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Chapter 6 Psychosocial, Psychosexual and Humanist Theories of Learning

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Lesson 1: Erikson’s Psychosocial and Freud’s Psychosexual Theories

After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

 Compare and contrast Erikson’s Psychosocial and Freud’s Psychosexual theories
 Connect Erikson’s and Freud’s theories to teaching
 Relate their theories to current issues of learners
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THINK
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“Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough to fear death.” There is
in every child at every stage a miracle of vigorous unfolding which constitutes a new hope and
a new responsibility for all. -Erik Erikson
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Erikson’s (1902-1994)
the human life span – from infancy to adulthood. He stressed
the importance of interpersonal, social and cultural influences
in the development of the people.
He saw that each stage pre
quite vulnerable. He believed that these crises presented
challenges in
psychology.fas.harvard.edu an individual’s identity.
Erikson coined the term epigenetic principle to refer to the different stages because he
believed that human beings developed through a predetermined unfolding of personalities in
eight successive psychosocial stages, wherein the progress through each stage (Fig 15) is in part
determined by the success or lack of it in the previous stages.

Figure 15. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages (verywellmind.com)

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 Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional forces (contrary
dispositions). These are the syntonic or the first-listed positive disposition in each crisis and the
dystonic, the second-listed negative disposition or tendency. He saw a crisis (indicated by
versus) as a struggle between attaining some adaptive psychological quality versus failing to
obtain it.
Maladaptation occurs when there is too much of the positive (much trust) and too little
of the negative (less distrust) disposition. Malignancy exists when there is too much of the
negative and too little of the positive (Sokol, 2009). Virtue or psychosocial strength results
when each stage is managed well or a healthy ratio or balance exists between the opposing
dispositions.
Stage One: Trust vs Mistrust. From infancy to about 18 months, infants develop trust
to others, especially to caregivers. Letting them feel that they are cared for is a paramount
concern. They should view the world as non-threatening. When caregivers provide reliability,
care and protection, children will develop a sense of trust. A lack of this will lead to mistrust. It
is implied that parents should provide the best possible means to meet all the basic needs of
the infant like food, water, shelter and ensure that the place within which the infant moves is
safe and secured.
Stage Two: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt. The prime ways to take good care of
themselves should be taught to children from 2 to 3 years old like feeding themselves, toilet
training and changing their clothes. In this stage, they ask themselves if they can stand alone
or always need to rely on others. This stage implies that parents ensure that their children
develop a sense of personal control over personal skills. Eventually, success leads to feeling of
autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
Stage Three: Initiative vs Guilt. Children are now fond of doing things on their own.
Exploration and play are crucial activities for them to learn new ideas to apply in their lives.
They need to assert control and power over their environment. Success in this state results to
a sense of purpose. If they exert too much effort and become too authoritative, they will feel a
sense of guilt.
Preschool teachers should ensure that children are given sufficient opportunities to
select or choose and act independently. For instance, in an art class, a teacher may allow
pupils to choose the colors or kind of paper they want to use. They may chunk activities so
they could take risks. Completing nothing without any sense of independence and authority
may cause them to feel guilty.
Stage Four: Industry vs Inferiority. Here, levels of maturity and self-awareness are
increased. Children always ask themselves how they can be good. They are ensured to cope
with the new social and academic demands. Success results to a sense of competence, failure
leads to a feeling of insecurity. Teachers need to ensure that children feel successful in their
own learning. Classroom opportunities to apply their learning should be rich. As much as
possible, the difficulty of each task is gradually controlled so that the feeling of accomplishment
is felt and their industry is maximized.
Stage Five: Identity vs Role Confusion. Social relationships play a vital role at this stage
when their sexual identity is developed. Discovery of oneself comes with the thought of where
one should fit in a social circle. Adolescents develop their framework of morality. Identity

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crisis, as a result of transition from childhood to adulthood may also be experienced. It is a
result of high expectation from others. Some of them may be doubtful whether what they do
is appropriate for their age. Failure to balance at this stage may result to experiencing
upheaval and role confusion. Teachers should ensure that teens have the opportunities to
develop a sense of self and personal identity through collaborative tasks and activities.
Stage Six: Intimacy vs. Isolation. Finding the right partner confronts the young adult at
this stage. Failure to do so results to fear of spending the rest of their lives alone or isolated.
Because young people interact most frequently with others, they are most susceptible to
feeling intimacy and loneliness. Although finding someone whom they can share lifelong
commitment is not always the norm, some opt to be single and forge a significant friendly
relationship with peers and colleagues.
Stage Seven: Generativity vs. Stagnation. Adults are mostly attached to their careers
and professional journeys. They find life’s meaning by contributing something to the
community, taking responsibilities and control, and leaving an indelible legacy. Success leads
to feelings of usefulness or generativity, failure to attain so causes inactivity or
meaninglessness.
Stage Eight: Ego Integrity vs. Despair. When thinking that they have contributed
something valuable during their younger years, retired and about to retire people should feel a
sense of fulfillment. Harking back the days with sense of fulfillment, adults can feel a sense of
wisdom and integrity, failure results in regret, bitterness and despair.

