Comparison between bearing system and Skelton

system
 Bearing System
The main goal of this project is to create a system of structural
bearings with new mechanical characteristics to solve the
problem of transmitting high horizontal forces (such as braking
for trains or seismic vibrations) on construction infrastructures
(such as piers of bridges) . The idea is to share these horizontal
forces evenly through a specific system of bearing in stead of
concentration these forces on one unique bearing. This
research would help to preserve the construction infrastructures
of deflections or torsion caused by these important (hundreds
of tons) forces. The research would include the study of specific
brake springs with controlled stiffness and of specific
components. This new bearing system would replace unskilled
existing technologies (each bearing is dimensioned to receive
the total force) and provide the possibility of creating new type
of bearings with evident economical and safety profits. The
SME proposers - manufactures of structural bearings, seismic
devices, expansion joints -would be interested to contribute to
this project and work with RTDs dedicated to study and
specifications of the prototype of bearing, performing tests of
this prototypes, and study of new material (teflon, carton,
titanium, rubber ...)
1. Introduction
The study of rotating machinery appears in the context of machines
and structures due to the significant number of phenomena typical
to their operation that impact their dynamic behavior and
maintenance. Consequently, rotor bearing systems face numerous
problems that affect a wide variety of machines, e.g., compressors,
pumps, motors, centrifuge machines, large and small turbines. This
type of machine finds various applications in the industry, such as,
automotive, aerospace and power generation. In most applications
an unpredictable stoppage can lead to considerable financial losses
and risks. Therefore, there is an evident need for the complete
modelling of rotating systems, including the components of the
interface between fixed and moveable parts, such as the
hydrodynamic bearings. Bench-scale experimental analyses provide
more complete models of the main components of the rotor, with
strong emphasis on the modelling of the bearings of rotary
machines, since they constitute the rotor-foundation structure
connecting elements.
The machinery parameters are needed to study the dynamic
behavior of the system, namely the Campbell diagram, stability
analysis, critical speeds, excitation responses, control and health
monitoring. The determination of unknown parameters in rotating
machinery is a difficult task. To overcome this difficulty, the use of
optimization techniques to solve the inverse problem represents an
important alternative approach.
In the literature, various works have been proposed to determine
unknown parameters of dynamic systems. Edwards et al. [1]
presented a procedure to determine unbalance and support
parameters simultaneously based on the least-squares method. Xu
et al. [2] proposed a rotor balancing method by using optimization
techniques, which does not need trial weights. Assis and Steffen [3]
developed strategies in order to use optimization techniques for
determining the parameters of gyroscopic systems and they
commented about the difficulties that arise in using classical
optimization algorithms due to their difficulty in avoiding local
minima. The properties of the supports located at the ends of the
rotor were considered as variables in the optimization procedure. An
inverse problem was developed by using a hybrid cascade-type
optimization scheme considering a single unbalance distribution.
Castro et al. [4] proposed an optimization method based on genetic
algorithms to tune displacements of the rotor supported by
hydrodynamic bearings. Castro et al. [5] applied a hybrid algorithm
based on genetic algorithm and simulated annealing to tune the
orbits of the rotary system in the critical region. In this search
algorithm, the genetic algorithm is applied in order to make an
approximation of the optimal result, while the simulated annealing
refines this result. Tiwari and Chakravarthy [6] presented an
identification algorithm for simultaneous estimation of the residual
unbalances and the bearing dynamic parameters by using the
impulse response measurements for multi-degree-of-freedom
flexible rotor-bearing systems. Kim et al. [7] presented a bearing
parameter identification of rotor–bearing system using clustering-
based hybrid evolutionary algorithm. Castro et al. [8] applied multi-
objective genetic algorithm to identify unbalance parameters.
Nauclér and Söderstöm [9] consider the problem of unbalance
estimation of rotating machinery based on the development of a
novel method which takes disturbances into account, leading to a
nonlinear estimator. More recently, Saldarriaga et al. [10] proposed a
methodology for the experimental determination of the unbalance
distribution on highly flexible rotating machinery using Genetic
Algorithms. Modal analysis techniques were previously performed to
obtain an initial guess for the unknown parameters. A pseudo-
random optimization-based approach was used first to identify the
parameters of the system in such a way that a reliable rotor model
was obtained. Satisfactory results encouraged the use of the
proposed approach in the industrial context. Sudhakar and Sekhar
[11] proposed a method dedicated to fault identification in a rotor
bearing system by minimizing the difference between equivalent
loads estimated in the system due to the fault and theoretical fault
model loads. This method has a limitation since the error found in
the identified fault parameters increases when decreasing the
number of measured experimental data.X
In this context, the present chapter discusses the possibility of using
the Simulated Annealing algorithm (SA) for the identification of
unknown parameters of a rotor model from the unbalanced
response of the system. Basically, the SA algorithm exploits the
analogy between the search for a minimum in the optimization
problem and the process of gradual cooling of a metal in a crystalline
structure of minimal energy. A desirable characteristic of a minimum
search method is the ability to avoid the convergence to a local
optimal point, e.g., in terms of the physical process of annealing a
meta-stable structure is obtained in the end. Thus, the paradigm of
SA is to offer means of escaping from local optima through the
analysis of the neighbourhood of the current solution, which can
assume, within a given probability, worse solutions, but makes the
finding of a new path to the global optimum possible. Metropolis et
al. [12] presented an algorithm that simulates the evolution of a
crystalline structure in the liquid state up to its thermal equilibrium.
Metropolis’ algorithm can be used to generate sequences of
configurations in a combinatorial optimization problem. SA is seen as
a sequence of Metropolis algorithms, executed with a decreasing
