Chapter 6

Transformer Condition Assessment Using

Dissolved Gas Analysis

Abstract The dissolved gas analysis (DGA) of transformers can provide an

insight view related to thermal and electrical stresses during operations of oil-
immersed power transformers. DGA has been practised widely to detect incipient
transformer faults and can therefore prevent any further damage to transformers.
This chapter focuses on a literature review concerning conventional DGA tech-
niques, as well as the recent advance in DGA diagnostic techniques. Firstly the gas
evolution in a transformer is introduced. Various conventional DGA diagnosis
methods are then presented, which are usually combined to give a comprehensive
view of internal characteristics of transformers, such as the Rogers ratio method,
the key gas method, the gassing ratio method, etc. Finally, a brief introduction to
the diagnostic techniques using CI for DGA are presented.

6.1 Introduction

As known, oil-filled power transformers are subject to electrical and thermal

stresses. The two stresses could break down insulation materials and release
gaseous decomposition products [1], although all oil-filled transformers generate a
small quantity of gas, particularly carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide
(CO2), to some extent at normal operation conditions. Overheating, corona (partial
discharge) and arcing are the three primary causes of fault related gas generation,
and such internal faults in oil produce gaseous byproducts, including hydrogen
(H2), methane (CH4), acetylene (C2H2), ethylene (C2H4) and ethane (C2H6). When
the cellulose is involved, a fault may produce CH4, H2, CO, CO2, etc. Each of
these types of faults produces certain gases that are generally combustible. The
total of all combustible gases (TCG) with increases of gas generating rates may
indicate the existence of any one or a combination of thermal, electrical or corona
faults. Certain combinations of each of separate gases, called key gases, are unique

W. H. Tang and Q. H. Wu, Condition Monitoring and Assessment 95

of Power Transformers Using Computational Intelligence, Power Systems,
DOI: 10.1007/978-0-85729-052-6_6, Ó Springer-Verlag London Limited 2011
96 6 Transformer Condition Assessment Using Dissolved Gas Analysis

for different fault temperatures and the ratios of certain key gas concentrations are
indicative to fault types.
The dissolved gas analysis (DGA) has been a widely utilised and powerful tool
to detect incipient faults in oil-filled power transformers [2–5]. The traditional
practice of diagnosing transformer conditions through DGA is carried out off-line
by manually extracting a sample of transformer insulation oil (by syringe), sending
it to a laboratory, and waiting for diagnosis results. By applying DGA techniques
on an oil sample, dissolved gases can be quantified. The concentration and the
relation of individual gases can predict whether a fault has occurred and what type
it is likely to be. Over the last four decades, DGA and its interpretation have
become a popular and reliable tool for assessing conditions of oil-filled trans-
formers and other oil-filled electrical equipment.

6.2 Fundamental of Dissolved Gas Analysis

Different patterns of gases are generated due to different intensities of energy

dissipated by various faults in a power transformer. Totally or partially dissolved
into the insulation oil, the gases present in an oil sample make it possible to
determine the nature of a fault by gas types and their concentrations.
The most widely used dissolved gas extraction process is to get an oil sample
through a sampling valve and inject it into an oil–gas extractor for analysis, using
chromatography, mass spectrometry, infrared analytical methods, and so forth.
After extraction and analysis, types of different gases and each concentration are
determined, which can be compared with gas analysis records in a laboratory
gathered over decades, followed by an evaluation of impact of a fault on the
serviceability of a power transformer. Once a suspicious gas presence is detected,
further inspections should be carried out to identify the species and locations of
faults, such as tests of no-load characteristics of winding DC resistance, insulation,
partial discharge or humidity content measurements, etc.
Various diagnostic schemes have been developed for DGA interpretation.
These methods attempt to map the relations between gases and fault conditions,
some of which are obvious and some of which may not be apparent. For instance,
these criteria include the key gas method and the gas ratio method based on
variations in gassing characteristics with temperatures to which materials are
subjected. The comparisons of these DGA interpretation schemes indicate a large
variety of ratios and typical values for individual gas concentrations between
different DGA diagnostic schemes.

