COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY AND PETROLEUM STUDIES

REPORT FOR THE INDUSTRIAL FIELD ATTACHMENT (BPG 2301) WITH

TULLOW UGANDA OPERATIONS PTY (TUOP) LIMITED

(16th JUNE-12th AUGUST 2011)

BY: MULONDO DENIS

REG. NO. : 09/U/6652/PS

B.Sc. PETROLEUM GEOSCIENCE & PRODUCTION

This report is submitted to the Department of Geology and Petroleum Studies in partial fulfillment
for the award of Bachelor of Science Degree in Petroleum Geoscience and Production at Makerere
University.
 DECLARATION

I Mulondo Denis, the undersigned, do declare to the best of my knowledge that the information
presented in this report is my own and has not been presented before for any academic award at
any level, in any institution.

Signature Date

…………………………………………… ……………………………………

This report has been submitted for examination with my authority.

Supervising Lecturers:

Signature: ……………………

Date: …………………………

Dr. Ssemanda Immaculate

Signature: ……………………

Date: …………………………

Dr. Betty Nagudi

Field Supervisor:

Signature: ……………………

Date: …………………………

Mr. Johann Kisekulo

Sub-surface Engineer (Tullow Oil Plc)

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 DEDICATION

I dedicate this piece of work to my mum Ms Nakiyini Janet, my uncles Mr. Emmanuel Kagera and Mr.
Kyaligonza George (Hon.), my auntie Mrs. Margaret Kyaligonza, my dear lecturers, course mates and
friends for their great work towards my academic life; may god bless you all.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Let me take this opportunity to dearly thank the almighty God for the protection and wisdom he has
bathed me with enabling me climb this high in my academics.

I would also like to thank my guardian Mr. Emmanuel Kagera for tirelessly and continually supporting
me whenever I have needed thus keeping me afloat in my academics.

I’m also very grateful to the then General Manager Tullow Uganda Operations Pty (TUOP) Dr. Brian
Glover and the entire team for the golden opportunity they awarded me together with my
colleagues to train with them during the Internship; you were really very supportive and the
experience got threw a lot of light before us.

I would also like to extend my sincere thanks to my academic supervisors; Dr. Nagudi Betty and Dr.
Ssemanda Immaculate for sparing time and come supervise us in the unbearable conditions in Kaiso-
Tonya; our mapping area. Let me also use this opportunity to thank the entire Department of
Geology and Petroleum Studies, Makerere University for having recommended us to TUOP.

As appreciation can always go a long way, I won’t forget to appreciate the following persons for their
time, guidance and dedication towards our success in the field:

Mr. Johann Kisekulo (Sub-surface Engineer, TUOP) for the supervision work and for always
endeavoring to go through the weekly reports amidst your other company obligations.

Dr. Dozith Abeinomugisha and Mr. Nurudin (PEPD) for his time in trying to understand the faulting in
the Albertine graben.

Professor Martin Pickford; he was very helpful in explaining the formations, the volcanic tuff and the
fossils we encountered in our mapping area.

Mr. Nsubuga Arthur (Talents Advisor, TUOP) for his work on our travel and PPE.

Ms. Lillian Busingye (GIS Analyst, TUOP) for her time rendered in generating the maps.

Mr. Michael Agaba and Bwanika Jude for being our field trainers.

Mr. Fredrick Musisi and Mr. Innocent Osuna (FOS, TUOP) for the services they rendered the whole
time we shared with them in the field.

Mr. Michael Ssentongo, Mr. Charles Ofwono, Mr. Yusuf Kiggundu (IT) and Mr. Howard Ojok (Clark)
for the assistance rendered.

I lastly send my deepest gratitude to my fellow colleagues (interns) with whom I trained; Ms.
Malinga Merab Okui, Ms. Yapcheptoyek Josephine, Mr. Vuciri Isaac and Mr. Mugwano Patrick for
having persevered that enabled us complete this training successfully; thank you all.

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 ABSTRACT

Kaiso-Tonya area is located on the eastern side of Western arm of the East African Rift System, and
is bounded wholly by the transfer fault escarpment and partially by the normal fault escarpment. It
lies midway of Lake Albert in the Albertine graben, a full graben and tectonically active, and
stretches all the way to the escarpment.

The graben is an extensional basin formed when magma in form of convectional plumes from the
mantle forced its way into the brittle crust thus fracturing it; displacement occurred as the hanging
wall moved down normally relative to foot wall along the fractures; this formed a deep basin about
5Km deep in which the sediments were deposited. The transfer fault (trending N800E) formed when
the two synthetic normal faults which were simultaneously active sensed each other. There was also
a later compressional episode evidenced by the folding in the basement rocks at Kaiso-Tonya road
cut and in the sediments in Nkondo thus probably enhancing the trapping mechanism of the
hydrocarbons in this area.

Our study was mainly surface mapping which were to use to interpret what is in the sub-surface in
trying to establish the components that make up a complete petroleum system here that is; the
source rocks, the reservoir rocks, the cap rocks or seals, migration pathways and the traps and the
processes and environments of deposition that enabled the petroleum system.

The pre-rift sequence is well exposed on the rift flanks and the shoulders of the Albertine graben. It
is predominantly composed of high grade metamorphic and igneous rocks of pre-Cambrian age and
these include the gneisses, granitic gneisses, amphibolites, diorite gneisses and schist. It was
observed that these rocks suffered intense fracturing of more than one episode owing to the cross-
cutting of the fractures. The syn-rift sequence is composed of the sediments which include
sandstones, siltstones, clays, conglomerates, ironstones and volcanic tuffs that were showing a cyclic
sequence of deposition in some places prograding and retrograding in others brought about by the
prevailing climatic conditions, tectonism and subsidence affecting the sedimentation.

The main deposits are of fluvial and lacustrine (both shallow and deep) environments of deposition
which are products of weathering from the basement rocks of the escarpment. Sedimentation
produced the probable source rocks at Warwire which are dark grey clays, sands of fine to medium
size and well sorted and pebbly conglomerates in Sebagoro area as well as siltstones and clay with
gypsum in the Kaiso area.

The presence of the various oil seeps suggests the availability in place of migration pathways; the
seeping is probably occurring along the fractures.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................... iii
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................................. v

CHAPTER 1.................................................................................................................................. 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Main objective of the study ................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Preamble .............................................................................................................................. 1

CHAPTER 2.................................................................................................................................. 3
2.0 BACKGROUND ...................................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Company background .......................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Scope .................................................................................................................................... 5
2.4 Geological Setting ................................................................................................................ 6
2.4.1 Geological Setting of the Albertine graben ...................................................................... 6
2.4.2 Geological setting of Kaiso-Tonya..................................................................................... 9

CHAPTER 3................................................................................................................................ 10
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS ............................................................................................... 10
3.1 Methods/ Procedure .......................................................................................................... 10
3.2 Equipments ........................................................................................................................ 11
3.3 Geographical Information System (GIS) training ............................................................... 12

CHAPTER 4................................................................................................................................ 13
4.0 RESULTS.............................................................................................................................. 13
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 13

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4.2 Lithology and Structures of the Pre-rift sequence............................................................. 13
4.2.1 Pre-rift sequence............................................................................................................. 13
4.2.2 Structures in the pre-rift sequence/ the basement........................................................ 15
4.3 Lithology and Structures in the syn-rift sequence ............................................................. 20
4.3.1 Lithology.......................................................................................................................... 20
4.3.2 Structures in the syn-rift sequence/ sediments ............................................................. 21

