknown and the sum of
the masses of blocks A and B is 10 kg. Take g = 10 m/s2. Determine the
value of k and the masses of the two blocks.

Solution:
Critical thinking –
Spring 1
• 3 unknowns: k, mA and mB
• There are 3 equilibrium equations, among
which only Fy = 0 can only be used.
Spring 2 • 2 objects (blocks A and B) give 2 equations
• Given (mA + mB) = 10 kg, which gives 3rd
equation
Example 1: Spring-mass system (cont’d)

(a) Analyse external forces for different blocks separately.

Deformations of Spring 1 and Spring 2 are
Spring
x1 = 0.3 – 0.25 = 0.05 m 1
x2 = 0.28 – 0.25 = 0.03 m

Free bodies of masses A and B: Spring 2

Spring force, kx2 Spring force, kx1

B A

Weight, mAg
Weight, mBg Spring force, kx2
 Example 1: Spring-mass system (cont’d)

(b) Determine value of k and masses of the two blocks.

For Block A: Spring force, kx1 Spring

1
Fy = 0 ;
kx1 - kx2 – mAg = 0, or
kx1 - kx2 – (10 – mB)g = 0 A
Spring 2
 mB = 10 – (kx1 - kx2)/g Weight, mAg
= 10 – (0.05 – 0.02)k/10
Spring force, kx2
= 10 – 0.002k

For Block B: Spring force, kx2

Fy = 0 ;
kx2 – mBg = 0
B
 mB = kx2/g
= 0.03k/10 = 0.003k
Weight, mBg
Example 1: Spring-mass system (cont’d)

Hence,
mB = 10 – 0.002k = 0.003k Spring
1
Then
k = 10/(0.003 + 0.002)
Spring 2
= 2000 N/m
and
mB = 0.003k
= 0.003  2000 = 6 kg
mA = 10 – 6
= 4 kg
 (3) Example 2: General structure

Refer to the structure on the left (with

two applied loads).
Support A is a pin support and support E
is a roller support.
1) Draw the free-body diagram (FBD) of
the structure.
2) Determine the reactions at A and E.
Solution:
(1) Draw the FBD: by isolating the structure from
its supports at A and E.
• Support A is a pin support: two force
components in x and y directions , Ax and Ay .
• Support E is a roller support: a force normal
to the supporting surface, Ey .
 Example 2: General structure (cont’d)

(2) Determine the reactions at A and E.

Critical thinking - 3 unknowns: Ax, Ay and Ey .
Use the 3 equilibrium conditions to solve 3 unknowns.

Taking moment about point A (apply moment equilibrium equation first),

hence Ey = 625 kN ()

M A  (100)(1)  ( 400)(6)  E y (4)  ( 200)  0

hence Ax = ̶ 100 kN ()

F x  Ax  100  0

hence Ay = ̶ 225 kN ()

F y  Ay  E y  400  0
(4) Summary

 Three common types of support and their reactions

• Roller support – Reaction: one force component perpendicular
to the support surface.
• Pin support – Reaction: two force components in x and y
directions. The resultant force could point to any direction.
• Fixed (or built-in/clamped) support – three force components
in x and y directions and a moment.

 Static equilibrium principle of a 2-D structural system

 three equilibrium equations are
Fx = 0, Fy = 0, Many point = 0

 Moment has a unit of N-m or kN-m.

Time for Quiz

The cantilever beam is in static equilibrium. The length of the

beam is L. Which description is correct?
1. The beam is unstable.
2. The support moment at Y is in clockwise direction.
3. The horizontal reaction force at Y is 40 kN in magnitude.
4. The vertical reaction force at Y is 30 kN in magnitude
2.1 Basic Ideas in Statics (靜力學):
forces, moments, and equilibrium

THE END