Effects of resistance training and chromium picolinate

on body composition and skeletal muscle in older men

WAYNE W. CAMPBELL,1 LYNDON J. O. JOSEPH,2 STEPHANIE L. DAVEY,1
DEANNA CYR-CAMPBELL,2 RICHARD A. ANDERSON,3 AND WILLIAM J. EVANS1
1Nutrition, Metabolism, and Exercise Laboratory, Donald W. Reynolds Department of Geriatrics,

University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, and Veterans Affairs Geriatric Research, Education,
and Clinical Center, Little Rock, Arkansas 72205; 2Noll Physiological Research Center, The
Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802; and 3Beltsville Human
Nutrition Research Center, US Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland 20705

Campbell, Wayne W., Lyndon J. O. Joseph, Stephanie
L. Davey, Deanna Cyr-Campbell, Richard A. Anderson,
and William J. Evans. Effects of resistance training and
chromium picolinate on body composition and skeletal muscle
in older men. J. Appl. Physiol. 86(1): 29–39, 1999.—The
effects of chromium picolinate (CrPic) supplementation and
resistance training (RT) on skeletal muscle size, strength,
and power and whole body composition were examined in 18
men (age range 56–69 yr). The men were randomly assigned
(double-blind) to groups (n 5 9) that consumed either 17.8
µmol Cr/day (924 µg Cr/day) as CrPic or a low-Cr placebo for
12 wk while participating twice weekly in a high-intensity RT
program. CrPic increased urinary Cr excretion ,50-fold (P ,
0.001). RT-induced increases in muscle strength (P , 0.001)
were not enhanced by CrPic. Arm-pull muscle power in-
creased with RT at 20% (P 5 0.016) but not at 40, 60, or 80%
of the one repetition maximum, independent of CrPic. Knee-
extension muscle power increased with RT at 20, 40, and 60%
(P , 0.001) but not at 80% of one repetition maximum, and
the placebo group gained more muscle power than did the
CrPic group (RT by supplemental interaction, P , 0.05).
Fat-free mass (P , 0.001), whole body muscle mass (P ,
0.001), and vastus lateralis type II fiber area (P , 0.05)
increased with RT in these body-weight-stable men, indepen-
dent of CrPic. In conclusion, high-dose CrPic supplementa-
tion did not enhance muscle size, strength, or power develop-
ment or lean body mass accretion in older men during a RT
program, which had significant, independent effects on these
measurements.
exercise; strength training; aging; basal metabolic rate; muscle
power
THE TRACE MINERAL TRIVALENT chromium (Cr31 ) is an
essential nutrient involved in the regulation of carbohy-
drate, lipid, and protein metabolism via an enhance-
ment of insulin action (2, 4, 5). Chromium supplementa-
tion, in the form of the organic compound chromium
picolinate, was reported (24) to have ergogenic proper-
ties related to body composition changes in young men.
The suggested benefits of chromium picolinate included
decreased fat mass (FM) and percent body fat, in-
creased fat-free mass (FFM), increased skeletal muscle
size and strength, and enhanced senses of energy and
vigor. These chromium picolinate-related benefits were
subsequently promoted in the public (23) and research
(36) literature but were not supported by other con-
trolled research studies that used young men and
women as subjects (20, 32, 34, 39, 46).
If chromium picolinate does have ergogenic proper-
ties, older people may especially benefit from the use of
this supplement. Aging is associated with marked
changes in body composition, skeletal muscle size and
function, and energy metabolism. These changes in-
clude an increase in both FM and percent body fat, a
decrease in FFM (primarily due to a loss of muscle
mass), a decrease in muscle strength and power, and a
decrease in resting metabolic rate (21, 25, 47). These
body composition, functional, and metabolic changes
contribute to the development of age-related disorders,
including obesity, sarcopenia, impaired physical mobil-
ity and function, and physical frailty (25, 27). The
promoted benefits of chromium picolinate are largely
opposite to these age-related body composition, func-
tional, and metabolic changes.
The ergogenic effects of chromium picolinate are
thought to be manifest especially when supplementa-
tion is coupled with an exercise program that includes
resistance training (RT) (24). High-intensity progres-
sive RT has been shown to decrease FM, increase FFM,
increase muscle strength and size, and increase resting
metabolic rate and total energy requirements of older
people (17, 30), including frail elderly people (28, 29).
Thus chromium picolinate and RT may provide older
people with safe and effective ways to slow the progres-
sion of, or to partially reverse, the age-related changes
in body composition, muscle function, and energy me-
tabolism and may prevent or treat the associated
health disorders.
There are no known data on the effect of chromium
picolinate supplementation on body composition, muscle
strength and function, and energy metabolism in older
people. Thus the purpose of the present study was to
assess the effect of high-dose chromium picolinate
supplementation on body composition, including body
density, whole body muscle mass and muscle fiber area,
muscle strength and power, and resting metabolic rate
of older men during 12 wk of RT. We hypothesized that
chromium picolinate supplementation would augment
RT-induced changes in these parameters.
METHODS
Subjects. Twenty-three men volunteered to participate in
this 13-wk study. Recruitment criteria included the following:
1) men, age range 50–75 yr; 2) body mass index range of
27–34 kg/m2; 3) nondiabetic; 4) physically able to safely
engage in all aspects of the study protocol; and 5) clinically
normal cardiac function, blood pressure, liver function, and

