Thermometry Resistance - Guide: Indian

(Reaffirmed
2015)
Free Standard provided by BIS via BSB Edge Private Limited to Galaxy Test & Calibration Lab -
bhiwadi(dubey.ashish7726@gmail.com) 103.104.202.183 [for non-commercial use only].

(Reaffirmed 2014)
IS 2806 : 1992
2004 )
( Reaffirmed
(Reaffirmed 2013)
(Reaffirmed 2013)
(Reaffirmed 2018)

(Reaffirmed 2012)
( ~~T ,!~;n:)~ )

Indian S~tandard
(Reaffirmed 2011)
THERMOMETRY ELEC1~RICAL RESISTANCE -
GUIDE (Reaffirmed 2010)
( First Revision)
(Reaffirmed 2009)

UDC 536·531
(Reaffirmed 2008)
(Reaffirmed 2007)
(Reaffirmed 2006)
(Reaffirmed 2005)
@ BlS 1992
BUREAU OF IND.lAN STANDARDS

MANAK BHAVAN. 9 BAHADUR SHAH ZAFAR MARG
NEW DEL.HI 110002
January 1992 Price Group 7

Industrial Process Measurement and Control Sectional Committee, ETD 18
FOREWORD
This Indian Standard ( First Revision) was adopted by the Bureau of Indian Standards, after the
draft finalized by the Industrial Process Measurement and Contro I Sec tional Committee had been
approved by the Electrotechnical Division Council.
This standard was first published in 1964, and described the methods for measurement uf tempe-
rature by means of electrical resistance thermometers. The present revision has been undertaken
to take account of latest development in electrical resistance thermometry. Opportunity has also
been utilized to provide guidance on the selection and use of electrical resistance thermometer
and accordingly the title of the standard has been changed.
It is hoped that this revision will provide guidance on the principles and application of electrical
resistance thermometery, primarily in the sphere of plant instrumentation, scientific and techno-
logical use.
All materials that conduct electrici ty exhibit some change of resistance with temperature.
However, the magnitude and character of that Jchange depends upon the material used, as does
the temperature range over which it may be used. For many years practical thermometers relied
upon a small number of pure metals, havi ng positive changes of resistance with temperature.
However, in the past few decades semiconductor materials have become available, enabling the
production of the resistance thermometer sensing resistors possessing much greater variation of
resistance with temperature, and with negative or positive characteristics. Standardization 0 f
semiconductor eiements has not yet been achieved but new fields of application of resistance
thermometery have been opened up by their development. Although a wide variety of metallic
and semiconductor resistance thermometer sensors have been developed for special applications,
particularly at very low temperatures this code iis concerned only with those which have achieved
substantial industrial usage.
In the past, resistance thermometry practice usually favoured the use of null-balance bridges,
generally resistive, but sometimes capacitive or inductive. Nowadays,constant current circuits
are available enabling resistance thermometer s(~nsors to be used with standard voltage measuring
instruments ( for example, digital voltmeters). Also, as a result of recent advances in digital
electronics and the use of microprocessors there are now available a number of digital
thermometers which indicate directly in temperature units.
In preparation of this standard, assistance has been derived from BS 1041 (Part 3 ): 1989
'Temperature measurments: Part 3 Guide to selection and use of industrial reslstance thermome-
ters'. issued by British Standards Institution ( BSI ).
Por the purpose of deciding whether a particular requirement of this standard is complied with
the final value, observed or calculated, expressing the result of a test, shall be rounded off in
accordance with IS 2 : 1960 'Rules for rounding off numerical values ( revised),. The number of
significant places retained in the rounded off value iihould be the same as that of the specified
value in this standard.
IS 2806 : 1992
Indian Standard
THERMOMETRY ELEC1'RICAL RESISTANCE
GUIDE
( First Revision)
1 SCOPE Essentially it consists of a sensing resistor
together with a measuring element and some
This standard provides guidance for selection form of interconnection.
and use of electrical resistance thermometers
incorporating a metallic or semi-conductor 3.2 Resistance Tbermomete r Sensor
sensing resistor, which changes in resistance
with temperature.
A temperature responsive device consisting of
a sensing resistor within a protective sheath,
2 REFERENCES internal connecting wires and external terminals
IS 2848 : 1986 'Industrical platinum resistance to permit the connection of electrical measur-
thermometer sensors (first rell;s;on)' is a nece&- ing elements.
this sary adjunct to standard.
NOTES
3 TEItMINOLOGY 1 Mounting means or connection heads may be
included.
3.0 For the purpose of this standard following 1 Typical constructions are shown in Fig.!.
definitions shall apply.
3.1 Resistiiiice Thermometer 3.3 Sensing Re.sistor
A measuring device for ascertaining and exhi- That part of the resistance thermometer sensor
biting, in some suitable manner, the tempera- of which the change in resistance is used to
ture of the thermometer sensing resistor. measure temperature.
MOUNTING MeaNI
TERfltINAL'THREAD' 5£N5ING PROlitllVI
tERMINALS BLOCIC RESistOR SHEATH
FLANGE
FIG. 1 TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION OF RESISTANCB THBRMOMETBR SENSOR
1
IS 28~: 1992
3.4 Measuring Element S CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF

METALLIC RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
That part of the thermometer which responds SENSORS
to the change of resistance of the sensing
resistor and enables an evaluation of the tem- Platinum is predominantly used for the sensing
perature of that resistor to be made. resistors of industrial metallic resistance ther-
mometer sensors because its refinement and
3.S Internal Connecting Wires properties are well established, its temperature/
resistance characteristic is reproducible and
That part of the thermometer which provides it can be used up to about 850°C. Nickel is
electrical connection between the sensing resis- sometimes used on the grounds of economy or
tor and the terminals at the head of the sensors. because of its better sensitivity, but its chara-
NOTE - Compensating leads may be included. cteristic is less linear. Copper, which has good
linearity but sensitivity poorer than nickel, is
3.6 External Connecting Cable also sometimes used, but neither of these base
metals is normally suitable for sensing resistors
That part of the thermometer which connects which are to be used outside the range -100°C
the terminals at the head of the sensor to the to +180°C.
measuring element.
In order to maintain long-term stability it is
NOTE - In some designs of thermometers which necessary to minimize strain in the sensing
are not fitted with terminals. the internal and ex.er- resistor during fabrication and subsequent use.
nal conn~cti,lg wires may be joined tosether within
the head of the thermometer sensor. It is also desirable that resistance thermometer
sensors sh01l1d be constructed such that:
3.7 Metallic Resistance Thermometer SeIlSOJ'
a) thermoelectric voltages which may be
A resistance thermometer sensor, the sensing generated by the use of dissimilar metals
resisto,r of which is a metallic conductor. cancel each other;
3.8 Semiconductor Resistance Thermometer b) current flowing through them produces
Sensor insignificant self-heating;
c) the windings are non-inductive;
A resistance thermometer sensor, the sensing
resistor of which is a semiconductor. d) they are suitable for use in measuring
systems using direct current or alternating
3.9 Resistance Ratio current at frequencies upto 500 Hz;
The ratio of resistance at a temperature tOe to e) the transmission of heat to and from the
that at O°C ( expressed as R t / Ro ). sensing resistor by conduction along the
sheath, internal wires and insulators is
3.10 Padding Resistor negligible; and
A resistor which is sometimes used in conjunc- f) the insulation resistance between the
tion with the sensing resistor to bring the sensing resistor (including its internal
resistance of the thermometer sensor within connecting wires) and the protective
specified limits. sheath is adequate.
4 PRINCIPLE OI~' RESISTANCE THERMO- The design of a platinum wire-wound industrial

METRY sensing resistor necessarily involves a compro-
mise between insensitivity to vibration and
The electrical resistance of a material varies stability of characteristic, since to maximize
with any change in its temperature. In a resis- its ability to withstand vibrati on the wire
tance thermometer sensor, a metallic conductor should be fully encapsulated and cannot there-
or a semiconductor material with a large, fore be entirely strain-free. (In contrast,
reproducible and stable change of resistance thermometers made for use as laboratory
with temperature is mounted to give mechanical standards of the highest accuracy are usually
and chemical protection while, maintaining good constructed so that the resistance wire is free
thermal contact with its environment. Electrical to expand and contract with the minimum of
connections are provided so that the resistance constraint. ) For industrial thermometers where
may be measured. This resistance can be vibration levels are such that it is essential to
related to temperature once the characteristic attach the wire firmly to the former, the wire
has been established. is usually wound upon a glass or ceramic former
2
IS 2806 : 1992
which is then coated with glass or ceramic completely enclosed and sealed sheath for pro-
cement. The coating is selected in an attempt tection against corrosive or electrically-cond-
to match the expansion properties of the uc:tive fluids, high pressures or abrasive media.
platinum, but although the thermometer is
extremely robust it has somewhat poorer sta- Where total enclosure of the sensing resistor is
bility than a partially-supported coil. The n~:cessary, special consideration should be
tempera ture range over which it can be used given to the thermal conductance between the
does not normally exceed 500°C. In the partially sheath and the sensor and precautions will be
supported coil construction, helical coils of ne:eded to minimize errors caused by conduc-
platinum wire are mounted in the bores of a tion of heat along the sheath as well as along
multi-bore alumina tube. The coils are anchored the internal connecting wires. The time of
by a small amount of glaze so that while the response and the self-heating of the sensing
greater part is free, a small portion of each r~sistor may also be significant, especially if it
turn is attached. An alternative method involves sItuated inside a heavy thermowell, or is being
embedding the platinum coil in alumina powder used to measure static gas temperatures.
to reduce the effects of vibration. By these
techniques, thermometers with stabilities of a 6 CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF
SI~MICONDUCTOR RESISTANCE
few hundredths of a degree can be constructed
for use over the range -200°C to + 850 oC. THERMOMETER SENSORS
The temperature-sensitive material is usually a
Recent years have seen the introduction of a sintered metal oxide and is often encapsulated
design of metallic resistance thermometer in glass. As no support is required and as the
sensor in which the sensing resistor is a film resistivity is much higher than that of any
of platinum deposited onto a suitable substrate. m.~tal used in resistance thermometry the sens-
Such sensors, which can be produced at a very ing resistors can be extremely small. Typically
modest cost, are highly insensitive to vibration a lbead, 0·25 mm to 0·5 mm diameter, is thinly
and have stabilities similar to those of wire- glazed, and supported by its leads. To provide
wound glass-coated detectors over the range fUJrther chemical and mechanical protection
from about -50 C to +500°C. They are parti-
C
and electrical insulation it may be sealed in the
cularly suited to applications such as surface tip of the glass probe.
temperature measurement and air temperature
monitonng. They generally show fast time Sensing resistors in rod or disc form are com-
response, due to the intimate contact of the monly available, thin discs being particularly
film with the substrate and the lower mass that suitable for surface temperature measurement.
needs to be heated. However, generally; semiconductor sensors are
not appropriate for use in averaging tempera-
tUre measurement.
Constructional methods similar to those des-
cribed for platinum may be used with other, , CHARACTERISTIC OF RESISTANCE
metals, such as copper and nickel. Resistance THERMOMETERS
thermometer sensing resistors of all type scan
be fabricated in various shapes, limited only by '.ll General
the need to ensure an adequate electrical resis-
tance efficiently insulated. The surface area Characteristics which are common to both
can be made large in relation to the volume to m€:tallic and semiconductor resistance thermo-
provide fast response or the sensing resistor can me,ter include the following:
be made compact for measuring temperature at
a point. Alternatively, it can be extended over a) An external power supply is always
a considerable distance so as to measure an required to energize the resistance ther-
a verage temperature. mometer sensor. Operation may be by
direct current or by alternating current
at frequencies usually not in excess of
It is sometimes permissible to immerse the 500 Hz;
sensing resistor directly in the medium of which
the temperature is being measured. This method b) The energy dissipated in the sensing
has the advantage that the sensor responds resistor by the current that passes through
rapidly to temperature changes. Generally, it causes a rise of temperature of the
however, some form of protection is necessary. resistor above its surroundings. The
This may be merely a ventilated cover for magnitude of the temperature rise de-
mechanical protection as in the measurement pends upon the design and construction
of static or low-velocity air temperatures, or a of the sensing resistor , its mounting and
3
IS 2806 : 1992
the medium in which it is used, as well when a sufficiently sensitive measuring