Table 16. Summary of Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

Stage Crisis Significant Maladaptation Malignancy Virtue

Person
Trust vs. sensory mal- Withdrawal Hope
Infancy Mistrust Infant/ baby adjustment
Autonomy vs.
Toddlerhood Shame & Toddler impulsiveness compulsive- Will/
Doubt ness Determination
Preschool Age Initiative vs.
Guilt Preschooler ruthlessness inhibition Purpose
School Age Industry vs. Elementary narrow
Inferiority pupil virtuosity inertia Competence
Ego Identity
Adolescence vs. Role Teenager fanaticism repudiation Fidelity
Confusion
Early Intimacy vs.
Adulthood Isolation Young adult promiscuity exclusion Love
Generativity Parents/
Middle Age vs. stagnation Career men overextension rejectivity Caring
Old Age/ Integrity vs. Grandparent/
Senescence despair Senior citizen presumption Disdain Wisdom

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Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
“The mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one-seventh of its bulk above water.”

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) believed that adult

personality is shaped by early childhood experience, thus the
first 5 to 6 years of the child’s life is crucial in one’s
development. He stated the need to satisfy basic biological
needs
His theory also known as the theory of libidinal
development, is one of the earliest theories explaining
personality development. He posited a series of universal
development stages in which psychic energy becomes
focused in different erogenous zones.
Livescience.com
The psychic energy refers to the biologically based, instinctual drives that energize
behavior, thoughts and feelings. The erogenous zones (EZ) are the areas of the body that
become erotically sensitive in successive stages of development. It is through this premise that
the personality structure of a human being is also influenced.

Three Components of Personality

1. Id is our unconscious mind and is pleasure-centered. It contains human motives and

emotions. It wants immediate gratification. This is known as the biological drive with which
the infant is born. It is said to be the earliest and most primitive personality structure and
usually
operates with the goal of seeking pleasure.
2. Ego is the conscious mind and is reality-centered. It is the rational level of
personality which guides the basic impulses for behavior that arise from the id. This structure
is the logical, problem solving component of the personality.
3. Superego represents ideals on morals and manners and strives for perfection. It
consists of the conscience, our internal judicial system. This is the structure based on the
child’s internalization of the adult’s attributes, beliefs and standards.

According to Freud, personality development takes place through constant activation of

the life instinct. For him, the first five years of life are determined for the formation of
personality.
Fixation occurs when there is too much or too little gratification in each stage which
makes an individual stagnate or remain in the stage when unresolved.

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Table 17. Summary of Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
Stage Age (EZ) Description
Infants find pleasure in doing oral activities like sucking,
chewing, biting, hence feeding activities are vital.
Oral Birth to 1 mouth A child weaned from bottle or breast too early may be
year dependent, crave close contact or become gullible as an adult;
or if weaned too late may eat, drink, smoke, kiss excessively or
be bitingly critical of others.
Gratification is primarily caused by voluntary urination and
defecation. Toilet-training produces major conflicts between
Anal 1-3 years anus children and parents. The emotional climate that parents crate
have lasting effects.
A child who is severely toiled trained may fixate and be an
adult who is overly neat while a child who is undertrained may
show excessive sloppiness as an adult.
Genital stimulation cause gratification at this stage. Children
develop incestuous desire for the opposite-sex parent (Oedipus
complex for boys and Electra complex for girls). Anxiety
phallic 3-6 years penis/ stemming from this conflict cause children to internalize the
genitals sex-role characteristics and the moral standards of their same-
sex parental rival.
A child who fails to identify with the parent of the same
sex may result to homosexuality.
Traumas of the phallic stage cause sexual conflicts to be
repressed and sexual urges to be rechanneled into school work
Latency 6-11 and vigorous play. The ego and superego continue to develop
years as the child gains more problem solving abilities at school and
internalized societal values.
The child engages actively in sports, athletics, cultural and
academic activities in school
Puberty triggers a reawakening of sexual urges (libido).
Adolescents must now learn to express these urges in socially
Genital 12 years acceptable ways. Adolescents focus on the opposite sex.
onward If development has been healthy (no fixation in the first
three stages), the mature sex instinct is satisfied by
marriage and raising children.

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EXPERIENCE
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Classrooms in the 21st Century are filled with a variety of students in terms of needs,
abilities, talents and potentials. Understanding the unconscious feelings of the varied learners
may be used to motivate them.

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 Another way to apply Freud’s psychoanalysis is by using role playing. During a
controlled role play, the students can realize how roles are played in a particular setting and
stage. Learner-directed activities can enhance initiative and leadership. Teachers should avoid
ridiculing students’ ideas because it can impede the flourishing of their initiative.
Giving students varies sets of realistic goals and assigning specific jobs to them like
collecting papers and distributing handouts will also give them a sense of accomplishment.
Reducing inferiority among students can be aided by constant feedback to their performance.
Teachers who leave the students without any report of improvement might cause learners’
inferiority.
Providing role models to the adolescent learners and teaching them about gender
equality may increase the awareness of their self-identity and self-worth. Opportunities to
incorporate academic success into their identities can also boost the appreciation of their
worth as future professionals.
___________________________________________________________________________
ASSESS
_____________________________________________________________________________
Write Y if the statement requires an affirmative answer and N if otherwise. Answer on
the space provided before the number.
___ 1. According to Freud, gratification from urinating and defecating is experienced by 6 to 8
-year old children.
___ 2. Freud’s challenges in an individual’s identity is called crisis.
___ 3. The epigenetic principle refers to the different stages that human beings developed
through a predetermined unfolding of personalities.
___ 4. The incestuous desire of 3 to 6-year old children happens during the phallic stage
according to Freud.
___ 5. Erikson believed that when there is too little of the positive and too much of the
negative aspect, maladaptation occurs.
___ 6. The ego is the rational, logical and problem solving component of the personality.
___ 7. Stage 6 (intimacy vs. confusion) is the stage when teachers provide teenagers with
opportunities to develop a sense of self and personal identity through group tasks.
___ 8. According to Erikson, the best time to let children feel that the environment is secured
and non-threatening is during stage 3.
___ 9. The structure based on the child’s internalization of the adult’s attributes, beliefs and
standards is called the superego.
___10. To Freud, the reawakening of sexual urges happens during the puberty stage.
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CHALLENGE
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Compare and contrast Erikson’s and Freud’s theory in terms of the number of stages,
view on the child, aspect of development focused and important concepts.