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Copyright © 1999 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.
30 RESISTANCE TRAINING AND CHROMIUM IN OLDER MEN
kidney function. Each man was cleared for the study on the
basis of a screening evaluation that included a medical
history, a physician-administered physical examination, a
resting and resistance exercise electrocardiogram, routine
blood and urine chemistries, and a 3-h, 75-g oral glucose
tolerance test. For the resistance exercise stress test, heart
rate, blood pressure, and electrocardiogram recordings were
monitored while each prospective subject performed the
bilateral knee-extension exercise for three sets of eight repeti-
tions at 70–80% of his maximal strength. After receiving
complete written and verbal explanations of the study, each
man signed an informed consent agreement. The study
protocol and informed consent agreement were reviewed and
approved by the Institutional Review Board of The Pennsylva-
nia State University (University Park). The protocol was also
reviewed and approved by the General Clinical Research
Center (GCRC) Advisory Committee of The Pennsylvania
State University (University Park).
Eighteen of twenty-three men successfully completed the
study protocol. The reasons for the five men withdrawing
included the following: 1) a request by a subject’s personal
physician to avoid aggravation of a chronic hip injury; 2) an
irritation of chronic elbow tendonitis, unrelated to resistance
exercise; 3) a personal family commitment; 4) a resistance
exercise-induced aggravation of an existing knee condition;
and 5) a shoulder injury caused by slipping on ice.
Experimental design. The 13-wk study was conducted at a
GCRC located at the Noll Physiological Research Center on
the University Park campus of The Pennsylvania State
University. Throughout the study, each man maintained his
customary lifestyle while living at home, except for when he
participated in the planned dietary control periods, the
scheduled testing, and the RT. Use of all nutritional supple-
ments, other than the supplements used for the study, was
discontinued 3 wk before and throughout the study.
Baseline testing and evaluations were completed during
study week 1, at which time each man did not consume a
supplement and remained sedentary. This was followed by a
12-wk period of supplementation and RT, with testing and
evaluations repeated at study weeks 7 and 13.
Each man was randomly assigned in a double-blind fashion
to either a chromium picolinate group or a placebo group, on
the basis of the date they were declared eligible to participate
in the study. The starting dates of the subjects were staggered
and ranged from June to November 1995. The chromium
picolinate group consumed twice daily one commercially
prepared capsule reported to contain 9.62 µmol chromium/
capsule (500 µg chromium/capsule) as chromium picolinate
(Nutrition 21, San Diego, CA), and the placebo group con-
sumed one commercially prepared placebo capsule (Nutrition
21) twice daily. All of the men were to consume one capsule in
the morning and one capsule in the evening. The capsules
were distributed weekly in 7-day medication dispensers, and
compliance was monitored by counting any returned capsules
and by weekly interviews with the men. The chromium
picolinate and placebo capsules were analyzed for chromium
by using a graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotom-
eter (model HGA 500, Perkin-Elmer, Norwalk, CT), as previ-
ously described (11, 32), and were found to contain 8.88 6
0.21 µmol chromium/capsule (462 µg chromium/capsule) and
,0.002 µmol chromium/capsule (,0.1 µg chromium/capsule),
respectively. Thus each man in the chromium picolinate
group consumed 17.8 µmol chromium/day (924 µg chromium/
day) of supplemental chromium. The rationale for using this
high dose of chromium was to provide an opportunity to
clearly test our hypotheses with a chromium intake distinctly
different from that which our subjects might normally con-
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Copyright © 1999 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.
sume in their habitual diets (i.e., the dose of chromium was
not ‘‘nutritional’’) and a dose recently reported to have
beneficial effects on carbohydrate metabolism in middle-aged
and older people with type 2 diabetes (10).
RT protocol. All men participated twice weekly for 12 wk in
progressive RT of the muscles involved with 1) unilateral
knee extension, 2) unilateral knee flexion, 3) double leg press,
4) seated chest press, and 5) seated arm pull (Keiser pneu-
matic resistance equipment, Keiser Sports Health Equip-
ment, Fresno, CA). Each man’s baseline maximal strength for
each exercise was set as the greater of two one-repetition-
maximum (1RM) values obtained during the first two resis-
tance exercise sessions. On these days and on all 1RM
assessment days, each man then performed two sets of eight
repetitions at 80% of the 1RM for each exercise. 1RM
assessments were repeated at study weeks 7 and 13. On the
non-1RM days, the RT consisted of the performance of each
exercise for three sets at 80% of 1RM. Eight repetitions were
completed for the first two sets, and the third set consisted of
continuing repetitions until voluntary muscular fatigue or
until 12 repetitions were completed. If 12 repetitions were
completed for a given exercise, the resistance was increased
by 5% for the next exercise session. All resistance exercise
sessions were preceded by 10 min of easy cycling (heart rate
,100 beats/min) and 10 min of stretching and were followed
by a similar routine. Seventeen men completed 23 RT ses-
sions (100% compliance), whereas one man completed 22 RT
sessions.
Diet. During study weeks 2–6 and 8–12, each man was
asked to maintain his self-provided habitual diet. In an effort
to control dietary chromium intake for the measurements of
urinary chromium excretion and apparent chromium absorp-
tion, each man consumed, for 5 days during study weeks 1, 7,
and 13, the same quantity of foods and beverages (except
water) prepared and provided by the Metabolic Research
Kitchen at the GCRC. The controlled diet consisted of 2-day
rotating menus: menu A and menu B (Table 1). Both menus
were designed to provide 13, 57, and 30% of total energy as
protein, carbohydrate, and fat, respectively. Each man’s total
energy intake was estimated to be 1.5 times basal energy
needs as predicted from the sex-specific Harris-Benedict
equation (33). Total energy intake was calculated by using
Nutritionist IV software (version 4.0, N-Squared Computing,
First Data Bank, San Bruno, CA), assuming metabolizable
energy values for protein, carbohydrate, and fat of 16.7, 16.7,
and 37.7 kJ/g, respectively.
One duplicate composite of menu A and menu B for each
man was collected into 3-liter polypropylene jugs and frozen
at 220°C. Thawed composites were homogenized in the
polypropylene jugs by using low-chromium titanium blender
blades and analyzed for chromium concentration as previ-
ously described (11). Water samples were also collected from
seven drinking fountains and faucets in and around the
University Park campus and the State College, PA area and
were analyzed for chromium concentration. A mixed diet
standard reference material (SRM 8431; National Institute of
Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD) with a certi-
fied chromium concentration of 102 6 6 ng/g was run with
each analysis to verify the accuracy of individual assays. A
mean chromium concentration of 103 6 10 ng/g was deter-
mined for the standard reference material over all assays. We
assumed that the chromium contents of the composite menus
for each subject were the same as the chromium contents of
the menus provided at study weeks 1, 7, and 13.
Muscle power assessments. Maximal arm and leg power
were determined at study weeks 1 and 13 by using the Keiser
seated arm-pull and leg-extension machines, respectively.
 RESISTANCE TRAINING AND CHROMIUM IN OLDER MEN 31

Table 1. Composition of a representative controlled 2-day cycle menu

Menu A Menu B

Breakfast, g Peanut-butter-chocolate chip 36 Strawberry cereal bar 37

breakfast bar English muffin 57
Blueberry pastry 54 Canned orange juice 180
Canned orange juice 180 Canned pears in light syrup 241
Canned peaches in light syrup 241 Milk, 1% fat 500
Milk, 1% fat 500 Peanut butter 16
Lunch, g Canned pineapple chunks 240 String cheese 30
Vanilla pudding 114 Graham crackers 42
Ginger ale 365 Almond granola bar 30
American cheese 38 Black bean soup 53 (dry wt)
Meatless patty (texturized vegetable protein) 64 Wheat bread 38
Sandwich roll 53 Butter 5
Apple-cinnamon pastry 43 Lemon-lime soda 365
Dinner, g Four-cheese pizza 198 Fettucini primavera 290
Wheat bread 38 Canned peas 241
Butter 10 Butter 5
Canned mixed vegetables 241 Apple juice 180
Energy, MJ/day 11.39 6 1.08 11.60 6 1.18
Protein, g/day 89 6 7 90 6 9
Carbohydrate, g/day 391 6 40 404 6 41
Fat, g/day 90 6 9 88 6 10
Chromium
µmol/day 1.88 6 0.27 1.09 6 0.12
(µg/day) (98.0 6 14.1) (56.9 6 6.0)
Values for energy, protein, carbohydrate, fat, and chromium content are means 6 SD for n 5 18 men.