as upon the measuring current. For element is available;
example, an unmounted resistor which e) Calibration checks are required only
has a self-heating effect of < 0·01 DCI where the greatest possible accuracy is
( m.W) when immersed in a stirred water necessary, or when. overheating or other
bath, may show an effect between ~O misuse is suspected; and
and 40 times greater when used In
unstirred air. In practice, the energy f) Any number of sensors can be switched
dissipated is limited so as to prevent to the same measuring element, although
significant errors in temperature measure- switch resistance may influence the
ment, while still maintaining a relatively accuracy attained.
high output signal;
7.3 Semiconductor Resistance Thermometer
c) Thermal response time is limited by the Sensors
need to protect and insulate the tem-
perature-sensitive material. Variations Semiconductor resistance thermometer sensing
in construction lead to widely differing resistors are normally capable of reproducible
response times. A response time of 0·5 s temperature measurement over a limited part
or less can be achieved with some sealed of the range - lOODC to + 300 °C. However,
sensors; with specialized materials and constructions,
d) It is possible to make circuits intrinsically temperatures outside this range can be measured
safe; Semiconductor temperature sensing resistors,
in general, possess the following characteristics.
e) The accuracy of the measuring element
can be checked by substituting precision a) Semiconductor resistance thermometer
temperature-stable resistors for the sensors have sensitivities very much
sensing resistor; and higher than those of metallic thermo-
f) Measuring circuits can be used in which meter sensors;
no compensation is necessary for changes b) Semiconductor resistance thermometer
in ambient temperature. sensing resistors are usually of much
higher resistance than metallic resistors,
7.2 Metallic Resistance Thermometer Sensors so they are less affected by interconnec-
tion resistances;
Metallic resistance thermometer sensing resis-
tors capable of providing accurate, reliable and c) Materials with either positive or negative
reproducible temperature measurement in the temperature coefficients of resistance are
range from about -260°C to +850 DC (or higher) available;
are available, but it should be emphasized that d) Semiconductor sensing resistors can be
only with more specialized resistance thermo- made very cheaply when errors within
meters can temperatures below-200 DC or above about 1DC are acceptable on the replace-
600DC be measured. Metallic sensing resistors ment of a sensor. When closer inter-
possess the following special characteristics. changeability is required the sensors may
be adjusted, or specially selected by the
a) The temperature coefficient of resistance manufacturer, or compensated by a
is always positive; suitable network;
b) Resistance thermometer sensing resistors e) Approximate linearity of resistance
manufactured to conform to standard change of a circuit, over a range of ±20°C
characteristics are electrically inter- about a nominal temperature, can be
Changeable within defined tolerances achieved by a simple shunt. Similarly,
( see IS 2848 : 1986 ). linearity of voltage output can be obtai-
c) The mathematical expression relating ned by the use of a series resistor.
resistance ratio and temperature of Linearity over wider ranges can be
platinum, given in IS 2848 : 1986 may be achieved by more sophisticated electronic
employed in bridge networks and com- means;
puter calculations:
f) The stability of a suitable processed and
d) The stability of a metallic resistance protected semiconductor sensing resistor
thermometer sensing resistor makes it subjected to a limited range of tempera-
suitable for narrow temperature spans tures, can be comparabl e with that of
4
IS 2806 : 1992
a standard metallic sensor. Glass-pro- However, for general purpose measurement of