CHAPTER 5................................................................................................................................ 29
5.0 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS ........................................................... 29
5.1 Topography and Drainage of Kaiso-Tonya area:................................................................ 29
5.2 Structural geology and tectonic setting of Kaiso-Tonya: ................................................... 30
5.3 Sedimentology and Stratigraphy: ...................................................................................... 32
5.4 Depositional history: .......................................................................................................... 34
5.5 The Petroleum System: ...................................................................................................... 35
5.5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 35
5.5.2 Surface indicators of the Petroleum system: ................................................................. 35
5.5.3 The Elements of the petroleum system.......................................................................... 36
5.5.3.1 The Source rocks: ......................................................................................................... 36
5.5.3.2 The Reservoir rocks: ..................................................................................................... 37
5.5.3.3 Trap .............................................................................................................................. 37
5.5.3.4 Cap rock/ Seal .............................................................................................................. 38
5.5.3.5 Migration pathways ..................................................................................................... 38

CHAPTER 6................................................................................................................................ 39
6.0 MERITS AND DEMERITS ..................................................................................................... 39
6.1 Merits ................................................................................................................................. 39
6.2 Demerits ............................................................................................................................. 39

CHAPTER 7................................................................................................................................ 40
7.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:....................................................................... 40
7.1 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 40
7.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 40

vi
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 41
APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................. 42
Appendix 1 ............................................................................................................................... 42
Appendix 2 ............................................................................................................................... 44

vii
 CHAPTER 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Industrial field attachment is a University programme offered to students in order to help them
professionalize in their line of studies. Through this attachment which is run during recess term,
students obtain their work experience. It is important as it enables us to apply directly the
knowledge obtained theoretically in lecture rooms to field problems thus acquiring more knowledge,
skills and experience in the field of Petroleum Geoscience, Operations Geology and holistic view of
the oil and gas industry in Uganda; it is purely a practical (hands-on) course.

I and my colleagues had such a golden opportunity to train with Tullow Oil Uganda, a company
carrying out exploration and production work in the Albertine graben in our country. We were sent
to Kaiso-Tonya, our mapping area with an objective of study.

This report is written in fulfillment of a Bachelor of Science in Petroleum Geoscience and Production
by Makerere University, College of Natural Sciences. Here in, I describe the form of training and
experience I acquired during the attachment.

1.2 Main objective of the study

The main objective of the study as introduced to us by our supervisor Mr. Johann Kisekulo was: ‘’To
apply the recently acquired skills of geological mapping in identifying components that make up a
complete Petroleum System i.e Source rocks, Migration pathways, Reservoir, Cap rock (Seal)/ Trap in
the Kaiso-Tonya area and processes, and environments of deposition that enabled this petroleum
system. In order to achieve this, specific objectives had to be identified and these include;

 Identify the lithology in the study area

 Identify the structures, both primary and secondary in the sediments and basement rocks
 Interpret the palaeo-environments of deposition and their implication to the Petroleum
system
 Identify the various processes leading to the formation of a complete petroleum system in
this area
 Observe the fossils and be used in interpreting the conditions of deposition
 Make measurements of the fractures and foliation in the basement rocks and draw
conclusions

1.3 Preamble

The field attachment training started on 16th June 2011 at Tullow Oil Uganda head office in Kampala.
On that day we were briefed by our supervisor who gave us a project proposal out of which we drew
a programme in trying to reach the objective of study (Table 1). The materials to use in the field
were distributed in the next few days which included topographic maps and satellite images of the
study area, as well as personal protective equipment for safety in the field.

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Table 1: The project programme
ACTIVITY
Desk study:
 Studying and interpreting satellite
images and the topographic maps
 Studying reports and journals of
previous work in the area
 Reviewing data of the first drilled
borehole (Waki-1)
 Textbooks literature review
Reconnaissance
Detailed mapping
Work at Kampala head office
Description of the petroleum play and writing -Interpretation of the results
the detailed final report
DATA OBTAINED
-Rock types and properties
-Structures
-Drainage and vegetation patterns
-Rock unit boundaries
-Land use
-Stratigraphic columns
-Fossils
-Depth to reservoir and basement
-Thickness of sediments
-Environments of deposition
-Formations in the area and their succession
-Acquainting ourselves with the area
-Identifying reference points such as lagoons,
camps
-General lithology and structures
-Observation of the general topography
-Vegetation linearities
-General trend of the structures e.g. fractures
-Establishing stations
-Locating ourselves on the maps
-Identifying the rocks in detail using their color,
texture, banding, foliation and others
-Take measurements of the beds, fractures and
foliation
-Collect samples and pictures
-Identifying structures both in sediments and in
the basement rocks
-Constructing stratigraphic logs
-Make sketches
-Identifying fossils
-Descriptions of the environments of deposition
in the area using lithology
-Production of the required maps using GIS
-Presentation of the observation to the Tullow
team in Kampala
-Compiling data obtained in the field
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 CHAPTER 2

2.0 BACKGROUND

2.1 Introduction

Kaiso-Tonya lies between the northern and southern ends of Lake Albert in the Albertine graben.
The graben is part of the western arm of the East African Rift System (EARS); the EARS bifurcates
into the eastern and western arms separated by the Tanzanian Craton. The graben forms the
northern extreme of the western arm; it stretches from the border between Uganda and South
Sudan in the north to Lake Edward in the south, a distance of about 500Km.

Rifting of the Pre-Cambrian cratonic rocks began in the Albertine rift area in the mid-Tertiary period
forming a basin/ depression that has since then been filled with syn-rift, fluvial-alluvial and lacustrine
sediments as interpreted basing on their characteristics. The sediments are up to 5Km thick on the
Congo side (western flank). The earliest sediments from Semiliki basin which is south of Kaiso-Tonya
study area indicate an age of early Miocene, but some are of recent age. The Albertine graben has
been interpreted as an extensional basin formed as a result of upwelling of magma plumes from
hotter Asthenosphere (upper mantle) in form of convectional currents into the crust.

Fig. 1: The extent of the EARS

3
Fig.2: Location of Kaiso-Tonya

4
2.2 Company background

Tullow Oil is one of Africa’s leading independent oil and gas exploration and development
companies. Tullow Uganda Operations Pty (TUOP) Limited with offices located on plot 15 Yusuf Lule
Road, is an oil and gas exploration company currently established in the Albertine graben region of
western Uganda. Tullow Oil has operations in Africa (with major projects being in Uganda and
Ghana), Europe, South Asia and South America.

2.3 Scope

The training was carried out both at Tullow Oil offices in Kampala and in Kaiso-Tonya from 16th June
to 26 August; the steps up to end are as below:

Desk study: 16th-25th June:

This was carried out both at offices and in the field in order to understand the area of our study
using previous reports, textbooks, maps and satellite images some of which were obtained from Ms.
Lillian Busingye (GIS Analyst, TUOP)

Reconnaissance: 26th-27th June:

During reconnaissance, we briefly traversed the study area under guidance of our field trainers; Mr.
Agaba Michael and Bwanika Jude.

Detailed Mapping: 28th June-31st July:

Mapping of the area proceeded and this involved studying the sediments especially from cliffs where
thick sections of the sediments are exposed, studying the basement rocks and inferring faults by
observing the linearity in vegetation and break in slope especially along the shore line from Kyehoro
beach to Kaiso fishing village. Also we submitted weekly reports to the company supervisor, Mr.
Johann Kisekulo (Sub-surface Engineer, TUOP) who would call us every Monday to review the
reports with us.