Each man was asked to exert maximal pull using both arms
or push using the dominant leg with the machine resistance
set at 20, 40, 60, or 80% of the most recently determined 1RM.
The test was repeated three times at each percentage of 1RM,
with ,30 s of rest in between efforts.
Urine collections. At study weeks 1, 7, and 13, 24-h urine
collections were made during the last 3 days of controlled
menu feedings. A RT session was performed on one of the
urine collection days at weeks 7 and 13. All 24-h urine
samples were collected into disposable 4-liter polyethylene
containers (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA). Aliquots of
urine for chromium analyses were pipetted by a research
technician, wearing powder-free gloves and using disposable
borosilicate glass pipettes, into polypropylene test tubes
(Sarstedt, Newton, NC) and were frozen at 220°C. Samples
were analyzed for chromium by using a graphite furnace
atomic absorption spectrophotometer (model HGA 500, Perkin-
Elmer), as described (14). A pooled urine sample, with a gas
chromatography-mass spectrometer-verified concentration of
0.32 6 0.01 ng/ml, was run with each assay as a quality
control. The mean chromium concentration of this control
urine sample over all assays was 0.33 6 0.02 ng/ml, as
measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Percent
chromium absorption was estimated by using the following
formula: %Cr absorption 5 [urinary Cr excretion/(food Cr
intake 1 supplement Cr intake)] 3 100.
Body composition measurements. Fasting body weight was
measured each weekday during study weeks 1, 7, and 13 and
twice weekly during the other study weeks. Weights were
taken to the nearest 0.1 kg with the subject wearing under-
wear, socks, T-shirt, and gym shorts. Nude body weight was
calculated as total body weight 2 weight of socks, T-shirt, and
gym shorts. Body height, without shoes, was measured one
morning during week 1, to the nearest 0.1 cm, with a
wall-mounted stadiometer and was assumed to remain con-
stant throughout the study.
Body composition was assessed by using the techniques
described below at study weeks 1, 7, and 13. Total body water
(TBW) was determined in the fasting state by using a 20.0-g
dose of deuterium oxide (deuterium, 99.9%; Cambridge Iso-
tope Laboratories, Woburn, MA) as described (17). Body
density was determined in the fasting state by using hydro-
static weighing (1), with residual volume measured in the
hydrostatic weighing tank via the nitrogen dilution technique
(49).
Body composition was assessed by using both a two-
compartment model (2c; FM and FFM) and a three-compart-
ment model (3c; FM, TBW mass, and protein 1 mineral
mass). Whole body FM and FFM were estimated from body
density by using the 2c model equation of Siri (45). Whole
body FFM, FM, and protein 1 mineral mass were estimated
from TBW and body density by using the 3c model of Siri (45)
as described (17). For the 3c model, FFM was calculated as
body mass 2 FM, and protein 1 mineral mass was calculated
as FFM 2 TBW mass. For the purpose of presentation, FM
and FFM estimates derived by using the 2c model are
designated FM2c and FFM2c, respectively, and FM and FFM
estimates derived by using the 3c model are designated FM3c
and FFM3c, respectively.
Total body muscle mass was estimated from the mean
creatinine concentration of three consecutive 24-h urine
samples, assuming an equivalence of 18.5 kg muscle/g uri-
nary creatinine (35). The creatinine concentration of each
urine sample was analyzed on a Technicon Autoanalyzer II
(Technicon Instrument, Tarrytown, NY) by using the Jaffe
reaction (15).
Skinfold thicknesses were measured to the nearest 0.5 mm
at eight sites (biceps, triceps, chest, subscapula, mid-axial,
abdomen, suprailiac, and thigh) on the right side of the body
by using standard techniques (38) and Lange calipers (Cam-
bridge Scientific Industries, Cambridge, MD). The sum of
these eight skinfold thicknesses is reported. Body circumfer-
ence measurements were taken at the chest (at the level of
the fourth costosternal joints, in the horizontal plane, at the
end of a normal expiration) and midthigh (midway between
the inguinal crease and the distal border of the patella).
Muscle biopsy. The needle biopsy technique (26) was used
at study weeks 1 and 13 to obtain vastus lateralis samples

