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Bridging the Gap

Chapter · August 2019

DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-7820-1_2

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Gregory H. P. Roos
Murdoch University
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Chapter 2
Bridging the Gap

Abstract Although English has become the lingua franca of science, the degree of
access and proficiency varies greatly among individuals and nations. This is one of
the downsides of a global language. It may be a few decades before equal access
becomes routine.(1) Meanwhile, language bias prevents many scientists in the world
from fully accessing scientific knowledge. This chapter discusses the issues facing L2
readers and how we can help bridge the gap between L2 readers’ proficiency in
English and their access to scientific knowledge.

2.1 English Proficiency Levels

2.2 From ABC . . . to EMI
2.3 Proficiency Levels and Standardized English Testing
2.4 Sourcing Suitable Materials
2.5 Materials Fit for Purpose

2.1 English Proficiency Levels

An individual’s English proficiency level depends on the following factors.

• Amount of Exposure to the Language. Language instruction in schools ranges
from a few hours a week to full-time immersion. Learners in English-speaking
environments are more likely to learn more and faster, especially if they limit
contact with others who speak their native language. Those who learn English in
their home countries tend to progress more slowly, even if they are in full-time
English programs. They inevitably interact with their co-learners in their native
language, and generally do not use English outside the classroom.
• Aptitude. Some learners have an innate ability to acquire languages more easily
than others. Intelligence and language aptitude are not necessarily related. Thus,
learners may be brilliant scientists but struggle to learn a second language.
• Level of Literacy in the Native Language. Learners who have a solid literacy
background in their native language are more likely to do well at learning a
second language.
• Motivation. The degree to which learners acquire a second language may depend
on external and internal motivational factors. External motivation might be the
degree to which learning another language is critical to one’s future. Internal
motivation relates to a learner’s attitude, confidence and amount of effort
applied.

An individual’s access to opportunities that promote English proficiency generally

depends on the educational policies of their nation—and the nation’s ability to pay
for them. Annual reports show that English proficiency is highest in European
countries and richer Asian countries. For example, Singapore currently lies fifth in
the top eight highest proficiency countries. Some other Asian as well as Latin
American countries are starting to move into the higher skill ranges. Malaysia (13th)
and the Philippines (15th) are well placed in the next highest proficiency band.
Argentina (25th) and the Dominican Republic (26th) are the highest ranked Latin
American countries.(1) Although global trends indicate that access and proficiency are
improving overall, some countries still lag behind. Some major global economic
players are still lagging, include India (27th), South Korea (30th), China (36th), Japan
(37th), Russia (38th) and Taiwan (40th).(1)

2.2 From ABC . . . to EMI

There are many possible pathways to English proficiency, depending on the

opportunities available. English language education may be provided as:
• a subject in primary and secondary school in which all other subjects are taught
in the native language.
• the medium of instruction in primary and/or secondary school.
• one of two languages of instruction in a bilingual program, along with the native
language in primary and/or secondary school.
• a subject in tertiary institutions, as a credit or non-credit option.
• a part-time or full-time course in dedicated private or public language schools.
• a full-time college or university preparatory program, usually one to two
academic years in duration (also known as bridging or intensive English
programs).
• part of a preparatory program, alongside other skills such as mathematics and
study skills.
• on-going individual support in workshops, tutorials, and drop-in centres.
• part of a migration settlement program.
• on-line courses.

2.3 Proficiency Levels and Standardized English Testing

Most English-medium educational institutions require a certain proficiency of English

as measured by a standardized test such as the TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign
Language) or the IELTS (International English Language Testing System). Some
institutions administer their own standardized tests. These tests provide scores that
range from non-user to expert user.(2) Table 1.1 shows the IELTS and TOEFL scores
that correspond to this range of users.

Table 2.1 IELTS and TOEFL English proficiency equivalencies

 IELTS Description IELTS Score TOEFL Internet- TOEFL Paper-Based
Based Test Score Test Score
Expert User 9 118-120 ≥ 645
8.5 115-117 626-644
Very Good User
8 110-114 610-625
7.5 102-109 581-609
Good User
7 94-101 560-580
6.5 79-93 546-559
Competent User
6 60-78 530-545
5.5 42-59 516-529
Modest User
5 35-41 490-515
Limited User 0-4 32-34 450-489
Extremely Limited/
Intermittent/Non- 0-4 0-31 400-449
User

Some students with excellent English skills can go directly into their programs once
they have met the normal entrance requirements. However, many must first
improve their English skills. Many institutions, whether in English- or non-English-
speaking countries, accept students on a provisional basis and provide preparatory
English courses to help them increase their English language skills. In addition, some
provide optional or required English courses to provide language support throughout
the degree program.

Each institution requires a minimum score on the standardized English test. This is
usually somewhere in the range of “modest” to “good user”. But the specific
requirement of a program or institution is based more on supply and demand than
on any actual linguistic considerations. In the case of EMIs, local conditions and
government policy often influence the requirement. Expediency is also a major
factor.