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_____________________________________________________________________________
HARNESS
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Based on the Erikson’s Psychosocial theory, at what stage of development are you in?
What is your crisis, if any? Have you experienced any maladaptation or malignancy? Why or
Why not? What virtue have you developed?
Present your answers in any creative way.

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_____________________________________________________________________________
Chapter 6 Psychosocial, Psychosexual and Humanist Theories of Learning
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Lesson 2: Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory

After completing this lesson, you will be able to:

 Discuss the levels and stages of Kohlberg’s Moral
Development theory
 Explain the salient features of his theory
 Relate his theory to current issues of learners

totallyhistory.com
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THINK
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“Right action tends to be defined in terms general individual rights and standards that have
been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society.”

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) created the “Heinz dilemma”, the best known moral
dilemma story which discusses the idea of obeying the law versus saving life. Moral
development does not simply talk about increasing knowledge of cultural values leading to
ethical standards (Kohlberg, 1977). It presents the transformations that occur in a person’s
form or structure of thought
According to him, children form ways of thinking through their experiences which
include understanding of moral concepts such as justice, rights, equality and human welfare.
Once they had a negative experience on these concepts, they would develop an idea and later
on, a moral concept that what they did was just and good.
He identified six stages of moral reasoning grouped into three major levels, with each
level representing a significant change in the social-moral reasoning or perspective of the
person. These stages were based on the responses of children and adolescents who heard the
Heinz dilemma. They were asked of the reasons why Heinz’ action to steal the drug to save the
life of his wife and disobey the law was either right or wrong. His work focused on moral
reasoning not on moral judgment.

Important Concepts
Morality is the standard of what is right and wrong. It consists of moral knowledge and
moral behavior. Moral knowledge means knowing what is right from wrong and moral
behavior consists of doing what is right. These must go together if one has integrity. For
example, a student who knows that cheating is wrong but continues to do it lacks integrity.
Moral reasoning is explaining why a behavior or action is right or wrong.
Moral dilemma consists of two desirable situations where a person must choose only
one. Based on Heinz dilemma, both obeying the law and saving life are good and desirable. It

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is not a dilemma when you are presented with a good and bad options because it is expected
that one must choose what is good.

Table 18. Kohlberg’s Moral Development theory

Level Stage Description
Preconventional level 1 – Punishment/Obedience One is motivated by fear of punishment
Reasoning is based on
result or consequence of 2 – Mutual Benefit or Motivated by the benefit that one may
the act Instrumental-Relativist obtain later
Conventional level 3 – Social Approval or Motivated by what others expect in
Reasoning is based on Interpersonal Concordance behavior
the conventions or
“norms” of society 4 – Law and Order One upholds the law to maintain order
Post Conventional Level 5 – Social Contract One acts based on social justice &
Reasoning is based on common good, laws which are wrong can
conscience or enduring be changed
principles and moral
values, not just following 6 – Universal Ethical Having set of standards that drive one to
the law Principles possess moral responsibility and
conscience to make societal changes
regardless of consequences to oneself

The aim of holistic education is growth and development in intellectual and moral
aspects. Moral education should model ethical standards and principles by providing a just
community-school approach. The ultimate objective of moral education is that of justice, the
primary regard for the value and equality of all human beings and reciprocity in human
relations known as a basic and universal standard.
In this era of fast development and improvement, understanding learners’
characteristics and how teachers could provide a more realistic and healthy learning
environment for the learners is a very important consideration. Identifying the social, sexual
and moral characteristics is a crucial part of becoming a teacher.
Once teachers are able to understand these unique characteristics, they can provide a
healthy environment and later on, the parents and immediate community could benefit from
these because they will be informed and trained on how to handle and deal with our learners.
The education sector should become more emphatic and sensitive to this advocacy for the sake
of training the younger one with the ideals of integrity and identity building.
Isaksson (1979) postulated that Kohlberg’s theory can be a basis for moral education in
school or other educational settings. The following are the conditions for the efficacy of such
programs:
1. The teachers’ prior knowledge of the developmental stage or level of the individual
students, both cognitive and moral development, as well as some knowledge of the principles
underlying cognitive-developmental psychology
2. An accepting classroom atmosphere ( and probably some minimum correlation
between this classroom atmosphere and the ambience of the school as a whole, as well as a
morally advanced ethos in the family, peer group, mass media, politics, etc., that is in the
child’s environment and the society at large)