sequence of the control parameter. The temperature (control
parameter) is continually reduced after a certain number of
neighbourhood searches in the current state.X
It is worth mentioning that although the SA is a powerful and
important optimization tool, often it is not applied according to strict
adherence to sufficiency conditions, permitting the researcher to
truly claim that the optimal solution has been (statistically) found.
According to Ingber [13], the reason typically given is simply that
many variants of this technique are considered to be too consuming
of resources to be applied in such strict fashion. There exist faster
variants of SA canonical, but these apparently are not as quite easily
coded and so they are not widely used. Many modifications of SA are
really quenching, and should aptly be called simulated quenching
(SQ).X
In the present contribution, the canonical SA, e.g., based on the
algorithm proposed by Kirkpatrick et al. [14]to include a temperature
schedule for efficient searching, is used for the design and
identification of rotor bearing systems. The goal for the first problem
presented is to increase the difference between two critical speeds
of a rotor-bearing system that was previously modelled by using the
finite element method. In this case, the design variables are the
parameters of the rotor-bearing system. To solve this multi-criteria
optimization problem a methodology based on a combination of SA,
non-dominated sorting strategy and crowding distance operator for
guaranteeing convergence and diversity of potential candidates in
the population is proposed. The second problem studied is related to
the identification of unknown parameters of flexible rotor-bearing
systems, modelled mathematically by using the finite element
method. The difference between the unbalance experimental
responses of the rotor and the simulated unbalance responses
(obtained by using the mathematical model) is used to write the
objective function to be minimized, so that the damping and stiffness
parameters are found. For illustration purposes,
the experimental (synthetic) data used were generated by using the
solution of the direct problem to which artificial noise was added. X
This chapter is organized as follows. The rotor bearing formulation is
revisited in Section 4. In Sections 5 and 6 the main characteristics of
the SA and multi-objective optimization are briefly presented,
respectively. The Multi-objective Optimization Simulated Annealing
(MOSA) proposed in this work is described in Section 7. The results
and discussion are presented in Section 8. Finally, the conclusions
and suggestions for future work complete the chapter.
United Partition will work with you to develop a custom
load bearing roof system that fits your existing floorplan
 and meets your specifications. We will design and
construct a unique solution to open up new floor space in
your facility. No matter what you plan to use your
additional floor space for, or what the current layout of
your building is, we can provide the perfect custom
solution.
Depending on your requirements, United Partition can
provide design considerations for storage, office loads, or
equipment point loads. Clearance heights are adjustable
to fit above existing offices or other interior structures.
Deck options include steel plate, concrete, and T&G
wood. Numerous stair and lift systems are available to
meet OSHA, IBC, and local code regulations.
We’ve supplied modular load bearing roof solutions for a
broad range of industries and applications, and can
provide custom solutions in almost any layout your facility
may require. United Partition installations can include
safety rails, stairs and landings, gates or doors, and any
other important features you may need.
From the initial designs through building and installation,
your custom modular load bearing roof solution can be
completed in just weeks without the need for concrete
footings in most applications. Every custom solution we
create is manufactured with high quality materials using
proven construction methods. They’re engineered for fast
and easy installation, and, while many of our clients
choose to perform installation themselves, our expert team
is always available for onsite installation.
Benefits of Load Bearing Roofs
United Partition’s load bearing roof solutions offer a variety of
benefits. They are a cost-efficient, time-saving way to increase
your available floor space. Why expand horizontally when you
can expand vertically and make the most of your existing
square footage?
Our load bearing roof systems can provide a substantial
increase in additional usable space within your building, without
the hassle of standard construction methods. They offer
outstanding versatility, as the newly-created space can be used
for almost any purpose. And, because they’re modular, the
system is expandable and relocatable to change and grow with
your needs.
A modular enclosure with load bearing roof can be installed
with minimal disruption to everyday operations, and generally
require little to no structural changes to your existing building.
Load Combinations
The load combinations in Table 3.1 are recommended for use
with design
specifications based on allowable stress design (ASD) and load
and resistance
factor design (LRFD). Load combinations provide the basic set
of building load
conditions that should be considered by the designer. They
establish the
proportioning of multiple transient loads that may assume point-
in-time values
when the load of interest attains its extreme design value. Load
combinations are
intended as a guide to the designer, who should exercise
judgment in any
particular application. The load combinations in Table 3.1 are
appropriate for use
with the design loads determined in accordance with this
chapter.
The principle used to proportion loads is a recognition that
when one load
attains its maximum life-time value, the other loads assume
arbitrary point-in-
time values associated with the structure’s normal or sustained
loading conditions.
The advent of LRFD has drawn greater attention to this
principle (Ellingwood et
al., 1982; Galambos et al., 1982). The proportioning of loads in
this chapter for
allowable stress design (ASD) is consistent with and
normalized to the
proportioning of loads used in newer LRFD load combinations.
However, this
manner of proportioning ASD loads has seen only limited use in
current code-
recognized documents (AF&PA, 1996) and has yet to be
explicitly recognized in
design load specifications such as ASCE 7. ASD load
combinations found in
building codes have typically included some degree of
proportioning (i.e., D + W
+ 1/2S) and have usually made allowance for a special
reduction for multiple
transient loads. Some earlier codes have also permitted
allowable material stress
increases for load combinations involving wind and earthquake
loads. None of
these adjustments for ASD load combinations is recommended
for use with Table .
 Skelton System