Preparing of the Presentations: 1st-2nd Aug

We prepared power point presentation regarding the study area and the data we had collected
during mapping for the lecturers who were coming to supervise our work.

Supervision: 3rd-5th Aug

We had prepared 5 hotspots for the lecturers but because of the heavy rains, we only managed to
access four; this involved basically field interviews.

Revisiting of hotspots: 6th-11th Aug

Any piece of data that we thought we needed but had not been obtained in whole was collected
during this period for example taking more measurements of the fractures along the transfer fault.

GIS and Presentation (at head offices): 15th-26th Aug

5
Back in Kampala, we met with Ms. Lillian who helped us to generate own maps using the points we
had recorded on a GPS. We also had a presentation at the offices attended by both our lecturers and
the Tullow Oil team.

2.4 Geological Setting

2.4.1 Geological Setting of the Albertine graben

The Albertine graben is bounded by NE-SW rift escarpments both on the eastern and western sides.
The graben is an extensional basin. Rifting here began during the mid-Tertiary period. This intra-
continental rifting is believed to have been caused by upwelling of magma plumes in form
convectional currents from the upper mantle. Owing to this, the brittle crust heated up and
stretched resulting into crustal thinning and fracturing.

Fig. 3A: Intrusion of magma leading to fracturing

During the very first stages of rifting (incipient rifting), a shallow depression was formed (Fig.3). But
with continued extension, the depression grew deeper as the hanging wall sagged in forming the
graben while the bounding blocks formed the escarpment; this type of faulting is normal where the
hanging wall moves down relative to the foot wall.

6
Fig.3B: The evolution of the Albertine graben (From Tullow internship guide)

Note that where the continental crust is thinner and less stable, the heat flow is high favouring
hydrocarbon generation in areas of high geothermal gradients due to overpressure.(Elements of
Petroleum Geology)

However, the NE-SW normal fault escarpment is not straight all through; it is offset through a
transfer fault which trends N800E i.e. almost E-W.

7
 Normal fault Transfer fault
escarpment escarpment

Fig.4: The normal and transfer rift scarps

During the formation of the transfer fault, the major NE-SW trending normal fault was displaced,
forming two synthetic faults. The region/ zone of warping between the two synthetic faults is
originally not faulted; it is known as a relay ramp. The relay ramp is fractured if the now two
synthetic faults are simultaneously active. Together with the sagging in of the hanging wall, the
region raptures forming a breached relay ramp, and hence the formation of the transfer fault (Fig.5).

Fig.5: Fracture of the relay ramp by a new transfer fault (after Gawthorpe and Hurst, 1993)

8
A later phase of compression is observed in this transfer zone shown by compressional structures
that is the folds both in the basement rocks and intra-sedimentary folds especially observed at
Nkondo. Fault reactivation is caused by the hanging wall reversing movement along the transfer
fault owing to a later intruding magmatic plume. The transfer zone being the weakest zone the
effects of compression are greatly manifested in it as shown below.

Fig.6: Folding in the basement rocks at Kaiso-Tonya road cut

2.4.2 Geological setting of Kaiso-Tonya

We dealt in particular with Kaiso-Tonya area; it is a generally flat land bounded by NE-SW striking
normal fault scarp in the East and in the South by the transfer fault escarpment which strikes almost
E-W. To the West is Lake Albert. There are several intra-sedimentary faults in this area shown by
break in slope along Lake Albert shores from Kyehoro to Kaiso fishing village. It is along some of
these faults that some rivers flow for example river Hohwa with drainage offsets that must be most
likely controlled by faults.

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 CHAPTER 3

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Methods/ Procedure

To identify the components that make up a complete petroleum system in Kaiso-Tonya, as well as
the processes and environments of deposition, we had to study the sediments, the basements
lithology and the structures in the area. During reconnaissance, we got to know the road network,
reference points such as airstrip, lodges, camps and villages. We basically used the topographic maps
and satellite images to plan for the following day’s mapping exercise that is the places to visit;
suitable places to find exposed sediments were river cuts, cliffs and road cuts. Upon coming across a
suitable section where detailed studies of sediments was being executed, the following activities
would be carried out;

 Take the GPS reading, note the altitude, establish a station and plot it on a topographic map.
 Assign a station name with reference to a known point.
 Identify the lowest point of the section, remove the eroded soils (sediments) using a
hammers and a hoe to expose the sediment boundaries and structures clearly.
 Note the characteristics of each bed (for instance texture, sorting), its extent and note if
possible the dip of the beds.
 Give a name of the sediment type basing on the characteristics and structures they posses.
 Measure the thickness of each lithologic unit using a tape measure.
 Take note of fossils if encountered.
 Construct the stratigraphic log of the section from bottom to top.
 Describe the possible processes and environments of deposition responsible for the
sediments.
 In the basement, rock types being dealt with were mostly high grade metamorphic and
igneous rocks; these were identified basing on characteristics such as banding for gneisses,
foliation and color of the constituent minerals. Measurements of the dip and strike of the
structures which included fractures especially joints, folds, vugs and foliation were taken
using a Brunton compass; the structures were used to interpret the petroleum system in our
mapping area.
 At every station, we took pictures of the rock types and/ or structures regarding our study
objective.

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3.2 Equipments

Field notebook To record all field observations

Geological hammer For breaking hard rock samples in order to
expose a fresh surface, removing weathered
sediments in order to view clearly the sediment
boundaries and structures
GPS For locating ourselves on the map, getting
location coordinates and altitude. The
measurements were made in 36N WGS 84
format
Brunton compass For making geologic measurements/ bearings
which included dip, strike and plunge (for fold
axis) of the various structures

Topographic maps These show contours and were used in making

cross sections from them in any direction. Also
for plotting the stations made as well as marking
on them the inferred faults

Satellite images These show different features such as airstrip,

drainage patterns and settlement so were used
to plan our movements
Field safety gear For personal protection in the field

Rack sacks To carry personal effects and rock samples to be

used for further examination in the laboratory;
each sample was numbered

Digital camera To take pictures (with scale) of the various rock

types and structures of interest observed in the
field for future reference in report writing. Image
speaks a thousand words

Tape measure For accurate measurement of thickness of rock

strata while constructing stratigraphic logs
Hand lens To magnify finer grained hand rock samples

Table 2: The equipments used

Other equipments included; pens, pencils, erasers, water bottles, lunch box and mobile phones.

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3.3 Geographical Information System (GIS) training

GIS is a computer tool or system capable of capturing, storing and displaying geographically
referenced data. During the mapping project, we collected data using a Global Positioning System
(GPS). This data is geographically referenced since it has to do with location. We recorded
coordinates and elevation for each station made.

It was this data stored in the GPS in a 36N WGS84 format that was retrieved onto a computer with
the help of a GIS analyst, Ms. Busingye. These coordinates were ‘’sprayed’’ and hence generated a
map indicating the stations mapped as shown in Fig.8 below.

Also a map of specifically the transfer zone was generated using GIS. This GIS training during my
internship helped me to acquire practical skills on how to use GIS software particularly Arc MAP to
develop maps like the one show below;

Fig.8: Some of the mapped stations.

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 CHAPTER 4

4.0 RESULTS

4.1 Introduction

Data collected during the mapping project was recorded in the field in note books, maps and also
saved in a GPS. This chapter concentrates basically on my field observations; a systematic
compilation of all the data and results got.