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 3. Exposure of the students to the next stage above their own
4. Cognitive conflict
5. Role-taking by the students
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EXPERIENCE
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For elementary teachers applying Kohlberg’s theory, they should employ motivational
appeals and teaching-learning activities that appeal to and develop the child’s desire for social
approval and acceptance. Rewarding the child in nontangible means for having acted
responsibly by collaborating with his or her peers and respecting others confirms social
approval and acceptance.
Teachers may also extinguish the negative behavior of unruly children by closed-door
counseling and heart-to-heart talk. Kohlberg believed that punishments should be lessened
because imposing them may not encourage children to show moral development at the
conventional stage.
In literature, values education and Social Science subjects confronting the students with
simulated instances on moral dilemmas through collaborative tasks and activities may aid in
the moral development of students. Situations that focus on empathy, cooperation, justice
and peaceful resolution of disagreements are helpful to attain such goal. The activities
themselves should serve to develop consciousness, acceptance and participation skills.
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ASSESS
_____________________________________________________________________________
A. Choose the correct answer inside the parenthesis. Write on a separate sheet of
paper.
1. In the postconventional level of morality, the (conscience, consequence) serves as basis for
moral reasoning.
2. Kohlberg’s theory is concerned more on moral (judgment, reasoning).
3. Which shows a moral dilemma (playing vs. studying, gossiping vs. gambling)?
4. At what stage of moral development is a Grade 6 pupil who follows school rules and
regulations for fear of being punished (law and order, punishment/obedience)?
5. At what level of moral reasoning do Jose Rizal, Ninoy Aquino and the likes belong
(conventional, post-conventional)?
B. Identify the stage of moral development shown by the following:
6. Riza allows her classmates to copy her homework so that they will think she is kind and will
like her to be their friend.
7. Ric does everything to get passing grades because his mom will take his cellphone back if
he
gets bad grades.
8. John decides to return the wallet he found in the classroom because he believes that is the
right thing to do.
9. A civic action group protests the use of pills for family planning, saying that although the
government allows this, it is actually murder because the pills are abortifacient (causes
abortion).
10. A jeepney driver looks if there is a policeman around before he makes a U-turn in a no U-

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 turn spot.

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CHALLENGE
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News reports show that there are students who have suicidal tendencies or have
committed suicide. Suggest two concrete activities that would help students to realize the
value of life.

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

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HARNESS
_____________________________________________________________________________
The following are some societal issues that are continuously debated upon and
criticized by moralists. Based on your own standards of morality, give your reasons as to why
you consider these issues/moral concerns as right or wrong.
In the column for right or wrong, just write R or W.

Issues Right (R) or Reasons

Wrong (W)

Abortion

Same-Sex
Marriage

Death Penalty

Premarital Sex

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_____________________________________________________________________________
Chapter 7 Student Diversity
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Lesson 1: Learning Styles

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 Explain the main ideas concerning learning styles
 Discuss the similarities and differences among the learning style preferences
 Design learning activities that will cater to the needs of a diverse classroom

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THINK
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“We have become not a melting pot but a beautiful mosaic…different people, different beliefs,
different yearnings, different hopes, different dreams.” – Jimmy Carter

One of the educational challenges that teachers face nowadays is the diverse learners
inside the classroom. This calls for more innovative and creative teachers to satisfy the varied
characteristics and needs of the 21 st century learners. It is essential that future teachers like
you be more knowledgeable, especially on how to deal with learners’ needs and interests by
preparing learning activities that are meaningful to them.

Learning Styles
Ignacio Estrada’s statement that, “If learners cannot learn the way we teach them,
maybe we should teach them the way they learn,” is a clear reminder for teachers to consider
in their daily teaching, the unique style of learners.
Considering the different characteristics of learners as visual, auditory and kinesthetic
or tactile, teachers are challenged to provide activities and materials that will correspond to
their learning preferences, especially if they are eclectic (a mixture of learning preferences).
In 1984, a known educational psychologist, David Kolb (born 1939), described learning
style as the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience.
Jones and Blankenship (2017) view learning styles as the preferential way in
which the students absorb, process, comprehend and retain information. Each learner has his
or her way of processing information and this situation motivates the teachers to plan and
prepare lessons that will satisfy the unique learning styles of the learners.
The importance of knowing the concept of learning styles could influence the
understanding of teachers on the individual differences of students (Li et al., 2016). When
teachers are critically ware of learning styles, they are likely to be very careful when designing
a lesson plan, during their teaching and when assessing individual student (Pajares, 1992).

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Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle

There are many classifications of learning styles but this

discussion will focus on Kolb’s experiential learning style theory
which is typically represented through a four-stage learning cycle.
Kolb (1974) views learning as an integrated process in which each
stage is mutually supportive and feeding into the next part of the
cycle. It is further explained that effective learning only occurs
when a learner can experience all four stages (Fig 16) of the
model.

historyoflearningpreferences.com

medium.com
Figure 16. Kolb’s experiential learning cycle

Kolb’s Learning Styles

Due to the heavy demands of improving the teaching-learning process, having
knowledge of the learning styles is very important. Maddux, Ewing-Taylor and Johnson (2002)

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stated that one way to ensure quality education and positive student outcome is considering
the relevance of student learning styles in designing instructional methods.
Kolb presented four basic learning styles: accommodative, assimilative, divergent and
convergent. Each learning style is incorporated with four learning modes: concrete
experiences, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation.
Kolb and Fry in 1975, described four different conducive learning environments that will
accommodate different learning styles and modes: affective learning environment, symbolic
learning environment, perceptual learning environment and behavioral learning environment
(Richmond & Cummings, 2005).