6.2.1 Gas Evolution in a Transformer

Faults in a transformer sometimes lead to the degradation of insulation materials

and oil. During this degradation, gaseous products are formed and dissolved in
6.2 Fundamental of Dissolved Gas Analysis 97

Fig. 6.1 Free radicals Primary products - free radicals

resulting from heating of
mineral oil
H CH CH2 CH3 etc.

Equilibrium at fault temperature

H2
CH4 C2H6 C3H8 ....
C2H4 C3H6 ...
C2H2

Free molecules of hydrocarbon gases

the oil, namely H2, CO, CO2, CH4, C2H6, C2H4, C2H2, etc. If a certain level is
exceeded, gas bubbles arise and oil-filled transformers are subject to electrical
and thermal stresses, which may break down insulation materials and release
gaseous decomposition products. Evaluation procedures for DGA have been
implemented widely based upon the guidelines recommended by IEC [2], IEEE
[3] and CIGRE [4].
The immediate effect of the breakdown of hydrocarbon molecules as a result of
the energy of a fault is to create free radicals as indicated in Fig. 6.1[1]. These
subsequently recombine to produce low molecular weight hydrocarbon gases. This
recombination process is largely determined by operation temperatures, but also
influenced by other factors. The result is that the pattern of gases appearing in the
oil has a form as shown in Fig. 6.2. For the lowest temperature faults both CH4 and
H2 are generated, with CH4 being predominant. As the temperature of a fault
increases, C2H6 starts to be evolved and CH4 is reduced, so that the C2H6/CH4
ratio becomes predominant. At still higher temperatures the rate of C2H6 evolution
is reduced and C2H4 production commences and soon outweights the proportion of
C2H6. Finally, at very high temperatures C2H4 puts in an appearance and as the
temperature increases still further it becomes the most predominant gas. It is noted
that no temperature scale is indicated along the temperature axis of Fig. 6.2, and
the graph is subdivided into types of faults. The areas include normal operating
temperatures go up to about 140°C, hot spots extend to around 250°C and high-
temperature thermal faults to about 1000°C. Peak C2H4 evolution occurs at about
700°C [1].
98 6 Transformer Condition Assessment Using Dissolved Gas Analysis

Hydrogen

Methane

Arcing/sparking
Gas Evolution

Normal operating temperature

Ambient - partial discharge

Ethane

Ethylene

High-temperature
Hot spots Acetylene
thermal faults

Temperature

Fig. 6.2 Hydrocarbon gas evolution in transformer oil against temperature

6.2.2 Key Gas Method

The key gas method relates key gases to fault types and attempts to detect four
fault types [3], including overheating of oil, overheating of cellulose, corona
(partial discharge) and arcing, based on key gas concentrations (C2H4, CO, H2,
C2H2) expressed in ppm (part per million).
1. Overheating of oil: Decomposition products include C2H4 and CH4, together
with small quantities of H2 and C2H6. Traces of C2H2 may be formed if a fault
is severe or involves electrical contacts. The principal gas is C2H4.
2. Overheating of cellulose: Large quantities of CO2 and CO are evolved from
overheated cellulose. Hydrocarbon gases, such as CH4 and C2H4, are formed if
a fault involves an oil-immersed structure. The principal gas is CO.
3. Corona: Low-energy electrical discharges produce H2 and CH4, with small
quantities of C2H6 and C2H4. Comparable amounts of CO and CO2 may result
from discharges in cellulose. The principal gas is H2.
4. Arcing: Large amounts of H2 and C2H2 are produced, with minor quantities of
CH4 and C2H4. CO2 and CO may also be formed if a fault involves cellulose.
The insulation oil may be carbonised. The principal gas is C2H2.
The suggested relationships between key gases and fault types are summarised
as follows:
1. O2 and N2: non-faults.
2. H2: corona.
6.2 Fundamental of Dissolved Gas Analysis 99

3. CO and CO2: overheating of cellulose insulation.

4. CH4 and C2H6: low temperature overheating of oil.
5. C2H4: high temperature overheating of oil.
6. C2H2: arcing.
Since the key gas method does not give numerical correlations between fault
types and gas types directly, the diagnosis depends greatly on experience.