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32 RESISTANCE TRAINING AND CHROMIUM IN OLDER MEN

from the dominant leg of each man (,150 mg muscle/biopsy). The dietary intake, supplement intake, urinary excre-
A piece of each biopsied muscle sample was placed with the tion, and estimated absorption of chromium for menus
fibers arranged in a longitudinal fashion into a gelatin A and B at study weeks 1, 7, and 13 are presented in
capsule filled with optimum cutting temperature embedding Table 2. For the placebo group, the mean urinary
compound (Sakura Finetek, Torrance, CA). The capsule was chromium excretion at baseline was 5.77 6 3.46 nmol/
covered with optimum cutting temperature compound and
quick-frozen for 20 s in isopentane that was precooled to
day (0.30 6 0.18 µg/day) for menu A and 3.85 6 2.88
2160°C by using liquid nitrogen. The muscle sample was nmol/day (0.20 6 0.15 µg/day) for menu B and was
then placed into liquid nitrogen and transported to a 270°C similar at study weeks 7 and 13. In contrast (time 3
freezer for storage. Serial 10-mm muscle sample sections diet interaction, P , 0.001), chromium picolinate supple-
were sliced onto microscope slides by using a cryostat (Cryo- mentation increased urinary chromium excretion ,50-
cut 1800, Leica Instrument, Germany) maintained at 220°C fold, compared with baseline (42- and 48-fold for menu
and were stained for myofibrillar adenosine triphosphatase, A and 66- and 57-fold for menu B at study weeks 7 and
on the basis of published methods (16, 42), by using a pH 4.3 13, respectively). At baseline, the mean absorption of
incubation solution. Types I and II muscle fiber areas were chromium based on urinary chromium excretion ranged
assessed by using the National Institutes of Health Image
Program, version 1.60a, as modified by Scion (Frederick, MD)
with the use of an LG-3 Scientific Frame Grabber PCI card Table 2. Chromium intake, urinary excretion, and
(Scion). Stained muscle sections were viewed by using the estimated absorption of older men before, midway
103 objective of a Nikon Micro Photo-FXA microscope (Tokyo, between, and after 12 wk of resistance training with
Japan) that was calibrated with a micrometer mounted on or without chromium picolinate supplementation
the slide, and an Ikegami 370M model S camera unit (Tsu-
shinki). The mean muscle fiber areas were calculated from a Time Point
mean of 59 type I fibers (range 15–140 fibers) and 73 type II Group Menu Baseline RT 6 RT 12
fibers (range 13–188 fibers).
Resting metabolic rate measurements. Resting metabolic Chromium intake
rate was measured in the fasting state one morning during Food
study weeks 1 and 13. Each man arrived at the GCRC by Placebo A
automobile, was escorted to a room with an indirect calorim- µmol/day 1.85 6 0.26 Same Same
eter, and rested in a semirecumbent position for ,20 min (µg/day) (96.4 6 13.6)
CrPic A
with the lights low. A clear plastic box, part of a ventilated-
µmol/day 1.92 6 0.29 Same Same
hood system, was then placed over the subject’s head while he (µg/day) (99.6 6 15.3)
rested supine for another 15 min. Then the rates of oxygen Placebo B
consumption (l/min) and carbon dioxide production (l/min) µmol/day 1.07 6 0.14 Same Same
were measured and averaged from 15 consecutive 1-min (µg/day) (55.8 6 7.3)
expired air samples. Resting metabolic rate was calculated by CrPic B
multiplying the oxygen consumption rate (l/min) by the µmol/day 1.12 6 0.09 Same Same
kilojoules per liter of oxygen associated with the respiratory (µg/day) (58.0 6 4.6)
exchange ratio of the expired air (40). Supplement
Placebo,
Statistical methods. Values are reported as means 6 SD. µmol/day ,0.1 ,0.1
The difference between the chromium picolinate group and CrPic
placebo group for each of the independent variables reported µmol/day 17.77 6 0.42 17.77 6 0.42
was determined for study week 1 data (baseline) by using (µg/day) (924 6 22) (924 6 22)
Student’s unpaired t-test. The main effects of RT and chro-
Chromium excretion (urine)
mium picolinate supplementation and the interactions among
these dependent variables on each of the independent vari- Placebo A
ables were determined by using two-way repeated-measures nmol/day 5.77 6 3.46 4.42 6 5.38 5.77 6 6.15*†‡
analysis of variance. All calculations were performed by using (µg/day) (0.30 6 0.18) (0.23 6 0.28) (0.30 6 0.32)
CrPic A
PROC TTEST and PROC GLM of SAS version 6.11 (SAS nmol/day 4.62 6 2.50 196 6 67 224 6 100
Institute, Cary, NC). All data processing was performed by (µg/day) (0.24 6 0.13) (10.2 6 3.5) (11.7 6 5.2)
using Microsoft Excel 5.0 (Microsoft, Redmond, WA). Results Placebo B
were considered statistically significant if P , 0.05 (2-sided). nmol/day 3.85 6 2.88 4.62 6 3.27 6.54 6 7.50*†‡
(µg/day) (0.20 6 0.15) (0.24 6 0.17) (0.34 6 0.39)
CrPic B
RESULTS
nmol/day 3.08 6 1.73 202 6 86 176 6 94
(µg/day) (0.16 6 0.09) (10.5 6 4.5) (9.1 6 4.9)
Menus A and B used during the 5-day controlled diet
periods at study weeks 1, 7, and 13 provided a mean Chromium estimated absorption, %
energy intake of 11.4 6 1.1 MJ/day (2,722 6 258 Placebo A 0.31 6 0.19 0.24 6 0.28 0.31 6 0.31*†‡
kcal/day) and 11.6 6 1.2 MJ/day (2,772 6 282 kcal/day), CrPic A 0.25 6 0.15 1.13 6 0.64 1.14 6 0.51
respectively (Table 1). The energy intake of menu A Placebo B 0.37 6 0.29 0.42 6 0.28 0.59 6 0.63*‡
CrPic B 0.28 6 0.15 1.15 6 0.46 0.93 6 0.50
consisted of 13% protein, 57% carbohydrate, and 30%
fat, and the energy intake of menu B consisted of 13% Results are means 6 SD. CrPic, chromium picolinate group, n 5 9
protein, 58% carbohydrate, and 29% fat. The chromium men; Placebo group, n 5 9 men. Time points: RT 6, resistance
training week 6, RT 12, resistance training week 12. Cr estimated
contents of menus A and B were 1.88 6 0.27 µmol/day absorption, % 5 [urinary Cr excretion/(food Cr intake 1 supplement
(98.0 6 14.1 µg/day) and 1.09 6 0.12 µmol/day (56.9 6 Cr intake)] 3 100. Significantly different, P , 0.001 for * time, † diet,
6.0 µg/day), respectively. and ‡ time 3 diet interaction.

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Copyright © 1999 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.
 RESISTANCE TRAINING AND CHROMIUM IN OLDER MEN 33

from 0.25 to 0.37% (for both groups consuming either
menu). For the placebo group, the calculated absorp-
tion of chromium at study weeks 7 and 13 remained
similar to baseline (0.24–0.59%). In contrast (time 3
diet interaction, P , 0.001), chromium picolinate supple-
mentation increased the estimated absorption of chro-
mium to a range of 0.93–1.15%.
Water samples collected from seven different drink-
ing fountains and faucets contained 0.33 6 0.09 ng
chromium/ml (range 0.22–0.46 ng chromium/ml). Thus
4 l/day (<1 gallon/day) of water intake would provide
0.9–1.8 µg chromium/day.
At baseline, the mean values for all of the indepen-
dent variables related to body size, body composition,
muscle size, strength and power, and resting energy
expenditure were not different between the men in the
chromium picolinate group and the men in the placebo
group (see Tables 3 and 4 and Figs. 1 and 2).
For all measurements of body composition, statistical
analyses established that no RT-by-chromium picoli-
nate interaction or main effect of chromium picolinate
existed (Table 3). These analyses indicate that 1) when
RT resulted in changes in these measurements of body
composition, these changes were not influenced by
whether the men consumed chromium picolinate or the
placebo, and 2) when data from all of the evaluation
periods were considered together, there were no differ-
ences between groups. Because there were no RT-by-
chromium picolinate interactions, the effect of RT was
assessed by using data from men in both groups
combined (n 5 18).
RT increased body density (P 5 0.003; Table 3). By
using the body density data in a 2c model, FM2c (P 5
0.007) and percent body fat (P 5 0.003) were decreased
by 2.1 6 2.9 kg and 2.1 6 2.6%, respectively, and FFM2c
was increased by 2.2 6 2.3 kg (P , 0.001).
TBW was decreased by 3.0 6 2.3 liters with RT (P ,
0.001; Table 3). By using the TBW data and the body
density data in a 3c model, FM3c (P 5 0.047) and
percent body fat (P 5 0.026) were increased by 1.5 6 2.9
kg and 1.6 6 2.7%, respectively, and FFM3c decreased
by 1.4 6 2.1 kg (P 5 0.016). The protein 1 mineral mass
compartment (calculated as FFM3c 2 TBW) was in-
creased by 1.6 6 1.1 kg (P , 0.001).
Whole body muscle mass, assessed from 24-h urinary
creatinine excretion, increased with RT by 5.1 6 3.8 kg
(P , 0.001; Table 3). Mean type I muscle fiber area was
unchanged, and mean type II muscle fiber area was
increased by 577 6 1.62 µm2 (P 5 0.046) with RT, as
assessed from vastus lateralis biopsy samples. The sum
of eight skinfold thicknesses and midthigh circumfer-
ence did not change with RT, and chest circumference
was decreased by 1.37 6 2.16 cm (P 5 0.018).
The mean resting metabolic rate at study week 13
was not statistically different from baseline but did
trend higher [mean change from baseline, 0.016 6