Table 19. Kolb’s Learning Styles and Learning Modes

Learning Description Learning
Styles
Accommodativ
e Learners excel at
accomplishing tasks by
following directions,
Strengths: meticulously planning,
seeking new
doing and risk- experiences. They are
taking opportunistic, action-
driven and risk-takers,
Emphasis: can solve problems in
intuitive trial and error
adapting oneself manner than careful
to new examination of facts,
situations rely heavily on other
people for information
than their analytic
ability.
Assimilative Learners can reason
inductively; can create
theoretical models in
Strengths: assimilating disparate
Building observations into an
theoretical integrated explanation;
models concerned with ideas
and abstract concepts
Description
Modes
Concrete Learning mode for learners who
Experiences desire plenty of opportunities for
direct human interpersonal
Focus: Involved interactions; prefer to feel and
interpersonal experience than think, are intuitive
experiences decision-maker who value
circumstances involving people in
Values: real- real-world situations; concerned with
world situations uniqueness and complexity of
present reality as opposed to
theories and generalizations; learners
take an artistic, intuitive approach
than scientific in problem solving.
Active Mode focused on actively influencing
experimentation people and changing situations;
learners prefer peer interaction that
Focus: allow them to play integral role in
Influencing decisions made; emphasizes practical
people and applications or solutions than
changing reflective understanding of problem;
situations learners are pragmatists focused on
doing than observing, enjoy and are
Values: Ability to efficient in getting the job done;
manipulate value the ability to manipulate
environments environment for productive results.
Abstract Learners typically attend to tasks that
Conceptualiza- involve logical investigation of ideas
tion and concepts; prefer to depend on
cognitive than emotional skills;
Focus: logic, involve themselves with and tackle
ideas, concepts academic problems that require the
ability to build general theories to
Values: come up with solution; value rigorous
conceptual data analysis and well-defined
systems and conceptual system; involves the use
rigorous data of systematic planning, manipulation

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 Emphasis: Less than with people and analysis of abstract symbols and quantitative
on people, more social interactions; analysis.
on ideas and concerned with abstract Reflective
concepts logical than practical Observation Mode focuses on the ability to
aspect of theories. Focus: understand the meaning of ideas;
Understand learners value objective judgment,
meaning of ideas impartiality and patience; prefer
Values: Patience, abstract understanding over practical
impartiality and applications; prefer to reflect and
thoughtful observe than act on a situation
judgment
Abstract
Conceptualiza-
Learners’ ability to tion
Convergent efficiently solve Focus: logic,
problems, make ideas, concepts See description of abstract
Strengths: decisions and apply Values: conceptualization in previous modes
Intelligence practical ideas to solve conceptual
tests problems; do well on systems and
standard conventional rigorous data
Emphasis: intelligence tests analysis
Problem solving because they can Active
and decision- organize knowledge in experimentation
making hypothetical-deductive Focus: See description of active
reasoning and converge Influencing experimentation
to one given answer; people and
well adept in controlling changing
emotions; prefer dealing situations
with technical tasks and Values: Ability to
problems than issues on manipulate
interpersonal and social environments
interactions
Divergent Divergent learners are Reflective
Strengths: best at tasks that Observation
Creativity and require imaginative Focus: See description of reflective
brainstorming ability and awareness of Understand observation
Emphasis: Social meaning and value; can meaning of ideas
interaction and identify concrete Values: Patience,
perspective- examples and generate impartiality and
taking numerous qualities of a thoughtful
concept from many judgment
perspectives; Concrete
considered as brain Experiences
stormers; prefer to See description of concrete
observe than act; are Focus: Involved experiences
emotionally oriented interpersonal
and tend to be very experiences
creative.
Values: real-
world situations

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 Four learning environments support the various learning styles and their associated
learning modes. Teachers must be sensitive enough to incorporate the learning environment
with the learning styles and learning modes.