Skeleton frame

A skeleton frame is a framed structure often used for

the construction of multi-storey buildings. It incorporates a
network, or system, of columns and connecting beams which
support the building’s interior floors and exterior walls and
carries all loads to the foundations.

Skeleton frames can
be constructed from timber, concrete or structural
steel components, with the building envelope formed
by glazing, brick, cladding and so on hung on the outside.

The skeleton frame was introduced in the late-19th and early-

20th centuries, and allowed for the rapid erection of buildings,
such as the early skyscrapers. It
enabled interior floor layouts to be free of immovable walls,
making them more flexible spaces, and meant that
different materials could be used for the facades. This had the
effect of reducing the importance of masonry from something
that was a structural element to having a more decorative role.

A skeletal building structure is a steel frame that is built to

support a large building or skyscraper. The structure is made out
of metal beams forming vertical columns crossed with steel
girders for stability.
Skeletal building structures are formed by riveting together
steel support beams and girders. For the huge and highest
buildings, diagonal girders are added for extra backup. The
places where the horizontal girders meet the vertical columns
signal new floors. The entire skeleton is assisted by a wide grid
of girders on top of a concrete pad which forms the building’s
foundation. Insulation, walls, windows and interior components
are added to complete the building.
This way of constructions give you more advantages and benefits than
ordinary construction.
 
FLEXIBLE
Skeletal Structure system is friendly to any type of design, any
type of architectural requirement and any type of living space.
From top-rated aluminum windows to dynamic ceiling
placements, also modern-looking steel-spine staircase systems
and more and more, this way your home can truly be your own
in look and design.
 
IMPERMEABILITY
This way steel frames will not not bend, crumble, or buckle. This
is more concrete than a concrete foundation. This means your
home is built on a solid, stable frame. On the other hand, Homes
which was built by ordinary construction method will eventually
start to experience signs of age and settling, such as slowly
deteriorating walls and ceilings, a skeletal Structure home will
remain in excellent condition forever in your life.

CONFIGURABILITY
These houses are not only exceptionally modern, they are so
easy to renovate, upgrade, change and maintain. Additions are
easier to build with these homes than ordinary homes. It is also
much easier to re-configure the interior by moving walls where
desired if you need a different layout. It is almost like you are
keeping the remote controller of your own house.
TOP 3 TYPES OF ROOF STRUCTURES
by Bold Apps November 18, 2014 0 Comments

The literal definition is very boring, I prefer calling them a

house’s hat. But that would not be very professional. A  truss is
a structure comprising one or more triangular units. Each triangle is
constructed with straight and usually slender members of timber,
connected at the ends by joints. External loads, and the structure’s
reaction to those loads, act at the joints, resulting in forces that are
either tensile or compressive. See, I told you, boring.
 
When you purchase a home plan there are still things to deal
with. One of them is the roof trusses. The issue is, no house
designer can create a set of plans that would meet every local,
county, and state regulations. The difference between the
regulations for a roof in Florida and one in Colorado are huge.
So most designers, Sater Design Collection included will
include a “roof layout” in their set of plans. Most of the time
these roof layouts are not sufficient to pass local regulations.
 