Table 3. Physical characteristics, body composition, and resting metabolic rate of older men before and after
12 wk of resistance training with or without chromium picolinate supplementation
Placebo Chromium Picolinate

Parameter Baseline RT 12 Baseline RT 12 P Value

Age, yr 60 6 3 63 6 4
(range 56–66) (range 59–69)
Height, cm 173.5 6 5.5 178.2 6 7.3
Body weight, kg 90.2 6 8.6 90.6 6 8.6 96.2 6 13.1 96.0 6 11.7 0.807
Body density, g/ml 1.0233 6 0.0112 1.0293 6 0.0079 1.0203 6 0.0123 1.0233 6 0.0094 0.003
Two-compartment model
Body fat, % 33.8 6 5.3 31.0 6 3.7 35.2 6 5.5 33.7 6 4.5 0.003
Fat mass, kg 30.6 6 6.5 28.1 6 4.6 34.1 6 7.9 32.4 6 5.9 0.007
Fat-free mass, kg 59.6 6 6.2 62.5 6 6.4 62.1 6 8.6 63.5 6 8.7 ,0.001
Three-compartment model
Body fat, % 33.4 6 3.6 35.0 6 3.9 33.9 6 6.5 35.5 6 5.2 0.026
Fat mass, kg 30.3 6 5.5 31.9 6 6.0 33.0 6 9.6 34.4 6 8.3 0.047
Fat-free mass, kg 59.9 6 4.8 58.8 6 4.5 63.1 6 7.0 61.5 6 5.8 0.016
Total body water, liters 44.0 6 3.6 40.9 6 3.5 46.8 6 4.6 43.9 6 3.1 ,0.001
Protein 1 mineral mass, kg 15.9 6 2.3 17.8 6 2.6 16.3 6 2.9 17.6 6 3.3 ,0.001
Other body-composition measurements
S 8 Skinfold thicknesses, mm 191 6 53 173 6 45 187 6 55 170 6 28 0.121
Chest circumference, cm 106.0 6 4.9 105.0 6 4.2 108.4 6 6.2 106.6 6 6.4 0.018
Midthigh circumference, cm 53.3 6 2.7 53.2 6 4.3 54.6 6 4.9 53.1 6 3.0 0.361
Muscle mass, kg 30.4 6 3.7 35.9 6 6.7 30.5 6 5.2 35.3 6 6.3 ,0.001
Type I muscle fiber area, µm2 5,973 6 1,639 6,093 6 1,091 4,986 6 1,015 4,658 6 1,408 0.759
Type II muscle fiber area, µm2 4,985 6 1,224 5,706 6 1,055 4,528 6 1,327 4,920 6 1,033 0.046
Energy expenditure
BMR, l O2/min 0.246 6 0.019 0.269 6 0.036 0.269 6 0.040 0.278 6 0.041 0.068
BMR, MJ/day 7.28 6 0.57 7.94 6 1.13 7.97 6 1.18 8.23 6 1.17 0.093
Values are means 6 SD. S, sum of; BMR, basal metabolic rate. P values are for effect of time (n 5 18 subjects). There were no statistically
significant diet effect or time 3 diet interactions for these data.

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34 RESISTANCE TRAINING AND CHROMIUM IN OLDER MEN

0.034 l O2/min (P 5 0.068) and 0.46 6 1.07 MJ/day (P 5

0.093) for n 5 18 subjects combined].
1RM strength increased in all of the muscle groups
trained (P , 0.0001; Table 4). Quantitatively, the
amount of strength gained was similar for men in the
chromium picolinate and placebo groups for the right
knee flexion, left knee flexion, double leg press, chest
press, and arm pull exercises. However, the chromium
picolinate group gained less strength in both the right
and left knee-extension exercises than did the placebo
group (RT-by-chromium picolinate interaction, P 5
0.035 and P 5 0.009, respectively).
The data from the muscle power testing for the arm-
pull and leg-extension exercises are presented in Figs.
1 and 2, respectively. Chromium picolinate supplemen-
tation did not influence the changes in arm muscle
power to RT. After 12 wk of RT, arm-pull muscle power
at 20% of 1RM was increased and at 40, 60 and 80% of
1RM was not different, compared with baseline. Knee-
extension power at 20, 40, and 60% of 1RM increased
less in the chromium picolinate group than in the
placebo group (RT-by-chromium picolinate interaction,
P 5 0.005, P 5 0.024, and P 5 0.069, respectively).
Knee-extension power at 80% of 1RM was not different
at study week 13 than at baseline and was not influ-
enced by chromium picolinate supplementation.
DISCUSSION

In the present study, supplementation of older men

with 17.8 µmol chromium/day as chromium picolinate
for 12 wk did not influence any of the RT-induced
changes in body composition. Chromium picolinate
supplementation did not augment the accretion of FFM
or muscle mass or enhance the loss of body fat. These
Table 4. Maximal muscle strength of older men before
and after 12 wk of resistance training with or without
chromium picolinate supplementation
Fig. 1. Arm-pull muscle power before (baseline) and after 12 wk of
resistance training (RT week 12) of older men who consumed either
17.8 µmol chromium/day (924 µg chromium/day) as chromium picoli-
nate (A) or a low-chromium placebo (B) during RT. 1RM, 1 repetition
maximum. Statistical analyses are as follows.
P Value