As a result, students who meet the minimum language requirement are not
necessarily ready for the linguistic challenges of lectures, textbooks and assessments
in English. A “modest” to “good” user simply does not have the language skills of a
native English speaker counterpart. However, it is a common misconception—among
educators as well as students themselves—that achieving the required minimum
score suddenly allows a student to function as a native English speaker. It does not.
Individual motivation may compensate for lack of native speaker competence, but
not always.

Students at EMI institutions in their own countries face additional problems attaining
and maintaining their proficiency in English. Despite being in an English educational
environment, they are still surrounded by their own language. Their classmates and
sometimes even their instructors speak their native language, making it all too easy
to avoid advancing the linguistic skills they need to handle their course material that
is in English.

2.4 Sourcing Suitable Materials

EMI institutions worldwide want the best educational materials for their programs in
order to keep their graduates relevant on the international stage. The majority of
these materials are produced in the United Kingdom and the United States, primarily
with their own markets in mind. Publishers do produce ‘International’ editions, but
these do not have significantly altered content. Usually they are simply more cost-
effective editions so as to boost sales.

EMI institutions worldwide often choose textbooks and other educational materials
because they are widely used in prestigious British or American academic
institutions. However, many of these materials fall very short of meeting the needs
of global L2 English readers.

As a result, many students struggle to cope with such educational materials, even if
they have met the language requirements of the institution. Many become
overwhelmed by the assigned readings in standard textbooks. They become
discouraged, avoid the assignments and end up performing poorly in their courses
even though they may be perfectly able to handle the material intellectually.

In EMI institutions in non-English-speaking countries, instructors recognize this

problem and try to bridge the gap by producing study notes for students. Instructors
who can speak the students’ native language often end up supplementing the
materials with explanations in their own language. Both stop-gap solutions hinder
any further development of students’ English proficiency skills. This, in turn, hinders
their ability to further pursue their science studies in English.

Another problem arises for students who have previously studied science in their
own language and are now in EMI courses. They may have the background science
knowledge for a course, but not the English vocabulary. This presents an enormous
challenge, especially since the on-going exponential growth of science specializations
spawns ever-expanding lists of specialized terminology. Since most undergraduate
science students take a range of introductory science disciplines, preparatory English
courses simply cannot adequately prepare students to handle this expanding
universe of vocabulary.(3, 4)
In addition to the essential technical vocabulary, current educational materials
generally use an unnecessarily large vocabulary. Limited studies indicate that
students from preparatory English programs generally acquire a vocabulary of 3,750
to 4,500 words.(5) Native English speakers have an estimated vocabulary of 15,000 to
17,000 words.(6)

2.5 Materials Fit for Purpose

An increasingly globalized world needs more accessible materials, especially in the

increasingly globalized fields of science. EMI institutions around the world need high-
quality educational materials that are accessible to L2 readers. But these materials
must be fit for purpose.

Materials must have improved readability, but without loss of scientific content.
Although current materials contain high-quality topic content, they often lack
accessibility to global readers. They contain unnecessarily complex language,
distracting features and culturally biased information.

International editions of scientific materials must not—and need not—compromise

content to be accessible. For example, materials can retain subject-specific technical
words, but contain a restricted general vocabulary. This combination of vocabulary,
when used with simple and consistent grammatical structures, goes a long way
toward making material accessible and readable.(7)

REFERENCES

1. First, E. EF English Proficiency Index. 2017 [cited 2018; Available from: www.ef.com/epi.

2. ETS, Linking TOEFL iBT Scores to IELTS Scores - A Research Report, 2010. p. 1-17.

3. Ruiz-Garrido, M.F., J.C. Palmer-Silveira, and I. Fortanet-Gomez, eds. English for Professional
and Academic Purposes. Utrecht Studies in Language and Communication, ed. W. Herrlitz
and P. van den Hoven. Vol. 22. 2010, Rodopi: Amsterdam. 237.

4. Castano, D.C., 2010, A Software/Design Method for Predicting Readability for ESL Students.
English Philology, Complutense University of Madrid, Masters, P.T. Caller.

5. Milton, J., The development of vocabulary breadth across the CEFR levels, in Communicative
Proficiency and Linguistic Development: Intersections between SLA and language testing
research, I. Bartning, M. Martin, and I. Vedder, Editors. 2010, European Second Language
Association. p. 211-232.

6. Nation, P. and R. Waring, Vocabulary size, text coverage and word lists, in Vocabulary:
Description, Acquisition and Pedagogy, N. Schmitt and M. McCarthy, Editors. 1997,
Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. p. 6-19.
 7. Roos, G.H.P. and C.L. Roos, Organic Chemistry Concepts: An EFL Approach 2015, Boston:
Academic Press.

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