4.2 Lithology and Structures of the Pre-rift sequence

4.2.1 Pre-rift sequence

The pre-rift lithology is actually of the Basement complex, also known as the gneissic-granulitic
complex that form the oldest rocks in Uganda which date back to the Archean age about 2.6 Ga
(Spooner et al, 1970). The basement rocks in Kaiso-Tonya are well exposed on the rift flanks/
escarpment (such as the exposure along Kaiso-Tonya road cut) and also along Kabyosi incised river
valley. They are composed predominantly high-grade metamorphic and igneous rocks of Pre-
Cambrian age. These rocks in most of the area are highly fractured and brecciated. They also show
foliation, folding, quartz veins and dark mafic intrusions.

Fig.9: An intensely fractured granitic-gneiss

13
The main lithology types encountered basing on studies of hand samples of their characteristics are
as shown below;

Rock Description Field Rock Name

W Color; Pinkish Granitic-gneiss
Mineralogy;
 k-feldspars , 60%
 Quartz, 20%
 Biotite, 5%
 Muscovite, 15%
Grain size; fine grained

X Color; Granitic-gneiss
Mineralogy;
 Plagioclase, 60%
 Quartz, 20%
 Biotite, 15%
 Muscovite, 155
Grain size; Medium – coarse grained
Structures;
 Foliation
 Jointing
Y Color; Green- Black Amphibolite
Mineralogy;
 Amphibole, 60%
 Quartz, 25%
 Biotite, 5%
 Plagioclase, 10%
Grain size; fine grained
Structures;
 Foliation

Z Color; Pinkish – Whitish Gneiss

Mineralogy;
 K-feldspars, 60%
 Quartz, 30%
 Muscovite, 2%
 Biotite, 8%
Grain size; Medium – coarse grained
Structures;
 Foliation
 Banding
Textural Term; Gneissic
Q Display clear schistose texture with coarse Schists
grains; composed of minerals like
muscovite, Biotite, feldspars, and little
quartz

Table 3: The rock types in the basement

14
4.2.2 Structures in the pre-rift sequence/ the basement

The structures included folds, joints, foliation, faults, quartz veins and pegmatites.

a) Folds

These are structural features brought about by compressional forces. Folding is observed in the
basement rocks of the transfer zone as well as intra-sedimentary folds especially in Nkondo. In the
transfer zone at Kaiso-Tonya road cut, the folds are mainly asymmetrical with fold axes trending
N500W; others trend N450E. The folds affect other structures for instance the joints at this place are
folded.

Fig.10: Folds at Kaiso-Tonya road cut

b) Foliation

Foliation is a general term for any structure or texture that gives a rock a leaf like structure.
We observed linear fabric element in the basement rocks of River Kabyosi incised channel
and in the Schists found at Kaiso-Tonya road cut; foliation is a product of deformation. The
mineral grains in these rocks are elongated, linear and as shown in table 4 below, it is clear
that the major set of foliation trends in the NE-SW, similar to the orientation of the major
normal fault.

15
Location GPS Measurement
R. Kabyosi incised 0269036, 0154745 N350W/500NE
channel N500E/600NW
Kaiso-Tonya road cut 0274697, 0154598 N300E/750NW
0274557, 0155093 N350E/70NW
Table 4: Measurements of foliation

Fig.11: Foliation in the Schists

c) Joints

These are the most obvious structures found in the basement rocks; the rocks are intensely
fractured in almost all directions but with two major joint sets oriented in the NE-SW and
NW-SE directions. Those trending in NW-SE were cross-cutting the NE-SW joint set implying
that the former are younger. Some of these joints are impregnated with hydrocarbons but
those antithetic to the direction of the transfer fault are most impregnated.

16
Location GPS Measurements
R. Kabyosi gas seep 0269076, 0154811 N830W/740NE,N800E/390NW
N220E/850NW, N100E/670NW
N120W/740SW, N830E/850NW
N650E/830SE, N540W/850SE
N100E/880SE, N050E/790SE
N070W/600SW, N600E/700SE
N700W/700NE, N530W/900SW
N800E/800SE, N050W/450NE
0269036,0154745 N300W/350SW, N750W/400NE
N680E/650NW, N100E/800NW
N800E/600NW, N300E/650NW
Kabyosi oil seep 0269026, 0154530 N820E/620NW, N600E/670NW
N600E/470NW, N290W/800NE
N320W/610NE, N460E/700NW
N450E/700NW, N100E/670SE
N110E/700SE, N850W/650SW
Kaiso-Tonya road cut 0274697, 0154598 N420W/400NE, N600W/250SW
N400W/500NE, N100E/800NW
N800W/750NE, N050E/650NW
N100W/200SW, N250E/300NW
N300E/600NW
0274557,0155093 N600E/650NW, N100E/800SE
N500W/900SW
0274610, 0154688 N650E/700NW, N700E/650SE
N800W/540NE, N700E/800NW
N650E/580NW, N850W/880NE
N850W/600SW
Table 5: Measurements of joints
Joint

Joint
impregnated
with
hydrocarbon
s

Fig.12: Joints at Kabyosi River channel

17
d) Faults
These are fractures along which relative movement of the opposite sides occurred. The
major fault in the graben is a dip slip normal fault trending NE-SW with the hanging wall that
formed the base of the basin and the footwall which formed the escarpment. We also
observed a transfer fault trending N800E; it is a strike slip fault, however, it has some
element of displacement parallel to the dip of the fault plane making it an oblique fault.
Kabyosi incised river channel lies in the transfer zone; along this channel, we encountered
slicken sides (Fig.13) on some outcrops implying faulting.

Fig.13: Slicken sides

Other minor faults were also observed in the basement especially in Kabyosi river channel;
this river channel is highly incised therefore it could be flowing along a fault. The other
criterion used for recognition of these minor faults is the fault breccia (Fig.14).

18
 Fig.14: The fault breccia

e) Veins
These were observed filling the fractures mainly those joints in the NE-SW direction. Most
veins were white and made up of Quartz with different mineralogy and color from the
surrounding rock.

Quartz vein

Fig.15: Quartz vein

19
 f) Pegmatites
Veins of exceptionally coarse-grained material were observed in the basement rocks; they
are probably the residual melt of a crystallized intrusion; therefore they could have formed
during the intrusion of magma into the basement country rock.

Fig.16: Pegmatites

4.3 Lithology and Structures in the syn-rift sequence

4.3.1 Lithology

The lithology of the syn-rift sequence is basically the sediments that were deposited in the formed
basin by the rivers which were carrying the weathered detrital material from the rift flanks; they are
mainly young Cenozoic-Holocene clastic sediments. The sediments in the graben are mainly fluvial,
lacustrine, alluvial and deltaic. They are basically sandstones, siltstones, claystones, gypsum,
conglomerates (both pebbly and cobbly), volcanic ash and ironstones of silt and sand size. Once
deposited, sediments were subjected to processes of diagenesis bringing about compaction,
cementation and recrystallisation.

20
 Iron-rich
Ironstone Clay
Silt

Fig.17: Part of a section of the syn-rift lithology at Kyehoro beach

4.3.2 Structures in the syn-rift sequence/ sediments

The structures in the sediments were both primary and secondary;

a) Primary structures are those that formed during the formation of the sedimentary rocks
and before lithification; they included: bedding, cross laminations, laminations, ripple
marks, mud cracks, palaeo-river channels, unconformity (disconformities) and graded
bedding.
b) Secondary structures are entirely subsequent in their formation; these included: faults,
folds and concretions.