Table 20. Kolb’s Learning Environments

Type of environment
Affective Learning
Environment
Symbolic Learning
Environment
Perceptual Learning
Environment
Behavioral Learning
Environment
Description
Learning environment which emphasizes concrete experiences so that
learners experience the real thing. Affective learning tasks include
activities such as practical exercise, simulations or field experiences.
Information is usually peer-oriented and delivered informally.
Activities are none competitive, feedback should not be comparative
but personalized to the individual learner’s goals and needs.
Learners are involved in trying to solve problems for which there is
usually a right answer or the best solution. Information is abstract
and usually presented in readings, data, pictures and lecture formats.
Activities may include lecture, homework and theory readings.
Teacher is acknowledged as expert, enforcer of rules, regulator of
time and taskmaster. The instruction format is typically with a top-
down, hierarchical class structure.
Main goal is to identify and understand relationships among concepts.
it emphasizes the process of problem solving rather than coming up
with the best solution. Learners are required to collect relevant
information for researching questions and are expected to attack a
problem situation through different perspectives (ow opinion, expert
opinion, literature) by listening, observing, writing, discussing and
personal pondering. Teacher’s role is to act as facilitator of the
learning process, be non-evaluative and act as a mirror by reflecting
student observation and comments. Learning processes may include
reflective exercises like keeping journals, writing reflective essays or
engaging in dialogue with other students.
It emphasizes active application of knowledge or skills to a practical
problem. Activities should not be structured so that learners gain
intrinsic rewards and values. The teacher acts as a coach or guide but
only when the student initiates or solicits help. Small group work,
interactive projects that apply theory to real-world settings and peer
feedback are examples of student activities. Measurement is in the
form of how well something worked, feasibility, salability, client
acceptance, cost, testing results and aesthetic quality.

It is important that for each learning style, there are two corresponding learning
modes, and for each learning mode, there is a corresponding learning environment. As Kolbe
and Fry (1975) suggested, each of the four learning environments is supportive of a particular
learning mode with its accompanying learning styles (Fig 17).
The symbolic learning environment best supports the abstract conceptualization
learning mode which is part of both convergent and assimilative learning styles. The
perceptual learning environment is the most effective environment for the reflective
observation learning mode that is part of the divergent and assimilative learning styles.

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 The behavioral learning environment best supports the active experimentation learning
mode, which is part of the convergent and accommodative learning styles. The affective
learning environment is most effective for concrete experiences learning mode, which is part of
the divergent and accommodative learning styles.

Figure 17. Kolb’s learning styles, learning modes and learning environments

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EXPERIENCE
_____________________________________________________________________________
Based on different academic studies, learners often come from varied backgrounds and
sociocultural settings, with corresponding varied learning styles (Bollinger, 2003). That is why
teachers must align their teaching styles with the learners’ learning styles. Effective teaching
should be based on instructional design and planning that will have a great impact on student
learning.
This design includes the know-how of incorporating learning styles, learning modes and
learning environment principles I the daily teaching-learning process. If the teacher notices
that most of the learners demonstrate assimilative and convergent styles, he or she will
implement a learning environment that is supportive of these styles.
If the class is more of being assimilative, the teacher will provide more discussion of
ideas and abstracts and challenge the students to come up with theories or explanation. If he
or she notices that the learning environment to be provided is an affective learning
environment, interactive activities will be prepared to enable the students to experience and
apply the concepts or lessons.

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 Through this activity, the knowledge gained from interactive activities will assist the
learners in applying them in their values and future experiences. In one instance, if the
learning environment is more of perceptual and an Education student is required to observe a
child, that student will write a case summary based on the observation and the structure of the
case summary should follow the example of case studies conducted and described by experts
in the fields like psychologists and teachers.
The last example is a History teacher who will teach a lesson on WWII. He might use a
darkened classroom, artificial smoke, background sounds of gun noises and people wailing, and
even encouraging students to wear costumes for them to feel the situation. By doing these
activities, the learners will be motivated to learn more because a real scenario is to be
presented and experienced by the learners.

_____________________________________________________________________________
ASSESS
_____________________________________________________________________________
1. Write the concept that is asked or described in the statement on the space
provided before the number.
__________ 1. A preferential way in which students absorb, process, comprehend and retain
information.
__________ 2. An educational psychologist who promoted the concept of learning styles in
education.
__________ 3. This usually occurs when the learners experience the four stages of the
experiential learning cycle.
__________ 4. A learning styles where the learners have the ability to reason inductively.
__________ 5. The learning mode which focuses on actively influencing people and changing
situations.

2. Identify the learning environment that is best for the following activities. Write
the letter only.
A. Affective B. Behavioral C. Perceptual D. Symbolic
___ 6. Multiple choice quizzes and tests
___ 7. Projects
___ 8. Interactive tutorials
___ 9. Online reading journal
___10. Lecture summaries

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_____________________________________________________________________________
CHALLENGE
_____________________________________________________________________________
Miss Angel, an English teacher, noticed that the dominant learning style of her Grade 11
class is divergent. If you were to advice the teacher, what learning environment and strategies
or activities, should she prepare for her class?

_____________________________________________________________________________
HARNESS
_____________________________________________________________________________
Identify your own learning style, your learning mode and the learning environment that
works best for you. What activities and teaching strategies would you suggest to your teachers
to consider in their lessons? Present your answers in any creative way.

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_____________________________________________________________________________
Chapter 7 Student Diversity
_____________________________________________________________________________

Lesson 2: Multiple Intelligences

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 Explain the concept of multiple intelligences
 Discuss each component of multiple intelligences
 Suggest activities that will cater to the varied intelligences of learners

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THINK
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“Every human is at the same time, like all other humans, like some humans, and like no other
human.” – Clyde Kluckhohn