6.2.3 Determination of Combustible Gassing Rate

A detected gas volume and its distribution may be generated over a long time
period by a relatively insignificant fault or in a very short period of time by a more
severe fault. Hence, one measurement does not indicate the rate of gas generation
and may provide very little information about the severity of a fault. Once a
suspicious gas presence is detected, it is important to sample again and calculate
the gassing rate of a gas, which can indicate whether the fault that generated the
gas is active or not [3]. The equation for computing gassing rate is as below [5]:
Ci2  Ci1 G
Ri ¼  ; ð6:1Þ
Dt q
where Ri is the gassing rate (ml/h or day), Ci1 the first sample concentration (ppm),
Ci2 the second sample concentration (ppm), G the total oil weight (ton), q the density
of oil (ton/m3) and Dt the actual operating time of a sampling interval (hour or day).

6.2.4 Gas Ratio Methods

As a convenient basis for fault diagnosis, the gas ratio methods are coding schemes
that assign certain combinations of codes to specific fault types. The codes are
generated by calculating ratios of gas concentrations and comparing the ratios with
predefined values, which have been derived from experience and are modified
continually. A fault condition is detected when a gas combination fits the code
pattern of a particular fault. The most commonly used gas ratio method is the
Rogers ratio method [6] as listed in Table 6.1, which is able to distinguish more
types of thermal faults than that of the Dörnenberg ratio method [3].
Additional attention should be paid to the following conditions while applying
the gas ratio method according to Table 6.1:
1. Significant values quoted for ratio calculations should be only regarded as
typical.
2. Transformers fitted with an in-tank OLTC may indicate faults of code 202/102,
depending on seepage or transmission of arc decomposition products in the
diverter switch tank into the transformer tank oil.
100 6 Transformer Condition Assessment Using Dissolved Gas Analysis

Table 6.1 Fault diagnosis table reproduced from IEC60559

Code of range of
ratios
C2 H2 CH4 C2 H4
C2 H4 H2 C2 H6

Ratios of gases
\0.1 0 1 0
0.1–1 1 0 0
1–3 1 2 1
[3 2 2 2
Cases Characteristic fault Typical examples
0 No fault 0 0 0 Normal aging
1 Partial discharges of low 0 1 0 Discharges in gas-filled cavities resulting
energy density from incomplete impregnation, or
supersaturation or cavitation or high
humidity
2 Partial discharges of high 1 1 0 As above, but leading to tracking or
energy density perforation of solid insulation
3 Discharge of low energy 1 ? 2 0 1 ? 2 Continuous sparking in oil between bad
connections of different potential or
to floating potential. Breakdown of
oil between solid materials
4 Discharge of high energy 1 0 2 Discharges with power follow-through.
Arcing - breakdown of oil between
windings or coils or between coils to
earth. Selector breaking current
5 Thermal fault of low 0 0 1 General insulated conductor overheating
temperature \150°C
6 Thermal fault of low 0 2 0 Local overheating of the core due to
temperature range concentrations of flux. Increasing hot
150°C–300°C spot temperatures; varying from
7 Thermal fault of medium 0 2 1 small hot spots in core, shorting links
temperature range in core, overheating of copper due to
300°C–700°C eddy currents, bad contacts/joints
8 Thermal fault of high 0 2 2 (pyrolytic carbon formation) up to
temperature [700°C core and tank circulating currents

3. The ratios for a combination of multiple faults may not fit the predefined codes
in Table 6.1.
4. Combinations of ratios not included in Table 6.1 may occur in practice. A great
amount of consideration is being given to the interpretation of such combinations.