21
 a) Primary Structures
i) Bedding

The beds were identified using lithologic characteristics such as texture and colour, and also their
fossil content for instance gastropod beds. Some of the beds in certain locations were dipping (Table
6) suggesting later tectonic activities that affected the sediments.

Location Trend
Sebagoro river delta N430W/ 09o NE
Sebagoro cliff N40o W/ 10oSW
(0266777, 0157129)
I. N68oE/ 05oNW
II. N85oE/ 06oNW
III. N50oE/ 05oNW
IV. N05oE/ 11oSE
(0267034, 0156835) N40oE/ 04oNW
0266990, 0156502) N70oW/ 02oSW
Sebagoro MTN Mast N50oE/ 10oSE
Warwire river channel NW-SE/ 10oSW
Kyehoro fishing village N56oE/ 32oSE
N56oE/ 05oSE
Kyehoro fishing village II N54oE/ 02oSE
(0270223, 0166772)
Kaiso fishing village N85oE/ 12oSE
R. Hohwa valley 05oSE

Table 6: Measurements of Beds

22
 Ironstone bed Silt bed House (scale)

Fig.18: Beds in a section at Nkondo

In some stratigraphic sections, the grain sizes were decreasing systematically upward so they were
useful as facing indicator; these are referred to as graded beds.

ii) Cross bedding (lamination)

Some laminations identified especially in silts and fine sands in Sebagoro area were
oriented at a given angle to the principal surface of accumulation. Very often, the cross-
laminations were truncated along the upper surface.

23
 Fig.19: Cross-laminations in fine sands at Sebagoro cliff

iii) Laminations
These are thinner than beds that is to say less than 1cm in thickness; they were mostly
found in fine sands along River Warwire meandering channel and in Sebagoro area. They
were of different types such as planar, lenticular and herring bone mainly.

Fig.20: Planar laminations in a section near Sebagoro MTN mast in fine Sand
iv) Mud cracks
These were observed at the top of a cliff in Kaiso fishing village. The mud was
fragmented into polygonal blocks; the cracks seemed to have been filled with medium-
grained sand which was cemented by a blackish material.

24
 Fig.21: Mud cracks at Kaiso.

v) Ripple marks
Asymmetrical ripple marks were found at Sebagoro mast section and recent ones were
observed in River Warwire channel; they were current ripple marks.
vi) Unconformity
Many sections had Ironstone bands and most of them had gastropods cemented and
preserved in them; their surfaces represent breaks in stratigraphic sequence recording a
period of non-deposition or sub-aerial exposure (erosion); these are referred to as
Disconformities.
vii) Palaeo-river channels
Along River Warwire channel we observed a palaeo-river channel implying river Warwire
is geologically young and that drainage systems have been changing course of flow over
years.

25
Fig.22: A palaeo-river channel.

b) Secondary structures
i) Faults

Many intra-sedimentary faults were inferred using vegetation lineation, drainage

offset and sudden break in slope. Thick vegetation especially in Mputa field follows a
linear pattern which is surrounded by poor vegetation; this means that the rich
growth could be following faults. The channel of River Hohwa is offset twice by
sharp bends of angles which are almost 900 thus it may be structurally controlled.
(See satellite image of Kaiso-Tonya). We also observed sharp breaks in slope along
the shores of Lake Albert from Kyehoro beach to Kaiso village; this implies an
element of normal dip slip faulting within the sediments. The table below shows
some of the intra-sedimentary faults:

26
No. Fault Trend
1 A fault followed by R. Kabyosi N20OW
2 A fault followed by R. Kabyosi tributaries, GPS(0269072,
0156664) N180W
1st tributary N07OW
2nd tributary
3 A fault behind Kisinja camp N70OW
4 Faults within Mputa area
I. At GPS (0270804, 0161429) N800W
II. At GPS(0271652, 0161389) N150E
III. At GPS(0271182, 0161862) N260W
IV. At GPS(0273112, 0162054) N420E
V. At GPS(0274230, 0163107) N150W
VI. At GPS(0272198, 0161389) N500W
5 A fault along R.Hohwa at GPS(0275747, 0164090) N740E
6 Transfer fault N780E
7 At GPS(0270951, 0168034) N880W
8 At GPS(0273547, 0156994) N500E
9 At Kabyosi gas seep(0269076,0154811) N180W
10 Kabyosi incised channel (0269036, 0154745) N400E

Table 7: The measured inferred faults

ii) Intra-sedimentary folds

The sediments in Nkondo especially those lying close to the rift flank which trends N800E are folded
and dome towards the escarpment. Also a measurement of the beds at a station located at
(0266777, 0157129) showed that the beds were dipping in different directions; the measurements
were:

(N680E/ 050NW), (N850E/ 060NW), (N500E/ 050NW) and (N050E/ 110SE) showing that the sediments
could have been folded.

iii) Concretions

These were observed in a section along River Kabyosi in an Ironstone layer; they
were cemented together by iron solutions that probably precipitated within the
spaces between the individual concretions. Their diameters range between 5-10cm,
compact and sub-rounded made up of mostly Clays.

27
Fig.23: The concretions

4.4 Fossils

Many fossils were encountered in our study area; these included gastropods (preserved in Ironstone
bands in many locations of the area), petrified wood (found at a location along river Kabyosi; they
were reddish brown in colour), fossilized fish vertebra bones, leaf imprints preserved under volcanic
tuff, calcretes and coquina (bivalves) preserved by calcite at Kyampanga cliff behind Lake Albert
Safari lodge.

Fig.24A: Gastropods in Ironstone band Fig.24B: Coquina in sands at Kyampanga

28
 CHAPTER 5

5.0 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS

5.1 Topography and Drainage of Kaiso-Tonya area:

As a rift evolves, topography and bathymetry are modified; these in turn have an impact upon
changes in drainage patterns and hence depositional systems.

Topography refers to the description of the physical features of a given area. The topography of the
study area gently dips in the NE direction; this was concluded from the elevation changes as shown
below: Warwire area; 685m, Sebagoro area; 664 and Waraga area; 641m above sea level. It was also
further confirmed from the vegetation distribution; the area is more vegetated in the northern part
with evenly distributed vegetation than in the southern (Nkondo) area even though both areas are
drained by rivers. This implies that a shallow ground water table for the northern part and thus
topographically lower.

Drainage refers to the pattern formed by the streams, rivers and lakes in a given area. As seen in the
formation of the transfer zone during when there was displacement of the normal fault forming a
zone of warping known as a relay ramp, the drainage system was diverted such that the rivers that
were flowing West-wards changed course to the South and then NW following the direction of the
dip of the relay ramp (Fig. 5). But since segment linkage has the potential to cut off drainage route,
this explains why not the entire transfer zone is drained. The rivers that still drain from this zone
such as Kabyosi, Hohwa and Warwire are more to the East; this is because the eastern part of this
zone is topographically lower because the distribution of deformation results in a lower fault scarp.
Also relay ramps are often pervasively fractured and so erode easily, providing a large hinterland for
drainage. This ease of erosion within the transfer zones produces much larger fans at ramp toes than
elsewhere along the scarp.

The drainage systems in the study area include dendritic and rectangular in the southern and
northern parts respectively.

 Rectangular drainage system is more likely to be structurally-controlled by faults. The

channels make sharp bends known as drainage offset, as exhibited by River Hohwa.
 Dendritic pattern looks like a branching pattern of a tree root. The tributaries join the main
stream at an acute angle; this was observed with rivers Kabyosi and Warwire that trend in
the NW direction emptying their waters in Lake Albert.