tected types are the most stable and are te:mperature at a point, platinum resistance
suitable for the higher temperatures of thermometer sensors to 1986 with the preferred
use; si.zes given in IS 2848 usually be found to be
sa~tisfactory and should be used whenever
g) Overheating or other misuse can c,ause a possibe.
significant change of characteristic. The
effect of damage is not always obvious
and it is advisable to check the sensor If these specifications are not acceptable, it is
accuracy at regular intervals, or when advisable to consider other established types of
misuse is suspected; and n!sistance thermometer sensors, as special
dc~signs are expensive and can entail delay when
h) Any number of sensors can be switched re:placements are required.
to the same measuring element. Accuracy
is then limited by sensor interchangea~ A semiconductor sensing resistor is most likely
bility. to be chosen where small size, high output, low
cost or special characteristics are significant
8 SELECTION OF RESISTANCE factors.
THERMOMETER SENSORS
Semiconductor sensing resistors comprise three
There is an extremely wide range of resistance main types.
thermometer sensors available and selection of
the most suitable for a particular application a) Those having negative temperature coeffi-
needs care. Where significant levels of vibration, cient of resistance of exponential form
thermal shock or nuclear radtation are likely to usually made from metal oxides. These
be encountered in service, the manufacturer sensing resistors are usually called 'NTC
should be consulted because some designs of thermistors' and are the type most
thermometer sensors are likely to be affected commonly used for temperature measure-
less than others. It is particularly important ment.
that the manufacturer be consulted where ther~
mometers are to be exposed to neutron irradia- b) Those having a positive temperature
tIOn, because as well as stability considerations coefficient which is relatively linear over
the elements of the sensor may become radio~ the customary range of use; the commo-
active, creating long term handling problems. nest type is the silicon resistor. These
Some of the relevant parameters are as follows. sensing resistors are usually called 'PTC
Plastics begin to deteriorate when the accumu~ thermistors; and
lated exposure to gamma radiation reaches 10e
Gy ( 108 rads ) although with some plastics it is c) Those having a positive temperature
possible to exceed 10' Gy ( 109 rads) when the coefficient with a marked discontinuity
exposure is accumulated in a short time. at a characteristic temperature at which
the resistance rises very steeply. This
A wide range of materials have a significant characteristic point depends upon the
cross section for neutron capture and in some semiconductor material composition and
cases long term radiation sources can be created can be varied in manufacture. The
by exposure to thermal neutrons for a short material is usually a metallic titanate.
time. Longer exposures result in transmutation These sensors are mainly used as switch-
of the materials so that the electrical resistance ing device for over-temperature protec-
will change. tion of transformers, motors, heaters,
etc.
Materials in general show smaller effects from
exp osure to fast neutrons. However, accumu~ Other semiconductors using silicon, germanium
lations of damage due to atom displacement
and transmutation, which fast neutrons cause, and gallium arsenide are also used in tempera-
can produce hardening and other effects in ture measurement. However, with the exception
metallic materials and fragmentation of some of germanium, which is used in resistance ther-
mometry well below ooe, these materials are
ceramics. usually used in the form of diodes over very
In addition to finding a suitable type of sensor limited temperature ranges.
for the particular environmental conditions, it
is necessary to consider methods of indication, Figure 2 shows the resistance/temperature
compatibility with existing systems, and over- characteristics of typical semiconductor sensing
all economy as factors in sensor selection. resistors compared with platinum.
5
IS 2806 : 1992
10000 -
~ MIXED METAL
TITANATES
,
OXIDES
1000 ~
III
~
~
0
Z
ILl
""
.,.,..... V . .
~.
-
~
- --
...-
PLATINUM
I SILICON -
U
V
Z
c{
I-
(fI
III
100'---
~
f-- I--'
/ "I'... .......
-- "
ILl I
cr .........
,I'
./ .........
f"'.....
100 20 40 60 80 H)O 120 140 160 180 200 22 o 24 0