6.2.5 Fault Detectability Using Dissolved Gas Analysis

The majority of faults are slow to develop, which can be detected by DGA
monitoring. Locations of faults detectable using DGA as reported by CIGRE [4]
are listed below:
6.2 Fundamental of Dissolved Gas Analysis 101

1. Within a winding.
2. Cleats and leads.
3. In a tank.
4. A selector switch.
5. A core.
However, instantaneous faults are rapid and sometimes cannot be predicted by
DGA. Instantaneous failures that cannot be prevented by DGA are [4]:
1. Flash over with power follow-through.
2. Serious failures, developing within seconds to minutes and therefore not pos-
sible to be detected using DGA.

6.3 Combined Criteria for Dissolved Gas Analysis

From a practical point of view, it is important to establish the following evaluation

procedures using combined DGA criteria, which are rooted on the guidelines from
IEC [2], IEEE [3] and the new modification recommended by CIGRE Task Force
15.01.01 [4].
1. Detection and comparison:
a. Detect concentrations and gassing rates of any gases dissolved in the oil, and
compare them with ‘‘normal’’ quantities using appropriate guidelines. Then
it is certain whether an abnormality occurs in a transformer or not.
b. A recent investigation on DGA undertaken by CIGRE TF 15.01.01 has set
up a table with typical values for the key gases H2, C2H2, the sum of the
C1- and C2-hydrocarbons and the sum of CO2 and CO for generator and
transmission transformers as shown in Table 6.2 [4]. The key gases and
the gas concentration values shown in Table 6.2 can be understood as a
guideline for DGA interpretation. This is particularly valuable where no
additional information is available from historical data of a transformer.
However, generally the gassing rate of fault-generated gases is more
important than absolute levels, e.g. high levels of key gases can exist with
no faults present.
c. Attention should also be paid to CO and CO2 when it is suspected that
cellulose materials are involved. The high temperature degradation of cel-
lulose, no matter how it is caused (e.g. hot spots or arcing), tends to increase
the relative amount of CO. However, the rates of CO2 and CO production
depend greatly upon the oxygen availability, moisture contents and the
temperature of degradation. The ratio of CO CO primarily indicates the partic-
2

ipation of cellulose insulation materials in electrical or thermal related faults.

Normally, in case of overheating of cellulose, the ratio is greater than 10 and
in case of degradation of cellulose caused by an electrical fault, the ratio is
less than 3 [4].
102 6 Transformer Condition Assessment Using Dissolved Gas Analysis

Table 6.2 Typical values of key gases for generation and transmission transformers
Key gas Key gas concentration (ppm) Suspect of indication
C2H2 [20 Power discharge
H2 [100 Partial discharge
P
CxHy Thermal fault
P
[1000 if up to C1, C2, C3-Hydrocarbons
P
[500 if up to C1,C2-Hydrocarbons
COx = 1,2 [10000 Cellulose degradation

d. Additionally, a new ratio CH2 H2 2 is introduced by CIGRE TF 15.01.01 to

determine whether fault gases diffuse into a tank from a leaking OLTC or
not (if a diverter switch tank and a main tank have a common conservator, it
is a similar situation). In this case normally the ratio is 2 and the concen-
tration of C2H2 is 30 ppm [4].
e. When an internal fault is suspected, the gas ratio methods and the key gas
method should be combined to identify the type of faults, referring to
Sects. 6.2.3 and 6.2.4.
2. Assessment: Based upon the combined assessment results using various DGA
guidelines, further inspections should be carried out to identify the type and
location of faults, such as tests of no-load characteristics of winding DC
resistance, insulation, partial discharge and humidity content measurements,
followed by the evaluation of the impact of the fault on the serviceability of the
observed transformer.
3. Action: Recommended actions should be taken, such as increasing surveillance,
shortening sampling intervals, reducing the load on the transformer and finally
removing the unit from service.