The rivers such as Hohwa and Warwire are incising through older fluvial sediments therefore over
time there have been changes in the levels of the palaeo-lake that once covered the graben that is
to say the levels changing due to regression and transgression episodes caused by tectonism,
climatic changes, subsidence and sedimentation.

The southern part is drained by rivers which trend in the NW direction; they have deep incised
channels probably following fault lines. Despite the drainage, the area is poorly vegetated with only
dense vegetation flourishing in the river valleys.

29
The middle part forms a plateau drained only by river Sebagoro also trending in the NW direction.
This part has small straight to curvilinear structures probably intra-sedimentary faults in the Mputa
oil field along which thick vegetation grows. These inferred faults confirm the positive flower
structure of the faults detected using seismic survey in Mputa that compartmentalize the reservoir
rock and act as traps. This is as a result of crustal instability that favours structural entrapment of oil
i.e growth-faulted-related traps. (Page 382; Elements of Petroleum Geology).

The northern part which is topographically the lowest is drained by the largest river Hohwa in the
area. This is the one with the rectangular pattern along its channel. It forms a delta plain before
emptying its contents into the lake. Tributaries join this river from the escarpment in a direction
antithetic to the normal bounding fault therefore the tributaries could be flowing along release
faults; these faults form a set of faults which make an angle to the main normal fault and were
releasing stress developed during tectonism. River Hohwa forms a very large sand-spit at the point
where it enters the lake; it is at this sand-spit that Ngassa-2 oil well was drilled therefore it could be
the sands that contributed to the formation of the reservoir sandstone. If therefore a palaeo-
drainage map can be developed indicating the palaeo-sand spits can be useful the reservoir
sandstones deposited by the rivers then.

5.2 Structural geology and tectonic setting of Kaiso-Tonya:

Kaiso-Tonya is generally a flat land bounded by NE-SW normal fault escarpment and an almost E-W
transfer fault escarpment that runs from Kaiso-Tonya road cut to Nkondo where it terminates into
another fault synthetic to the normal fault.

More than one tectonic episode was subjected to the basement rocks in the Albertine graben; the
first was an extensional episode; this was responsible for the formation of the main rift flanks
striking NE-SW on both Uganda and Congo sides with the evolution of the graben

Later in time, a compressional regime leading to folding of the rocks especially observed in the
transfer zone; these effects are greatly manifested in the transfer zone because it is a weak zone.
The folds encountered at the road cut are ‘’inclined folds’’; these have moderately dipping axial
planes implying that the compressional forces were not equally distributed causing the folds to dip
towards the side where the forces where minimal. They also exhibit some element of asymmetry
with fold axes trending N500W; others trend N450E. The folds are actually younger than other
structures for instance fractures (joints) since they affect them that is to say the joints are folded.

Also fault reactivation is probably acting in the graben. This is due to the buckle folds which are
intra-sedimentary that were observed along the rift flank in Nkondo area. Fault reactivation is
caused by an intruding magmatic plume reversing the movement of the hanging wall along the fault
plane. The sediments will therefore be folded in such a way that they sort of dome towards the
escarpment.

If this surface geology goes on to express its self in the subsurface, then I am of the view that there
could probably be oil and/ or gas trapped. Why??

All the major folding is in the transfer zone. Topographic changes associated with this zone have a
direct influence on basin drainage evolution and sediment supply. In the graben we have an intra-

30
basin transfer zone; this is associated with a diffuse zone of warping called a relay ramp (Fig.5). Relay
ramps often act as the main conduits for axial sediment input into the hanging wall depocentres; the
large alluvial fans formed at the ramp toes often act as excellent hydrocarbon reservoirs. If this
sedimentation occurred during the high-stand lake level such that the water levels were deep even
close to the escarpment, the fans would be surrounded by deeper water facies for instance mud and
shale providing a lateral seal and may act as hydrocarbon source rocks.

Now that the sediments were folded by fault reactivation, structural traps formed and could have
accumulated oil.

The basement rocks are highly fractured almost in all directions. Two major joint sets were observed
and measurements taken; some strike NE-SW whereas others in the NW-SE (Table 5). Most of joints
striking NW-SE but almost E-W (antithetic to the normal fault but synthetic to the transfer fault)
were impregnated with hydrocarbons. They cross-cut those of NE-SW trend hence were formed
later. These joints of NW-SE trend are dipping in the SW by bigger amounts for instance one fault
breccia with hydrocarbon impregnations shown by the black colour below that was encountered in
Kabyosi incised river channel found in the transfer zone measured N150W/ 720SW.

Hydrocarbon
impregnations

Fig. 25: The fault breccia.

This implies two things:

1) The rock (reservoir or source rock) responsible for charging these joints with
hydrocarbons is in the South-West as oil will always migrate up-dip.

31
 2) If the joint dipping by such a big angle is charged with hydrocarbons then either there
are source and/ or reservoir rocks in the proximal environment or there is lateral
movement of the oil in the subsurface (implying no proper seal or structural trap) from
the distal environment until it meets the migration pathways/ conduits such as
fractures.

Most of the joints antithetic to the main normal bounding fault had seepages; this again
implies that if in any case we find a structural trap in the subsurface using seismic surveys
with migration pathways trending in the NW-SE, the chances of finding any economical oil
accumulation will really be very minimal since those pathways are characterized with
seepages.

5.3 Sedimentology and Stratigraphy:

Sedimentology in the Albertine graben particularly of Kaiso-Tonya study area was interpreted from
the stratigraphic logs of the sections in this area. The sediments are of Miocene age and are up to
5Km thick especially towards the Congo side; they form the syn-rift sequence. The sediments are
majorly clastic/ detrital with the footwall scarps acting as the main rift-interior sediment source and
are periodically rejuvenated by the continuing tectonic activities in the graben thus syn-rift
sediments generally become coarser and thicken towards the scarp; others are non-clastic for
instance gypsum whereas volcanic tuff found in a number of sections such as Kyampanga cliff tuff
with a thickness of 42cm was deposited when volcanic ash from volcanically active areas got blown
by wind and finally settled. They basically include;

 Clays.
 Silts.
 Sands: fine, medium and coarse sands.
 Volcanic tuffs; observed at Kaiso, Sebagoro, Warwire, and Kyampanga.
 Evaporites; gypsum in particular, were formed by precipitation from solution.

Clay

Silt (Iron
mottled)

Volcanic
tuff

Fig.26: Different litho-facies at a section in Warwire area.

32
The sediments of the syn-rift in Kaiso-Tonya have been subdivided into four formations by previous
researchers in the area using majorly Biostratigraphy. In order of succession from oldest to youngest
they are; Nkondo, Warwire, Sebagoro and Kaiso formations. The sediments in these formations are
lacustrine and fluvial majorly; this was concluded from the sedimentary facies encountered.

Progradational, aggradational and retrogradational stacking were observed in the stratigraphic

sections in this area.