Placebo Chromium Picolinate Arm-Pull Power Time Diet Time 3 Diet

Parameter Baseline RT 12 Baseline RT 12 20% 1RM 0.016 0.887 0.293

40%1RM 0.305 0.943 0.291
Right knee exten- 60%1RM 0.474 0.878 0.628
sion, Nm 140 6 32 189 6 36 149 6 26 175 6 31*† 80%1RM 0.287 0.759 0.198
D, % 37 6 22 18 6 10
Left knee exten-
sion, Nm 137 6 25 185 6 18 141 6 41 170 6 42*†
D, % 37 6 18 22 6 11 findings are consistent with most (20, 32, 39, 46) but
Right knee not all (24, 36) double-blind, placebo-controlled chro-
flexion, Nm 120 6 29 157 6 32 121 6 27 156 6 30* mium picolinate supplementation trials conducted in
D, % 34 6 25 31 6 17 young men and women (Table 5). The present study
Left knee flexion,
Nm 117 6 31 154 6 25 121 6 25 150 6 35*
expands present knowledge by studying older men, by
D, % 38 6 36 24 6 20 using a much higher dose of chromium picolinate, and
Double leg press, by using a wider variety of methods to quantify body
N 1,4466181 1,6946287 1,4126310 1,629 6 281* composition.
D, % 14 6 9 12 6 9 The original report of Evans (24) and the research by
Chest press, N 551 6 91 627 6 92 553 6 81 613 6 99*
D, % 15 6 12 11 6 5 Kaats et al. (36) are the only two published studies that
Arm pull, N 596 6 63 713 6 103 626 6 110 754 6 145* report chromium picolinate to have ergogenic effects on
D, % 20 6 7 21 6 13 body composition. Several factors severely limit the
Values are means 6 SD; n 5 9 men. D, change in muscle strength
ability to evaluate the quality of the data of Evans (24).
from baseline to RT 12. * Time effect (n 5 18 subjects), P , 0.0001. First, there is no way to evaluate the accuracy or
† Time 3 diet interaction, P , 0.05. precision of these data because neither the within-

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 RESISTANCE TRAINING AND CHROMIUM IN OLDER MEN 35

via measurements of the chromium content of the

Fig. 2. Leg-extension muscle power before (baseline) and after 12 wk
of RT of older men who consumed either 17.8 µmol chromium/day
(924 µg chromium/day) as chromium picolinate (A) or a low-
chromium placebo (B) during RT. Statistical analyses are as follows.
P Value
Leg Extension Power Time Diet Time 3 Diet
20%1RM 0.0001 0.670
40%1RM 0.0001 0.408
60%1RM 0.0001 0.334
80%1RM 0.095 0.212
group variability of the changes nor the absolute amount
of weight, lean body mass, or FM were reported.
Second, the use of a paired t-test to assign statistical
significance to differences between mean values of
group changes and differences in changes between
groups may inappropriately enhance the chance of
detecting a difference in response between groups.
Third, the assessment of body composition was limited
to indirect estimates of lean body mass and FM by
using skinfold thicknesses and measurement of biceps
and calf circumferences. Strengths of the Kaats et al.
(36) data include the large number of subjects studied
(n 5 154) and the use of a double-blind study design.
Weaknesses of the study include the following: 1) not
controlling the amount of formula beverage consumed
or quantifying that chromium picolinate was consumed
beverages and urinary chromium excretion; 2) the
large subject dropout rate [65 of the 219 subjects who
started the study (30%)], and 3) artificially enhancing
the actual between-group differences in body composi-
tion change through the use of undocumented calcula-
tions of a ‘‘body composition improvement score.’’
Collectively, the present study and most of the pub-
lished studies (20, 32, 34, 39, 46) do not support the
hypothesis (24) that chromium picolinate supplementa-
tion promotes the accretion of muscle mass and loss of
body fat. The findings that chromium picolinate supple-
mentation did not affect whole body density (assessed
via hydrodensitometry), skinfold thicknesses, body cir-
cumferences, or whole body muscle mass (assessed via
urinary creatinine excretion) support the findings of
previous research studies that also used these tech-
niques (20, 32, 34, 39, 46). The present study expands
present knowledge by showing that chromium picoli-
nate supplementation also did not affect TBW, whole
body protein 1 mineral mass, or type I and II fiber
areas of the vastus lateralis. These studies assessed
whether chromium picolinate augmented body composi-
tion changes in subjects during relatively short-term
periods (6–16 wk) and in conjunction with other inter-
ventions that specifically attempted to alter body com-
position (e.g., RT or aerobic training). If chromium
picolinate does influence body composition, the effects
must be small. Also, the measurement techniques used
not only must be able to precisely quantify small
changes in body composition, but must be able to
quantify differences in the amount of change in body
composition (i.e., the interaction of chromium picoli-
nate and the other intervention).
The findings that FFM3c decreased and FM3c in-
creased when we used the 3c model, opposite to the
increase in FFM2c and decrease in FM2c observed by
using the 2c model, were surprising and difficult to
explain (Table 3). These changes in FFM3c and FM3c
were mostly related to the very large decrease in TBW
0.005 having a major impact on the calculation. The mean
0.024 3.0-liter decrease in TBW is largely opposite to a
0.069
0.549 1.6-liter increase in TBW observed in older men and
women who completed a similar RT program (17). The
large decrease in TBW is consistent with a change in
hydration status of the men, a possibility that was not
tested in the present study. The men were encouraged
to drink a great deal of fluids in conjunction with the
exercise sessions. Also, the body weights of the men
remained stable throughout the study, with no indica-
tion of abrupt declines in body weight, consistent with
short-term shifts in TBW. Because the mean body
density of these men was .1.000 g/ml at baseline, a
decrease in TBW (density 5 0.993 at 37°C) is consistent
with the increase in body density measured by hydro-
static weighing.
The significant increase in protein 1 mineral mass is
fully consistent with a RT-induced improvement in
body composition, as was also shown independently by
the increased whole body density, the increased whole
body muscle mass, and the increased vastus lateralis