6.4 Intelligent Diagnostic Methods for Dissolve Gas Analysis

The aforementioned DGA diagnosis techniques reported by IEC, IEEE and

CIGRE are computationally straightforward and tend to work well on diagnosing
severe faults. They are usually used as a general guideline by experts. However,
much uncertainty exists in gas data due to the complexity of gas generating pro-
cesses in the oil, gas sampling processes and the chromatographic analysis in a
laboratory. Consequently, varied patterns and amounts of gases are generated due
to different intensities of energy dissipated by different faults, which are affected
by oil types, oil temperatures, sampling methods, insulation characteristics and
environmental effects, etc. Moreover, most DGA diagnosis techniques rely on
experts to interpret DGA results correctly, which could be insensitive to slowly
developing and insignificant faults. Sometimes, misjudgement may be made under
normal conditions, due to occasional operations, such as oil-tank welding, the
6.4 Intelligent Diagnostic Methods for Dissolve Gas Analysis 103

electric charge carried by the oil-flow and so forth. To deal with the uncertainties
arising from fault diagnosis, based on gas contents extracted from transformer oil
samples, various techniques have been attempted by many researchers, including
EPS, FL, ANNs and so on. Firstly, fault types are classified based on on-site
experience, according to the combined criteria of total combustible gases, gas
generation rates, the key gas method and on-site inspections. Subsequently, vari-
ous CI methods are employed to reveal the relationships between fault symptoms
and malfunction types founded on gas-fault mapping schemes.
For instance, ANNs are the most widely used fault classifiers in DGA. In
[7, 8], an ANN was utilised to detect faults based merely on previous diagnostic
results. Theoretically, an ANN can be trained to represent any observable phe-
nomenon if there are sufficient data available. The experience obtained not only
encompasses the existing human diagnostic knowledge, but also explores the
unknown relationship between fault conditions and gas data. However, a disad-
vantage of ANNs in practice is that such relationships are embedded in an ANN
structure. It is not easy for a non-expert user to employ these relationships to
explain the conclusion of an inference. On the other hand, FL was employed to
improve the assessment capability of DGA in [9, 10], which can convert DGA
interpretation standards and other human expertise into ‘‘if-then’’ rules to form a
decision making system. Moreover, EPSs combined with other CI techniques, e.g.
fuzzy models and EAs, have been developed for DGA, which can evaluate
ongoing conditions and also suggest proper maintenance actions [11, 12]. The
fuzzy set concept can be integrated into an EPS to handle uncertain thresholds, gas
ratio boundaries and key gas analysis. EP has also been employed to automatically
modify the fuzzy ‘‘if–then’’ rules and simultaneously adjust the corresponding
membership functions. Other statistical methods like principal component analysis
and correlation analysis were proposed in [13], which are mainly concerned with
identifying the key variables and the key gas interdependence of a transformer
feature. In summary, these CI techniques could provide a firm heuristic basis for
future DGA research.

6.5 Summary

At the beginning of this chapter, a broad literature review of DGA techniques is

given, including the theory of fault gas evolution and a variety of conventional gas
interpretation schemes. Founded on a literature review of DGA, the correlations
between gas types, gas concentrations and fault types are summarised. Then,
conventional DGA evaluation procedures are presented briefly and a combined
DGA criterion is introduced involving the key gas method, the Rogers ratio
method, the gassing rate method and some modifications recommended by CIGRE
Task Force 15.01.01. However, based upon the conventional DGA interpretation
methods, it is an arduous task to determine malfunction types and oil sampling
intervals due to various fault conditions and other interference factors.
104 6 Transformer Condition Assessment Using Dissolved Gas Analysis

Furthermore, establishing relationships between gases and decline conditions is a

perplexing task, because of complex gas combination patterns. The DGA proce-
dures and criteria introduced in this chapter are employed in Chaps. 7 and 8 to
generate diagnosis inputs for the proposed DGA fault classification systems.

References

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Electrotechnical Commission Standard, Geneva, Switzerland
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