TEMPEIRATURE °C
FIG. 2 EXAMPLES OF TYPICAL :-;EMICONDUCTOR RESISTANCE THERMOMETER ELEMENTS
( PLAnNUM SHOWN FOR REFERENCE)
The temperature limitations of the more usual a) Cables containing single-strand cores
sensing resistors are given in Table I. Other have the disadvantage that breakage of
materials are available for special application, the strand results in disconnection of
for example, tungsten or molybdenum metallic the circuit, while multi-strand conductors
sensors for high temperature use, rhodium-iron give rise to the possibility of erroneous
and germanium sensors for low temperatures, measurements in bridge circuits due to
and special types of semiconductor sensors for unsuspected changes in conductor resis.
use up to 1 OOO°C, but these should be used only tance caused by strand breakage;
after careful consideration of the problems
involved.
b) Cables should be routed, and their total
The approximate relationship of resistancle resistance should be limited, so as to
ratio to temperature for platinum, nickel and minimize changes in conductor resistance
copper is given in Table 2. due to ambient temperature changes;
c) Cables should be positioned to minimize

9 PROCEDURE FOR INSTALLATION any electromagnetic pick-Up from
adjacent current-carrying conductors. In
It is assumed in the siting of the thermometer particular, parallel runs should be avoided
sensors and the choice of thermometer pocket It is usually advisable to enclose the
that any advice given by the suppliers of the conductors in a conducting screen which
resistance thermometer sensor has been consi-, may take the form of conduit or conti-
dered. The following additional advice is, nuous braiding. Twisting of the wires
applicable to most installations. together is also effective;
6
IS 2806 : 1992
Table 1 Operating Temperature of Resistance g) When 3-wire or 4-wire bridge circuits are
Thermometer Sensing Resistors used, each wire should have the same
resistance. The total resistance should be
( Iiem 8 ) limited to the value recommended for
the measuring instrument selected.
Sensing resistor Normal Normal I Special
Minimum Maximum'l Maximum It is often convenient to connect two or
Operating Operating Operating more thermometer sensors in sequence
Tempera. Tempera- \ Tempera. to a single measuring element. It is
ture ture ture necessary to use a switch of constant
°C °C °C low resistance and to ensure that the
Metallic sensing
resistors various interconnection resistances are
Copper -100 +100 +150 all within the tolerances appropriate to
Nickel -60 +180 +350 the measuring circuit being used.
Platinum -200 +600 +850
Semiconductor sensing h) Conductor materials, and the location of
resistors electrical connections between different
Mixed metal oxides -100 +200 +600 conductor materials should be chosen so
Silicon -160 -1-160 +200
as to minimize errors caused by thermo-
electric effects.
NOTES Systems using a . c. excitation are not
1 Satisfactory measurement at temperatures above prone to error from this source.
the normal maximum is possible only when special i) It may be necessary to take into account
constructions and carefully controlled environments the capacitance between conductors in
for the sensing resistors are used.
an a.c. system.
2 Platinum resistance thermome ter sensing resistor
of special construction can be used to measure
temperatures down to _259°C (14 K). Below -200·C, Table 2 Approximate Relationship Between
sensors have to be individually calibrated. Resistance Ratio and Temperature for
3 Copper resistance thermometer sensing resistors Metallic Sensing Resistors
of special construction can be used to measure
temperatures down to - 200·C. (Item 8 )
Temperature Resistance Ratio Rt/Ro

d) Insecure electrical connections are a
source of variable resistance. Where Platinum1 ) Nickel Copper
joints between cables are essential, they
should be in a junction box for ready - ·C
inspection. Conditions causing deterio-
ration of joints are vibration, corrosion
-200
-100
0'18
0'60
--0,70
-
-
-60 0'76 0·57
and thermal cycling; -50 0'80 0'74 0·74
0 1'00 1·00 0'79
e) No earth connection should normally be 50 1' 19 1'29 1'00
allowed on either the sensing resistor or 100 1' 38 1-62 1·21
any part of the circuit. A test of insula- 150 1'57 1'99 1·43
180 1-68 2·23 1·65
tion resistance to earth is usually desira- 200 1'76 - -
ble; this should be repeated whenever 250 1' 94 - -
exposure to damp or corrosion is sus- 300 2·12 - -
pected. It is occasionally necessary to 350
400
2·30
2·47
-
-
-
-
prevent the build up of static electricity 500 2'81 - -
in the system, since this can cause insu-
lation breakdown. A resistive earth
600
700
3'14
3·45
-
-
-
-
connection from a suitable point in the 800 3'76 - -
850 3'90 - -
measuring circuit is then desirable; - 1) See IS 2848 : 1986
f) When a 2-wire bridge circuit is used, the NOTE - Some thermometer sensors use padding
measuring element is arranged for a resistors to bring the resistance of the sensor within
specified limits. Gene rally. they are used in series
constant termi nal input resistance at a with the sensing resistor, but in some types of
fixed temperature. A ballast resistor, nickel themlometers both series and shunt padding
adjustable by the user, brings the resistors are used to enable the thermometer sensor
measured external resistance of the sensor to match an exponential resistance/temperature
curve.
and connections up to this value; and
7
IS 2806 : 1992
10 MEASURING CIRCUITS occurs when Rab/Rbe=Rda/Rcd so that the value