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36 RESISTANCE TRAINING AND CHROMIUM IN OLDER MEN

Table 5. Chromium picolinate supplementation effects on body composition

Chromium Picolinate
Subjects Supplement

Dose, Length, Body Composition

Ref. Study No. Age, yr µmol Cr/day days Measurement Results

Evans (24) 41 men 18–21 3.85 ,40 Skinfold thicknesses Greater FFM gain
Body circumferences Greater FM loss
Hasten et al. (34) 59 men and women 18–36 3.85 ,72 Skinfold thicknesses Greater BW gain for women
only
Clancy et al. (20) 40 men 18–21 3.85 ,56 Skinfold thicknesses No effect
Body circumferences
Hydrodensitometry
Trent and Thieding-Cancel (46) 95 men and women 30 (mean) 7.7 ,112 Body circumferences No effect
Hallmark et al. (32) 16 men 18–35 3.85 ,72 Hydrodensitometry No effect
Skinfold thicknesses
Body circumferences
Lukaski et al. (39) 36 men 19–29 3.3–3.5 ,58 Dual-energy radiography No effect
Skinfold thicknesses
Whole body muscle mass
Kaats et al. (36) 154 men and women 46 (mean) 3.85–7.7 ,72 Underwater displacement Enhanced BW and FM loss
This study 18 men 56–69 17.8 ,72 Hydrodensitometry No effect
Skinfold thicknesses
Body circumferences
Whole body muscle mass
Total body water
Muscle fiber area
All of the studies were conducted by using a double-blind, placebo-controlled design. FFM, fat-free mass; FM, fat mass; BW, body wt.

type II fiber area. We had chosen to use the 3c model
based on previous research (17, 18) showing that the
estimate of protein 1 mineral mass was sensitive to
change and that a change in protein 1 mineral mass
was reflective of changes in whole body and muscle
protein breakdown.
Urinary creatinine excretion is considered a reliable,
indirect indicator of whole body muscle mass in adult
humans (35), including older people (48). It is also
considered sensitive and reflective of RT-induced
changes in muscle mass in older people (41). To use
urinary creatinine excretion as an index of muscle
mass, one must assume that the body creatine pool is
almost exclusively found in skeletal muscle, that the
conversion of creatine to creatinine occurs irreversibly
and at a constant rate, and that the rate of renal
excretion of creatinine is constant (35). These assump-
tions are not always precisely met. For example, uri-
nary creatinine excretion occurs in direct proportion to
the whole body creatine pool size and was documented
to change to some extent with changes in dietary
protein, creatine, and creatinine intakes, independent
of changes in lean body mass (22, 35).
For the present study, the increase in urinary creati-
nine excretion indicates an increase in whole body
muscle mass, a finding supported by the increase in
vastus lateralis type II fiber area. However, the mean
5.1-kg increase in muscle mass estimated from this
method exceeds the mean 2.2-kg increase in FFM
estimated from body density. It is possible that the
RT-induced gains in muscle mass were overestimated
by the urinary creatinine excretion data, possibly be-
cause of changes in whole body creatine pool size
(unmeasured in the present study) or dietary factors.
The men were purposefully provided a meat-free diet
for 2 days before and during the 3-day urine collection
periods to minimize exogenous sources of creatine,
consistent with standard protocol (35). Whereas uri-
nary creatinine excretion is known to decrease by 5–8%
within the first 2–3 wk of consuming a meat-free diet
(Ref. 19 and unpublished observations), the magnitude
of these dietary-induced changes would be ,5% during
the 5-day meat-free periods and within the daily within-
subject variability of the measurements (8.9 and 7.7%
at weeks 1 and 13, respectively). Alternatively, it is
possible that the RT-induced gains in FFM were under-
estimated by the hydrostatic weighing method. Indeed,
Siri (45) indicated that, when the 2c model is used, the
assumption is made that a change in body density
reflects a change in body FM and that the apparent
change in body density would be less if muscle mass
were gained at the same time that FM was lost.
In contrast with the present findings, one previous
study from our research group (17, 18) reported that RT
by older people did not ‘‘improve’’ body composition.
Both studies utilized the same equipment, protocol,
and duration of RT. Differences between the previous
(17, 18) and present studies, respectively, included
studying both men and women vs. just men and using
controlled diets intermittently vs. continuously. A
strength of both studies was the use of multiple,
independent measurements to assess body composi-
tion. Within each study, the different measurements of
body composition were in general agreement. For ex-
ample, in the previous research (17, 18), the conclusion
that RT did not improve body composition in older
people was supported by assessments of body density
via hydrostatic weighing, protein 1 mineral mass from
the 3c model by using body density and TBW, whole
body muscle mass via 24-h urinary creatinine excre-