 In progradational stacking, the succession was consisting of numerous stacked coarsening

upward cycles capped by sandstones; for instance five progradational cycles where observed
in a section of Kyampanga cliff. The relevance of this is the deposition of reservoir sands at
the top of clays/ shales; thus if the shales are organically rich, they will form potential source
rocks provided they are subjected under right conditions of pressure and temperature.
 Retrogrational stacking was observed where there was progressive appearance of deeper
water facies upwards; this is known as fining upwards for instance in a stratigraphic section
of Sebagoro cliff that lies in the distal environment. Retrogradational stacking is essential
particularly where we have intercalations of sands and clays forming what is known as
stacked reservoirs with sands being sealed by the clays at the top; this also increases on the
chances of competence of the seals.
 Aggradational stacking is the appearance of similarity in facies composition; this is expected
in aggrading footwall-derived fans; during the deposition of the fans, the supply of the
sediments is greater than the amount material that the system is able to transport. Also
river Hohwa in its young stage is currently incising through sediments showing aggradation
as well as river Hohwa delta plain with aggradational stacking of sands leading to the
development of a sand spit. Such an environment of deposition is essential in forming
reservoirs. What happens is that the deposited sediments often undergo slow subsidence
(compaction and dewatering of sediments) thus after millions of years, this environment will
become a sedimentary basin.

Fig.27: Aggrading sands incised by river Hohwa

33
5.4 Depositional history:

Deposition of the sediments in Kaiso-Tonya area has been affected by; subsidence (compaction and
dewatering), tectonism and climatic changes. This area was a stable craton before rifting occurred;
crustal thinning led to the formation of a shallow depression which is the accommodation zone for
the deposition of the sediments. The depression grew deeper with the continued down throw of the
hanging wall.

It began with rivers and streams depositing fluvial and alluvial sediments respectively such as alluvial
fans that were formed as streams deposited alluvium at the base of rift scarps. Their water filled the
depression forming the palaeo-lake Albert whose formation commenced the deposition of lacustrine
sediments starting with shallow to deep lacustrine facies. Throughout, there have been changes in
accommodation space during the formation of the depositional sequences.

The palaeo-lake must have filled the whole of the area that is to say the entire graben; this was
concluded from the fact that deep water facies were encountered in area even in the proximity of
the escarpment. Climatic changes and hence sedimentation, tectonism and subsidence led to
changes in the lake level and changes in sediment input as observed in the stratigraphic logs made in
the area. The co-existence of deeper and shallower water facies can be interpreted as follows;

During the time the lake level is undergoing a slow rise from the combined effects of subsidence and
climatic changes, sediment supply is sufficient to outpace the slow rise thus driving a lake-ward
building of the coast known as progradational stacking/ coarsening upwards.

Due to tectonism, the fall in lake level increased and it eventually exceeded the rate of subsidence
leading to a fall in the lake level thus creating a condition of forced regression leading to erosion and
incision by the rivers on what was formerly under the lake. It is this sub-aerial that lead to formation
of unconformities such as the ironstone bands observed in many depositional sequences.

If the lake level rises such that it outpaces sedimentation, we will have a land-ward building of the
coast known as retrogradational stacking/ fining upwards of the facies. It is probably this high-lake
stand that facilitated the deposition of the sealing to the hydrocarbons which are the shales/ clay
whereas during the low-lake stand, coarse material (reservoir sands) was deposited closer to where
we had the source rocks.

The lake has been narrowing over time and shifting towards the center of the basin known as
regression due to the continued tectonic activity coupled with the ever increasing sediment weight.
In the proximal environment for instance Hohwa oil seep, the sediments are coarse-grained; these
sands are impregnated with hydrocarbons implying that there is a migration pathway with the major
bounding fault acting as the trap. In the distal environment e.g. Sebagoro area, fine sands
intercalated with mud showing the energy of the system had reduced.

Some primary structures observed in the sediments for instance graded bedding, cross laminations
and mud cracks were also used to interpret the depositional history. The presence of graded
bedding reflects the settling out of suspended materials of various sizes from what had been rapidly
flowing. It is these turbidity current deposits that commonly display graded bedding by moving sand,
silt and mud into lacustrine environments whose velocity suddenly decreases and drops sediment

34
load in a natural size-sorted way; this implies a play between fluvial and lacustrine depositional
environments. Mud cracks on the other hand are formed when wet mud in shallow water (rivers,
lakes or beach) is permitted to dry out therefore implying a shallow water environment whereas
cross laminations indicate that the depositional environment contained a flowing fluid and are a
common feature on the bed of a river hence fluvial environment.

5.5 The Petroleum System:

5.5.1 Introduction

Part of the main objective of this training was to identify in Kaiso-Tonya area the components that
make up a complete petroleum system which include source rocks, reservoir rocks, cap rock/ seal,
traps, migration pathways and timing. The petroleum system encompasses the essential elements
above and the processes which include generation, migration (primary and secondary) and
accumulation. It was these elements that were being looked for during the mapping project in order
to prove the existence of the system whose presence has already been briefly discussed in earlier for
instance the fractures at Hohwa oil seep acting as the migration pathways and the highly fractured
basement rocks whose secondary porosity enhanced by the vugs can be potential reservoir rocks.

5.5.2 Surface indicators of the Petroleum system:

These include the migration pathways like the fractures impregnated with hydrocarbons, the
intrasedimentary faults that terminate in oil seeps updip and folds in the sediments that can be
potential structural traps, the sediments of great thicknesses, the yellowish oil film floating on top of
water in Kabyosi river channel and the gas seep found in river Kabyosi incised valley as well the oil
seeps which include Hohwa oil seep, Warwire seep and Kabyosi seep.

Fig.28A: Kabyosi oil seep Fig.28B: Hohwa oil seep

35
5.5.3 The Elements of the petroleum system

5.5.3.1 The Source rocks:

These are organically-rich rocks especially claystones and mudstones in which hydrocarbons are
generated provided they are subjected under the right conditions of pressure and temperature.
With the geo-surface mapping conducted, potential source rocks were identified in the Warwire and
Kaiso formations. Warwire area has organic-rich dark clays of thicknesses greater than 1 meter; they
are the dominant in most of the sections here and are characteristic of deep lacustrine environment.
Also considering the fact that Warwire is stratigraphically lower in formation i.e it under lies
Sebagoro and Kaiso formations, thus nearer to the magma and is subjected to intense overburden
by the sediments, it implies a source rock. It should however be noted that Kaiso-Tonya dips towards
the North making Warwire to be updip in the south thus the oil would hardly migrate downdip so if
ever petroleum was generated in these source rocks, it probably charged the reservoirs towards
Semiliki area. Therefore the other probable source for the hydrocarbons could be the deep
lacustrine clays towards the Congo side; this is supported by the fact that the graben is tilted
towards Congo facilitating updip oil migration towards our study area and that the graben is deeper
this side (up to 5Km) therefore deeper water facies such as clays could have accumulated
considerably.

Fig.29: Dark thick clays in a section along Warwire river channel

36
5.5.3.2 The Reservoir rocks:

A reservoir rock is a rock with properties such as good porosity and permeability that facilitate its
potential to accumulate oil and/ or gas that is commercially exploitable. Potential reservoirs were
observed mainly in stratigraphic sections of Sebagoro area and at Hohwa oil seep; these were
reservoir sands of significant thicknesses and moderate sorting and laterally extensive. In the distal
environment of deposition for example Sebagoro area, the sandstones are medium to fine grained
and well sorted implying high porosity and permeability. The probable environment of deposition of
these sands was deltaic or shallow lacustrine no primary structures implying movement of the
waters were significantly identified therefore ruling out the possibility of fluvial deposition. On the
other hand, the proximal environment of deposition such as Hohwa oil seep has medium to coarse
grained, poorly sorted sands therefore poor porosity and because of them being not extensive, they
are fluvial deposits.