of Rd a is a measure of Red when Rab/Rbe is
10.1 General known. It is usual practice to make Rab= RJoe
so that Red=Rda at balance.
Measurements are made by passing current
through a sensing resistor and measuring the The balanced condition of the bridge is not
potential across it. If the current is known, affected by normal variations in the voltage
the potential is a measurement of the resis- supplied to it, but it should be noted that the
tance and hence the temperature. If the current current in the balance detector when the
is not known exactly the potential may be bridge is not balanced is proportional to the
compared with the potential across a known applied voltage. This affects the out-of-balance
resistor; this is the basis of the bridge systems voltage which may occur before a correction
discussed below. Bridge circuits may be eith,e r to the resistance Rda is required, i. e. it affects
the null-balance ( balanced-bridge) type or the the discrimination of the measuring system.
direct-deflection ( fixed-bridge) type. Whiclh-
ever of these methods is employed, the require- 10.2.3 Compensation for Conductor Resistance -
ment is to determine the resistance of the Simple circuits illustrating the method of
sensing resistor independently of the resistance compensating for conductor resistance are
of the connections. shown in Fig. 4 to 6. Compensation is only
completely effective in balanced- bri dge circui ts.
10.2 Bridge Systems In industrial applications of these electrical
circuits, the resistance thermometer sensor can
10.2.1 General - A 11 bridge resistors, the tem- be remote from the rest of the bridge and
perature sensing resistor excepted, are arrang<!d connected to it by copper conductors. The
to have a neglible change of resistance with resistance thermometer sensor together with
temperature, and in a. c. bridges are non- the conductors constitutes Red.
inductive.
Fig. 4 represents circuit designed for a fixed
When a bridge circuit is used, it is customary maximum value of conductor resistance, with
to connect the resistance thermometer sensor an adjustable resistor inserted in 'cd' to make
to the measuring bridge by copper conductors
which may have an appreciable change of
resistance with temperature. Assuming that
the correct installation procedure has bee:n
followed, errors due to changes in conductor
temperature are kept within acceptable limits,
partly by making the conductor resistance ;::; E a"'--Ir:--=}--~
small in relation to the sensing resistor and
partly by the circuits discussed below.
All circuits require a source of low voltage
electrical supply which is commonly a smoothed tI
and stabilized d. c. power source. In some FIG. 3 BASIC BRIDGE CIRCUIT

designs, an alternating supply is used, whic:h
may have a frequency of up to 500 Hz.
10.2.2 Balanced-bridge Instruments -- The bridl~e
circuit is maintained in a balanced condition by
manual or automatic adjustment of resistan4~e
in one or more arms of the bridge. In figures -.. E Qtf-~-Ir-=J--~c
3 to 11, 'balance' means an absence or poten tial
between 'a' and 'c' and hence zero current
through the balance detector, which may be a
galvanometer or an electronic amplifier.
The adjustable resistance usually takes the form
of a slidewire which is linked mechanicaIIy or
electrically to an associated temperature scale
Fig. 3 illustrates the simplest form of this SENSING
circuit. The sensing resistors is containe:d RESISTOR
within the arm 'cd'. The condition of balance FIG. 4 CIRCUIT FOR 2- WIRE SYSTEM
8
IS 2806 : 1992
up this maximum value. The resistance of the adequate accuracy can be obtained over the
copper conductors change with variation in full range of contact movement.
the ambient temperature and when the conduc-
tors are long or of inadequate cross section,
this change in resistance may be so large as to
cause a significant error in the temperature
reading. ( For example, the temperature coeffi-
cient of resistivity of copper is such that a
copper cable of resistance 10 will change by 4 c
rnQ per De changes in ambient temperature; this
is equivalent to 0·02°e change in resistance
reading of a lOOn platinum sensing resistor, if
two such leads are used to connect it to the
measuring circuit).
The error may sometimes be kept within accep-
table system limits by choice of conductor size
SENSIN G
but '2~wire' installations are usually restricted
RESISTOR
to a maximum of 10 to 20 per conductor
resi stance (corresponding to about 100 m. of FIG. 5 ClRCUIT FOR 3-WJRB SYSTEM
cable ). Other forms of bridge are used for cable
runs in exceSs of this and are satisfactory for
cable runs of 10 0 to 15 Q per conductor
( typically 1 km ).
Fig. 6 indicates how the effect of the resistance
of the conductor and its variation with temp-
erature can be substantially eliminated by ......,E __---;L_.J--~
inserting an equal length of identical conductor a c
in 'da' (generally using multi-core cable). This
is commonly described as a '4-wire compen-
sating-cable system'.
Fig. 5 shows how a similar result may be
obtained by connecting one conductor of the
power supply to the connecting head of
the resistance thermometer sensor. This is
SENSING
commonly described as a '3-wire system'. RESISTOR
In the circuits represented by figures 5 and 6 it FIG. 6 CIRCUIT FOR 4-Woo SYSTEM
is necessary for Rab to be equal to RbC to obtain
complete compensation.
In addition to the errors introduced by the
resistance of the condetors, the sliding contact
incorporated in the arm 'da' in figures 3 to 6 is
capable of introducing errors, since resistance
at the contact is added into the bridge arm.
Various circuit arrangements are employed in
practice (see Fig. 7 to 11 ) to avoid such errors
by arranging that contact resistance is intro-
duced into the current supply or the balance
detector circuit, where it cannot affect the
accuracy of the bridge balance.
In the circuit of Fig 8, the resistance of the
conductors in the bridge arms should be equal
but, eVen so, the balance position is completely
independent of interconnection resistance at SENSING
RESISTOR
only one position of the contact, where R&b =
R b-:.. By a suitable choice of values, however, FIG. 7 BRIDGB ( 2- WIRB SYSTEM)
9
IS 2806 : 1992
A compensated circu't, using one slidewirle this arrangement is suitable for conditions in
only, is provided by the use of a 4-wire system which both cables are of similar resistance.
( see Pig, 9 ). When Ra.b=R be , the position OIf Where the two cables are of different length or
balance is completely independent of conductor resistance and the highest accuracy is required
resistance, provided that the resistance of each improved compensation is effected by the use
conductor pair are equal.
All the bridges systems described can be made
self-balancing by using a servo-mechanism
controIIed from the balance detector.
10.2~4 Inductive-Ratio Bridge ........ E~---IL....==I--~
c
This is an a.c. bridge method incorporating
precision-wound transformers for ratio arms.
It is capable of the highest accuracy and can
be made robust and transportable; it has a
negligible temperature coefficient and can be
made very stable.
10.2.5 Fixed-bridge Instruments
In a fixed-bridge instrument only the sensing SENSING
RESISTOR
resistor is allowed to vary, the other bridge
resistance being chosen so that the bridge is in FIG. 8 BRIDGE ( SIMPLE 3-W,RB SYSTEM)
balance for one value of Red.
At temperatures represented by other values of
Red, the out-of-balance voltage developed
acrosS a.c. is a measure of the temperature,
provided that the bridge supply voltage is
stabilized.
2-wire, 3-wire or 4-wire circuit arrangements :::E Q~--{==:J---~c
( see figures 4 to 6 ) may be used, Ra d being ~il
fixed resistor.
If a 2-wire system is used, the method of
correction for conductor resistance is the samle
as that used for a balanced bridge.
If a 3-wire or 4-wire system is used, compensa-
tion in only complete at the point when thl~ SENSING
bridge is balanced. The error in the latter can RESISTOR
be reduced by raising the resistance values of FIG. 9 BRIDGE ( 4- WIRB SYSTEM)