Wood Trusses are designed and delivered to the job site with
a truss placement plan. Wood Trusses are lower in cost, fast to
install and require ordinary tools and do not require skilled
labor. Virtually any roof and sealing is possible. They are an
engineered product fully assembled and delivered to the job
site meaning there is no job site waste. They do require
advanced planning. You will need a set of plans for the
structure.
 
Typically our plans utilize the Wood Truss type of roof
structure because of their many benefits. Trusses bring
virtually unlimited architectural versatility, providing simple
solutions to complex designs and unusual conditions without
inhibiting building design freedom. Using trusses, you have
complete flexibility in interior room. Trusses are an engineered
and tested product. There are nationally recognized standards
for truss design and manufacturing of metal plate connected
wood trusses. These standards have been adopted by major
model building codes. Because this is such a specialized
component and such an important part of your home it is best
to have knowledgeable professionals design and construct the
trusses for your home.
 
This is why you have to get a truss company to design and
build the roof trusses for your new Sater home. Typically your
builder with work with a trusted local truss company and they
will take your home plans and design and construct the trusses
for you. It is a necessary and very important part of the home
construction process.
Construction Practices
The building materials, in practice, are deployed for variety of
purposes ranging from construction of load
bearing walls to frame structures with infill panel wall and
roofing with low strength building materials
depending upon the availability of materials, financial
resources, technical know-how and climatic conditions.
In rural constructions, load bearing walls are generally built
with mud, sundried bricks, clay blocks or stone as
random rubble masonry in mud mortar. In case of non-load
bearing walls, wooden posts are provided to transfer
the load and non-load bearing panels are made with split
bamboo, reed, grass, leaves etc. These panels are
plastered with mud or very seldom with cement mortar as a
protective coat. In flat roof, straight branches of trees
or ballies are used as joists on which rests a layer of twing, thin
bundles of reed or any such material to cover the
spaces in between and finally a thick layer of mud thoroughly
compacted is laid. Properly sawn joists are
occasionally used, in which case flat bricks, slate or wooden
planks are laid to cover the spaces between wooden
joists. Stone patties are also used spanning wall to wall. Pitched
roofs may have only a ridge beam spanning
between gable walls or posts and thatch with bamboo to act as
rafters lean into the ridge beam from either sides.
Trusses and framework for roof are made in variety of ways
with ballies, straight branches of trees or bamboo.
Any of the local materials e.g. grass, leaves etc. in combination
with reed or split bamboo in the form of thatch,
slate, country tiles or corrugated sheets is chosen as the roof
covering.
Evaluation
Post earthquake studies indicate that houses, appearing strong,
with thick mud or stone walls of the order of 600
to 1000mm thickness and roof with 150 to 450mm thick layer of
clay prove most hazardous and transform into
heaps of debris resulting significant loss of lives in the event of
an earthquake. Fig. 1 shows partial destruction of
rubble masonry wall. Fig. 2 shows destruction of rubble
masonry while the roof on timber post is almost intact.
The principle explains the fact that the damage of structure is a
function of its weight. The heavier the weight of
structure the severe is the damage.
Timber frame work in a residential building
Fig. 3
The diminishing forest resources of the country adversely effect
free availability of natural building materials.
Wood particularly has become a scarce and costly material and
is out of common man’s reach. Secondly, these
materials though are cheaper but suffer from many inherent
shortcomings including their short life span. In other
words these materials prove to be much costly as compared to
permanent building materials if their life cycle
cost is considered. As a matter of fact, the user is normally
concerned with the initial cost and many a times
overlook the cost implications in long run. To keep a balance
between the choice of user and long term cost of
the materials, there is a need to workout alternate construction
systems with structural components in standard
materials and other less important components in any other
materials as per the choice of the user. In this case
too, the local materials must be used after improving their
quality by employing treatment or improved
techniques which does not require much skills and are cost
effective.
It is evident from the above explanation that the best form of
structure to withstand earthquake may be a frame
structure in which all components are rigidly connected
together to behave as a single unit. Keeping in mind the
parameters discussed above, a skeleton system has been
devised which has a rigid frame structure to bear
earthquake stresses and panel walls with a number of options
as per user’s choice.
312*)‫ ندى شعبان على عبد النبى‬-: ‫االسم‬
‫ المراجع‬:-
https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Skeleton_frame#:~:te
xt=A%20skeleton%20frame%20is%20a,all%20loads%20to
%20the%20foundations.
https://www.britannica.com/technology/bearing-wallhttps://www
.wxingbearing.com/spherical-roller-bear_wcB