Multiple Intelligences

Educators understand that learners come to school with

different, varied and unique intellectual and information
processing abilities because learners have different biological,
cultural and personal backgrounds (Ayesha & Khurshid, 2013).
Learners respond to different motivation in a special way
due to their mental abilities that help them to process
knowledge and skills using their way of operating information.
This difference is the reason of the paradigm shift from the
traditional teaching-learning process to student-centered
classroom where the questions of what content to teach and
howardgardner.com how it would be taught were changed into big questions of
how do students learn and process the lesson and how can the teacher facilitate the delivery of
the lesson.
This perspective in teaching has led educators to view the classroom as a place where
teachers can provide more enjoyable learning activities in which student learning is facilitated
(Alrabah et al., 2018). Once the student-centered classroom is given emphasis, the Multiple
Intelligences (MI) of the students are given consideration.
Reid (1998) conducted a research where MI has the potential to positively influence
classroom teaching. Through accommodating the MI and the learning styles of the learners,
learning and understanding of the lesson can be maximized because the learners will
potentially be more receptive to the teaching presentation and its modes. Through these
practices, learners manifest varying degrees of intelligence.
Howard Gardner (born 1943) presented the concept of MI in 1999, based on the skills
and abilities of the learners. He debunked the century-long and traditional concept of
intelligence referring only to Intelligence Quotient (IQ). Having a high level of IQ would

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facilitate achieving success according to traditional concept; however, this belief on pure
intelligence measurable by a single IQ can be labeled inaccurate (Ayesha & Khurshid, 2013).
In 1983, when Gardner presented his concept about intelligence through his book,
Frames of Mind, he stated that any individual has different capabilities and tendencies in
different areas and that each has several types of intelligence that are intermingled in different
ways. He suggested MI as an alternative way to traditional classroom designs that need a
variety of ways people learn and understand.
Learners do not have a single intelligence but a range of intelligence; that all people
have these intelligences, but in each person, one or two of them is/are more pronounced or
dominant. His MI theory had virile effects on different fields, most especially in teaching.
Through this theory, there were profound innovations in new ways and methods of lesson
presentation. Teachers at present are challenged and enjoined to provide a student-centered
classroom emboldened by MI-inspired instructions.

The Nine Multiple Intelligences

Intelligence is an ability or set of abilities that allows a person to solve a problem or

fashion a product that is valued in one or more cultures (Gardner, 1983). While identifying the
potentials of intelligence, he identified eight criteria to be classified as intelligence:

a. potential isolation by brain damage

b. existence of idiots, savants, prodigies and other exceptional individuals
c. distinctive developmental history
d. evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility
e. support from experimental psychological tasks
f. support from psychometric findings
g. susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system

From these eight criteria, Gardner described the nine intelligences (Table 21). He
mentioned two advantages of MI in education (Yalmanci & Gozum, 2013). First, the MI theory
gives the opportunity to plan education program to make students desire for certain area
(becoming a musician, statistician, engineer, scientist, etc.)
Second, it enables teachers to reach more students who are trying to learn different
disciplines and theories. Learning would be realized much easily on the condition that students
are trained by using these intelligence fields.
Teachers are expected to integrate MI in their daily lesson in which all types of learners
can benefit. It is true that when teachers recognize the significance of MI in the lesson, they
effectively execute lessons involving all learners and not just those who are good in numbers
and words.

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Table 21. Gardner’s Nine Intelligences

Type of
Intelligence Description
1. Visual/ Learning visually and organizing ideas spatially; Seeing concepts in action to
Spatial understand them; ability to perceive, modify and create images; spatial
intelligent persons can understand patterns of space, environmentally
(Picture Smart) sensitive to the potential to think in terms of physical space and three-
dimensional objects.
2. Verbal/Linguistic Learning through spoken and written word; ability to comprehend and
compose language; verbally-intelligent persons have good auditory skills to
(Word Smart) segment sound and visualize words through sensory perception.
Learning through reasoning and problem solving; ability to calculate and
3. Logical/ comprehend situations systematically and logically; persons with this
Mathematical intelligence can easily experiment with cause-effect relationships,
categorization, classification, inference, generalizations, calculations and
(Number/ hypothesis testing, good at exploring patterns, deductive and inductive
Logic Smart) reasoning
Learning through interaction with environment; use of body for expression;
4. Bodily-Kinesthetic ability to use body and its parts in mastering problems or creating products;
persons with this intelligence can express oneself with movements, gestures
(Body Smart) and facial expressions using the coordination of the brain and body, creating
a product using the whole body or part of the whole body.
Learning through patterns, rhythms & music; Identifying patterns through all
5. Musical the senses; ability to identify pitch, rhythm, emotional side of sound and
sensitivity capabilities towards sounds from the environment and musical
(Music Smart) instruments; learners with this intelligence can perceive and transform,
discriminate between and express in musical forms.
Learning through feelings, values & attitudes; ability to have self-knowledge
6. Intrapersonal and recognize people’s similarities and differences among them; ability to
understand self, interpret and appreciate own feelings, emotions, desires,
(Self Smart) strengths and motivations; intrapersonal learners have clear understanding
of themselves, their inner moods, can discipline self, maintain self-esteem
and take responsibility for their own life.
Learning through interaction with others; promotes collaboration & working
7. Interpersonal cooperatively with others; ability to identify, comprehend and appreciate
the emotions, intentions, motivations, desires and beliefs of other people;
(People Smart) interpersonal persons can learn best though interactions and can win a lot of
friends because of empathy for others.
Learning through classification, categories and hierarchies; can be used in all
8. Naturalist areas; ability to identify and classify the natural world around people;
persons with this intelligence have the ability to recognize and research all
(Nature Smart) living things in nature and to think on their creation and are good at
categorizing natural as well as scientific inventions
Learning by seeing the “big picture”; seeks connections to real world
9. Existential understanding and application of new learning; existentially intelligent
people can question the existence of human beings, the meaning of life,
(Spirit/life Smart) reason for existence and even death, have the sensitivity and capacity to
tackle deep questions about human existence and its meaning.