Ra.b and RbC so as to minimize changes in bridge
current as the thermometer sensor resistancc~
changes with temperature.
Although the detector may be a simple galvano-
meter with direct deflectional indication of
tempera ture, in practice an electronic amplifier
is normally used to provide a high input
impedance and sufficient power to drive a more
robust deflectional instrument. Alternatively,
the bridge out-of.balance voltage can b€~
measured using a digital voltmeter or a
potentiometric indicating and recordin~~
instrument.
10.2.6 Differential Temperature Measurement
For differential temperatures a second resis·- SENSING SENSING
tance thermometer sensor is introduced into RESISTOR RESIS TOR
'da', two 2-wire cables being used ( see Fig. 10 ); FIG. 10 DIFFERENTIAL SYSTEM
10
IS 2806 : 1992
of two 4-wire cables (see Pig. 11). Bridge Small errors in current, attributable to such
arms 'cd' and 'da' each contain a pair of wires causes as ripple, poor resolution of the current
from both cables and at the balance point sletting or poor regulation, appear directly as
Red = Rda • an error in read-out. Due regard should be
paid to the effects of change in load resistance,
10.3 Potential Systems ambient temperature and drift with time when
selecting a constant current device. In parti-
If the sensing resistor is energized from an cular, design limits on the maximum load
accurately-known and constant current source, resistance of the current source may res trict
the potential difference developed across it can the number of resistance thermometer sensors
be directly related to resistance, and thus to that can be connected in series.
temperature.
11 MEASURING INSTRUM~NTS
A four-terminal network is used in the manner
shown in Pig. 12. H.l General
Clause 10 describes the circuit principles most
The principles of a potential system are as commonly used in resistance thermometry. The
follows. various instruments available which embody
these circuits are outlined in 11.2 to 11.6 but
a) During measurement negligible current full descriptions of the instruments are not
flows in the potential circuit. This given.
requires that the input impedance of the
potential measuring device be conside- NOTE - Consideration of the accuracy of any
rably greater than the sensing resistor. instruments of system bas been speCifically excluded.
in order to minimize circuit loading 11.2 InstrnmeDts that Included Fixed Bridge
errors during measurement. (Por Cil'Cllits
example, a 0' 1 percent error will result
from an input impede.nce 1 000 times the 11.2.1 General
sensor resistance);
The out-of-balance potential of a fixed-bridge
b) A temperature-measurement signal in the changes progressively with changes in sensing
form of a voltage is available; resistor temperature and offers a changing
c) A number of sensors can be connected signal to a detector.
in series with the same current source,
enabling voltages from each to be
scanned at any speed acceptable to the
measuring instrument;
d) Accurate measurements of resistance can
be made if the current is accurately
known. Alternatively, accurate compari- :=E .a~--~--r---~c
sons of resistance can be made, since the
current is constant even though, possibly,
unknown; and
e) Measurements are independent of
conductor resistance and selector switch FIG. 11 DIFFRBNTIAL SYSTEM WITH FULL
contact resistance. CONDUCTOR RESISTANCE COMPENSATION
Potential systems can be used for accurate high