5.5.3.3 Trap

A trap is either structural or stratigraphic capable of hindering lateral migration of hydrocarbons

causing them to accumulate. In Kaiso-Tonya area, the structural traps include the NE-SW main
bounding normal fault, the transfer fault trending N800E, intrasedimentary faults (especially in
Mputa oil field; these were inferred using vegetation) and intrasedimentary folds that formed due to
fault reactivation such as in Nkondo area thus possible anticlinal trapping. Among the stratigraphic
traps observed include the pinch outs e.g. in a section at Warwire and many unconformities of which
were the ironstone bands.

In Mputa oil field specifically, we took measurements of elevation and it was observed that though it
looks to the eye like a flat plain, there are changes in elevations implying a possible dip-slip faulting.
In sediments, the trapping will occur only and only if these faults juxtapose porous and permeable
reservoirs against an impermeable rock e.g. a shale as shown below;

Fig.30: Sediment juxtaposition

37
5.5.3.4 Cap rock/ Seal

Cap rocks stop upward hydrocarbon migration out of a reservoir rock so they must be impermeable.
These were found in Kaiso area; it should also be noted that Kaiso formation is younger and
stratigraphically overlies the other older formations therefore it places the clays in this area in an
ideal position as cap rocks. A great deal of potential seals was also observed in Nkondo area in which
one section logged here had very thick layers of silts and clays. In this study area we also observed
evaporites especially gypsum (field name) which can also act as cap rocks if they are competent
enough and laterally extensive. Also the ironstone bands have very low permeability due to
cementing by iron so they also act seals since they are extensive.

Fig.31: Gypsum (Cap rock)

5.5.3.5 Migration pathways

We have both primary (from source rock) and secondary pathways. With the surface mapping done,
we managed to see only the secondary ones facilitating updip oil migration present in the highly
fractured basement with oil seeping through them; these were the joints and the faults in Kabyosi
river channel. Most of these joints were antithetic to the main bounding fault.

In conclusion, the timing in Kaiso-Tonya is thought to be good since perhaps most of the
hydrocarbons generated in the source rocks began migrating at a time when the reservoir rock was
already in place, otherwise the hydrocarbons would have just over matured and get destroyed.

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 CHAPTER 6

6.0 MERITS AND DEMERITS

6.1 Merits

 It was such an experience applying the theoretical knowledge obtained at the university
to the real world field challenges thus obtaining more skills and knowledge in geological
mapping and data collection.
 I acquired skills in mapping the sediments and obtaining stratigraphic logs.
 The training placed me in a position to interact with geologists and engineers and
getting contacts.
 This is my first detailed report; so I have obtained skills of report writing.
 I had a chance to use certain GIS software specifically ArcMap in generating maps using
coordinates.
 I was also placed in a position to acquire the real view of the oil and gas industry in
Uganda.

6.2 Demerits

 During the training, I lacked the facilitation to critically analyze the rock samples
collected from the field so I never carried out geochemical analysis while in the field.
 I did not spend enough time in the field (only about 47 days) thus denying me to do
a lot of field mapping.
 We were assigned a small section of the Albertine graben (Kaiso-Tonya area); we
never had a chance to reach to reach Pakwach or Semiliki in order to get a general
picture.
 The company had promised to expose us to drilling operations which was never
fulfilled because there was a lack of accommodation in a camp up north where well
drilling was taking place.
 Poor roads especially when it rained made some places impossibly accessible and
sometimes our field bus would get stuck in mud or sands.

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 CHAPTER 7

7.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

7.1 Conclusions

 During the geo-surface mapping project carried out in the valley, it was concluded that
Kaiso-Tonya study area has got a complete petroleum system that is source rocks, reservoir
rocks, cap rocks, traps and migration pathways.
 The deposition of the sediments was mainly under control of tectonic activity and climatic
changes by affecting the level of the lake through transgression and regression episodes thus
depositing clays and reservoir sands respectively.
 The palaeo-lake actually extended to the main bounding normal fault escarpment; this was
concluded from the presence of deep water facies such as clays as well as fossil fish bones/
vertebrae (mostly preserved in ironstone bands) in the vicinity of the rift scarp in this area.
 The main environments of deposition are fluvial, alluvial and lacustrine that deposited
mainly clastic sediments ranging from very fine claystones to cobbly conglomerates whose
provenance is majorly weathering from the rift scarps.
 The drainage changes brought in by the formation of the relay ramp must have facilitated
deposition of the alluvial fans at the ramp toes which are potential reservoirs so the part of
the basin close to the transfer zone could be a good site for hydrocarbon exploration
targeting the reservoir fans.
 The basement rocks especially in the transfer zone which are characterized by intense
fracturing and vugs are concluded to be potential secondary reservoirs, the main bounding
fault acting as the hydrocarbon trap.

7.2 Recommendations

 There are four formations in Kaiso-Tonya area; I’m of the view that these formations would
clearly be delineated using biostratigraphy specifically by studying the gastropods other than
using structures, for example the contact between Nkondo and Warwire formations is a
fault; this was shown to us by a team from Petroleum Exploration and Petroleum
Department (PEPD) but I think this contact is dubious.
 Sediments of great thickness and well exposed stratigraphic sections are mainly present in
the Albertine graben, so to comprehend Sedimentology and the petroleum system, the
students should have frequent study trips to this area for Uganda to groom petroleum
geoscientists.

40
 REFERENCES

 Richard C. Selley, Elements of Petroleum Geology, Second Edition (Pages 363-370).

 Erasmus Barifaijo (2002), GEOLOGY OF UGANDA, Hydrocarbon Potential of Sedimentary

basins in Uganda; unpublished work by Kabanda Fred, (2002), (Pages 108-118).

 Maurice E. Tucker (1991), Sedimentary Petrology, Second Edition; an introduction to the

origin of sedimentary rocks, Blackwell Science Ltd (Pages 10-36, 200-208).

 Petroleum Exploration and Productions Department report (2005); The Hydrocarbon

Potential of the Albertine Graben.

 Abeinomugisha Dozith, Kasande R. (2009), Tectonics control on Hydrocarbon Accumulation

in the Intra-Continental Albertine graben of the East African Rift System (Unpublished).

 Kabanda Fred (1998), Report on the Geological Mapping of Kaiso-Tonya area (Unpublished).

 Kisekulo Johann, Tullow Uganda Operations Pty (2011); Makerere University Student
Internship guide June-August 2011 (Unpublished).

 R. L. Gawthorpe & J. M. Hurst, Transfer zones in extensional basins (Unpublished).

 Allen & Allen, Basin Analysis, Principles & Applications.

 An Online Guide to Sequence Stratigraphy

(http://www.uga.edu/strata/sequence/tracts.html).

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 APPENDIX

Appendix 1

Fig. 32: All the mapped stations of Kaiso-Tonya area.

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Fig. 33: The drainage pattern of Kaiso-Tonya

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 Appendix 2

Table 8: The locations of the logged sections.

Station No Location GPS Northing GPS Easting

5 Sebagoro Cliff 01606651 0270029
6B R. Kabyosi 0158047 0268096
8 R. Kabyosi Tributary 0157543 0268160
10 Kyampanga 02699880 0165357
11 Between Kisinja camp and Kaiso camp 0168654 0273485
13A Kabyosi area 0157172 0266809
15 Warwire 0156502 0266990
16 Sebagoro MTN mast 0159660 0267986
17 Warwire river valley 0156260 0264728
19 Kyehoro fishing village 0166810 0270212
20 Kaiso fishing village 0169381 0274692
21 R. Hohwa oil seep 0156621 0274966
23 Nkondo 0154366 0262199
26D Nzizi 0157141 0269381

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