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_____________________________________________________________________________
EXPERIENCE
_____________________________________________________________________________
Gardner stated that instruction which is designed to help students to develop their
strengths could also trigger their confidence to develop areas in which they are not as strong.
MI theory can be used for curriculum development, planning instruction, selection of course
activities and related assessment strategies.
Learners’ multiple learning preferences can be addressed when instruction includes a
range of meaningful and appropriate methods, activities and assessments. Through the
integration of MI in different educational theories, teaching strategies and other pedagogical
tools, the needs of varied types of learners in the classroom can be addressed better.
Gardner challenged teachers not to follow one specific theory or educational innovation
in designing and executing lesson, instead employ customized goals and values appropriate to
their teaching and student needs. One clear example is the implementation of intelligence
circle in the classroom.
A lesson in Science about Ecosystem can be done through a video presentation
(catering to the visual-spatial, musical-rhythmic, verbal-linguistic intelligent learners). A logical-
mathematical intelligent group of learners can be asked to present data and explain in logical
flow the concepts presented in the video.
Bodily-kinesthetic students might be asked to give a dance presentation of the current
situation of the ecosystem. The visual-spatial can be asked to come up with a drawing of the
ecosystem while the verbal-linguistic will present an explanation about the drawing. The
interpersonal group can be assigned to do an interview with people in the community on how
they could better protect the ecosystem.
The students with intrapersonal intelligence can present their reflections; the
naturalists can come up with a plan on how can live in harmony with the environment and the
existentialists can relate the significance of the ecosystem to life and death. Through this
thematic presentation of the lesson with the aid of MI, the learners’ needs, interests and
intelligences will be satisfied, thus promoting a more conducive and learner-centered learning
environment.
_____________________________________________________________________________
ASSESS
_____________________________________________________________________________
1. Identify the concept, idea or person asked. Write on the space before the number.
__________ 1. A professor of education in Harvard University whose work in psychology and
human cognition and potential led to the discovery of a range of intelligences.
__________ 2. A biopsychological potential of human being to process certain kinds of
information in certain kinds of ways.
__________ 3. Learners with this kind of intelligence learn best through hands-n activities.
__________ 4. This intelligence refers to the ability of the individual to deal with varied
people.
__________ 5. Learners who have this kind of intelligence can raise questions pertaining to
the
importance of human existence.

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 2. Identify the dominant intelligence of the following persons.
__________ 6. Salesman
__________ 7. Chef or cook
__________ 8. Philosopher
__________ 9. Orator
__________10. Animal trainer
_____________________________________________________________________________
CHALLENGE
_____________________________________________________________________________
Explain how Multiple Intelligences and Learning Styles complement each other and how
these concepts can be integrated in holistic teaching.

_____________________________________________________________________________
HARNESS
_____________________________________________________________________________
Choose a topic in your field of specialization. Suggest strategies or activities on how you
will teach the topic that will address diverse intelligences of learners using the table below.

Topic: ______________________________________________

Multiple Intelligences Strategies/Activities

Verbal-Linguistic

Logical-mathematical

Visual-Spatial

Bodily-Kinesthetic

Musical

Intrapersonal

Interpersonal

Naturalist

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 Existential

References

Aquino, Avelina M. (2015). Facilitating Human Learning (2nd Edition). Rex Printing Company,
Inc.: Quezon City

Aquino, Avelina M. (2009). Facilitating Human Learning. Rex Printing Company, Inc.: Quezon
City

Brown, Adam (2018). Five teaching and learning myths-debunked: A guide for Teachers

Bulusan, Ferdinand, Raquepo M., Balmeo, M., Gutierrez, J. (2019). Facilitating Learner-
Centered Teaching, Rex Printing company, Inc.: Quezon City

Fiscal, Rainer R. (2018). Innovative Techniques in Instruction Technology

Fleer, Marilyn (2018). Child Development in Educational Settings

Lucas Maria Rita D., Corpuz, Brenda B. (2014). Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process
(4th Edition OBE and Kto12), Lorimar Publishing Inc.: Manila

Lucas Maria Rita D., Corpuz, Brenda B. (2013). Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process
(3rd Edition), Lorimar Publishing Inc.: Manila

McGrath, Simon (2018). Education and Development

Johnson, A.P. (2014). Education Psychology: Theories of Learning and Human Development.
National Science Press.

Vega, Violeta A., Prieto, Nelia G. (2012). Facilitating Learning Revised Edition Books Atbp.
Publishing Corp.: Mandaluyong City

3GE-learning LLC (2019). 3GE Collection on Education: Educational and Developmental

Psychology

Electronic sources

http://learline.edu.edu.au/t4l/teachinglearning/facilitatinglearning.html

http://www.edtl.nus.edu.sg/handbook/learn/learn.htm

http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-facil.htm

http://encorps.nationalserviceresources.org/pal_facilitating.php

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