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Copyright © 1999 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.
 RESISTANCE TRAINING AND CHROMIUM IN OLDER MEN
tion, thigh muscle area via computed tomography
scanning, body cell mass via 40K-potassium scanning,
and muscle fiber area via biopsies of the vastus latera-
lis. In the present study, the conclusion that RT did
improve body composition in older men is supported by
assessments of body density, protein 1 mineral mass,
whole body muscle mass, and vastus lateralis type II
fiber area. Collectively, these data emphasize the impor-
tance of using multiple techniques to assess baseline
and intervention-induced changes in body composition
and the inherent difficulties of precisely and accurately
measuring relatively small changes in body composi-
tion associated with shorter-term RT protocols. There
is little doubt that longer-term RT significantly and
beneficially alters whole body composition and muscle
mass in older people (41, 43). These studies also
demonstrate that much more research is needed to
better understand the factors (e.g., dietary, hormonal,
exercise, gender) involved with maintaining and en-
hancing FFM and muscle mass in older people as
preventive or therapeutic treatments for sarcopenia.
The increase in muscle strength with RT by the older
men in the present study is consistent with previous
research in older people (17, 30). Similarly, the finding
that chromium picolinate did not augment the increase
in strength is fully consistent with previous research in
young men who resistance trained (20, 32, 34, 39).
To our knowledge, this is the first study to assess the
effect on isotonic muscle power of RT by older people
and to document increased power of the muscles in-
volved with knee extension. Because 1RM increased
with RT, the absolute force or torque at a given
percentage of 1RM used for the muscle power testing
was higher also. A lack of change in muscle power
implies that, although the subjects were exerting more
force or torque, their speed of movement was actually
less. Alternatively, where power at a given percentage
of 1RM increased with RT, it cannot be readily deter-
mined how this relates to the speed of movement. The
functional significance of these power data was not
assessed in the present study and requires further
evaluation. Similarly, the finding that the men in the
chromium picolinate group gained less strength in the
right and left knee-extension exercises and gained less
knee-extension power (at 20, 40, and 60% of 1RM) is of
interest and requires further research. These data
must be viewed as preliminary and should not be used
to condemn the use of chromium picolinate supple-
ments, because similar results were not obtained for
the other muscle groups tested.
Urinary chromium excretion is suggested to be a
‘‘fairly accurate estimation of the amount of chromium
absorbed’’ (11), because absorbed chromium is excreted
primarily in the urine, with only minimal losses occur-
ring via other routes. To this end, we chose to use the
term ‘‘estimated absorption’’ to reflect the ratio of
urinary chromium excretion to oral chromium intake
from the diet and the supplement. Whereas a direct
comparison between this method of estimating chromium
absorption and the use of the stable isotope 53Cr has not
been published to date, separate assessments that use
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Copyright © 1999 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.
37
these two methods give relatively comparable results
(11, 44). For the present study, the use of controlled
menus of known chromium content during the 24-h
urine collection periods enhanced the estimation of the
absorption of chromium. The estimated absorption of
chromium at baseline, ranging from 0.37 to 0.25% at
dietary intakes of 1.07–1.92 µmol chromium/day (56–
100 µg chromium/day; Table 2), is fully consistent with
an estimated absorption of #0.5% at intakes of .0.77
µmol chromium/day (.40 µg chromium/day) (11).
The significant increases in urinary chromium excre-
tion with chromium picolinate supplementation at RT
weeks 6 and 12 for these older men are consistent with
previous chromium picolinate supplementation studies
in RT young men (32, 39). Hallmark et al. (32) reported
an ,10-fold increase in urinary chromium excretion
(29.2 vs. 2.9 nmol chromium/day) with a chromium
picolinate supplementation of 3.62 µmol chromium/day
(188 µg chromium/day). In comparison, chromium pico-
linate supplementation of 17.8 µmol chromium/day
(924 µg chromium/day) in the present study increased
urinary chromium excretion ,50-fold (199 vs. 3.9 nmol
chromium/day; mean of menus A and B at RT week 6 vs.
baseline for chromium picolinate group, Table 2). Pro-
vided that urinary chromium excretion is an index of
the estimated absorption of chromium, ,0.93–1.15% of the
chromium contained in a chromium picolinate supplement
was absorbed. This range of estimated percent absorption
of supplemental chromium picolinate is greater than that
reported for dietary chromium (Table 2) (11), a finding
consistent with previous research in humans (31) and
rats (8). Collectively, these data suggest that increased
chromium picolinate supplementation proportionately
increases urinary chromium excretion via a process
that is without strict homeostatic control. It is impor-
tant to note that this conclusion only relates to increas-
ing doses of supplemental chromium picolinate and not
to dietary chromium. At dietary chromium intakes
,0.77 µmol chromium/day (,40 µg chromium/day),
estimated absorption decreases with increasing chro-
mium intake, i.e., estimated chromium absorption is
inversely related to dietary intake at normal intakes
(between 10 and 40 µg chromium/day) (11).
Aerobic exercise has been shown to increase urinary
chromium excretion (12, 13) in relation to the acute
stress of the exercise (9) and the training status of the
subjects (7). In the present study, mean urinary chro-
mium excretion of the placebo group was not signifi-
cantly different from baseline at RT weeks 6 or 12
(Table 2). These results suggest that, under these
experimental conditions, RT did not alter the urinary
excretion or the estimated absorption of chromium.
These results are in contrast to the recent report that
acute and chronic resistance exercise increased urinary
chromium excretion in men aged 53–63 yr, as assessed
by the measurement of urinary losses of a standard oral
dose of the stable isotope 53Cr (44). Differences in
results of the present study and those of Rubin et al.
(44), respectively, may relate to 1) measurement of the
urinary excretion of total dietary chromium intake vs. a
5.77-µmol (300-µg) dose of 53Cr as chromium chloride
38 RESISTANCE TRAINING AND CHROMIUM IN OLDER MEN
and 2) the frequency (2 vs. 3 days/wk) and intensity
(80% of 1RM for 5 exercises vs. 90% of 3RM for 14
exercises) of resistance exercise.
The chromium contents of controlled diet menus A
and B were very high (1.88 and 1.09 µmol/day; 36 and
21 µg/1,000 kcal, respectively; Table 1) based on previ-
ous reports (3, 11). This was unexpected because the
chromium content of many Western diets and institu-
tional menus (obtained by using the duplicate-plate
method) was analyzed and found to contain ,0.96 µmol
chromium/day (50 µg chromium/day). Published deter-
minations of the mean chromium content of self-
selected diets of women and men generally range from
0.48 to 0.63 µmol chromium/day or 14 to 18 µg chro-
mium/1,000 kcal (3, 6, 11). For the present study, the
menu items were chosen to fit within the energy and
macronutrient guidelines of the study, without consid-
eration of their chromium content. The individual food
items were also selected, in part, because they were
readily available in the local grocery stores. They were
not selected to purposely achieve either a high or low
dietary chromium content. Whereas the same food
items were used throughout the study, the specific lot of
a given food item was not controlled and may have
varied in chromium content. To increase the conve-
nience of storing the foods and beverages and distribut-
ing the meals to the subjects, many of the items used
were processed and packaged in individual serving
sizes. The processing and packaging of foods and bever-
ages may increase the chromium content of the item
due to exogenous chromium contamination. The low
chromium concentration in water samples taken from
selected drinking fountains and faucets indicated that
ad libitum consumption of water from these sources
would not have contributed significantly to total daily
chromium intake. These results are in agreement with
previous findings in men and women who participated
in a long-term, defined-nutrient study, in which the
chromium intake from ad libitum consumption of wa-
ter, coffee, and tea was 0.6–1.1 µg/day (37).
In summary, these data demonstrate that chromium
picolinate supplementation has no effect in the augmen-
tation of changes in body composition or muscle size or
function when used during a RT program by older men.
The greater increase in muscle strength and power in
the placebo-supplemented men is unexplained and
should be investigated further.
Sincere thanks go to the dedicated volunteers who made this study
possible. We thank the General Clinical Research Center dietary and
nursing staffs for assistance with conducting this study. We also
thank Noella Bryden, US Department of Agriculture Human Nutri-
tion Research Center (Beltsville, MD), for performing the chromium
analyses for this study. We are grateful to Keiser Sports Health
Equipment (Fresno, CA) for the generous donation of the resistive
training equipment used during the study.
This study was supported by National Institute on Aging Grants
T32 AG-0048, 1-R29-AG-13409 and RO1-AG-11811, by General Clini-
cal Research Center Grant MO1-RR-10732, and by an independent
monetary gift from Nutrition 21 (San Diego, CA).
Address for reprint requests: W. W. Campbell, VA Medical Center,
NMEL/NLR, Rm. 3J106, 2200 Fort Roots Dr., North Little Rock, AR
72114–1706 (E-mail: campbellwaynew@exchange.uams.edu).
Received 6 October 1997; accepted in final form 27 August 1998.
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Copyright © 1999 American Physiological Society. All rights reserved.
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