speed work when a number of measurements
have to be made repeatedly. as in scanning and
data-handling. Such systems are readily kept
accurate by frequent checking of the voltage
across a stable check resistor carrying the same CONSTANT
1= I'o
current as the resistance thermometer sensors. CURRENT 3
The senSors can be connected in series with the ----ro
same current source, the voltage across each in
turn being measured. Alternatively, the current 1 2
source can be switched to each sensing resistor
in turn. FIG. 12 POUR TERMINAL SENSING RESISTOR
11
IS 2806 : 1992
11.2.2 Galvanometer Instrument take one of the forms given in 11.3.2 or 11.3.3.
A detector which was commonly used in the 11.3.2 Manually-Adjusted Bridge - This may use
past, and which is still sometimes used, is the a galvanometer or, more usually, an amplifier
moving-coil galvanometer. It may be arranged and analogue panel meter.
to indicate temperature directly on a graduated
scale. The galvnometer may be fitted with one 11.3.3 Automatic Self-balancing Bridge
or more limit detectors which operate at pre-set This normally employs an amplifier as the
deflections. Photoelectric or inductive principles detector, which reacts to any out-of-balance
are commonly employed. Operation of the condition and actuates a servo-mechanism to
detector may be used for 'on-off' control and balance the bridge. The mechanism may form
for alarms. part of an indicator, recorder or controller.
11.2.3 D.C. amplifier or other signal-converter 11.4 Instruments that Include Potential Systems
The fixed-bridge out-of-balance voltage is The instrument is connected directly across the
amplified without significant disturbance of the resistance thermometer sensor, which' is
bridge power, to provide an analogue output of energized by a stable current source. It is
sufficient power to feed into local or remote important that the impedance of the measuring
indica tors, recorders or controllers. element is high enough to ensure that the
current through it is negligible compared with
Alternatively, an analogue-to-digital converter the total current through the temperature
is used in conjunction with a linearizing circuit sensing resistor. The measuring element may
or microprocessor, to provide a digital display take one of the following forms.
in temperature units.
a) Manually-operated potentiometer;
An amplifier designed with a very low power
requirement is used in conjunction with a fixed- b) Self-balancing potentiometric indicator,
bridge network to produce a signal-convertel recorder or controller;
for installation close to the resistance thermo- c) Voltage amplifier or other signal coverter.
meter sensor. As well as minimizing sensor This provides an analogue output of
connecting cable resistance the converter sufficient power to feed into separate
provided a large analogue signal with high indicators or recorders; and
electromagnetic interference immunity for d) Digital voltmeter-This provides a direct
connection to remote control or data-handling reading of the voltage across the resis-
equipment. Two conductors are used to connect tance thermometer sensor, It may also
the converter to its remote power supply and be used to feed a digital signal into a
to carry both supply and measurement currents. remote display unit, a computer or other
The transmitter current is usually 4 rnA d.c. to data-handling system.
20 mA d.c., the amplifier and fixed-bridge being
adjusted so that 4 mA corresponds to the mini- 11.5 Multi-point lostruments
mum measuring temperature.
A multi-ponH instrument is one in which a single
11.2.4 Self Balancing Recorder or Indicator measuring element is used for determining the
temperatures of each of a number of different
A potentiometric recorder is used to measure resistance thermometer sensors.
the out-of-balance voltage across the fixed-bride.
The constant-voltage bridge supply and fixed- Connection to each of the sensors is made by
bridge resistors are usually contained within the means of a selector switch (which may be
instrument circuit. mechanical or electronic), and the connection
is maintained for sufficient time to permit the
11.3 Instruments that Include Null-Balance Bridge sensing and meaSUrIng elements to respond full.
Circuits The switch is usually driven so that it selects
thermometer sensors in a regular sequence, the
11.3.1 General response, time of the combined sensing and
A null-balance bridge requires adjustment of measuring elements imposing a practical upper
the resistance or impedance value in one, two limit on the frequency of selection.
or three arms of the bridge in order to achieve
a balance; a detector serves to determine that The sensor selector switch is inserted directly
balance has been reached. into the measuring circuit: with some circuits,
particular care in design is essential to minimize
The position of the adjusting mechanism is then possible errors arising from switch contact
a measure of temperature. The ins,trument may resistance and switch thermal e.m.f.s. The
12
IS 2806 : 1992
errors are most likely to be significant in systems meter sensor can be converted to a correspon-
designed for rapid selection. ding d.c. voltage required by an analogue-to
digital converter for data-logging equipment by
Solid state switching is essential for some fast the following methods.
scanning systems, and can lead to accuracies
comparable to those obtainable with the best 12.2.1 Potentiometric
type of mechanical switching.
An accurately-known constant-current source
Multi-pen recorders are frequently used to is switched to each thermometer sensor in turn,
overcome the problems of discontinuous together with the potential measuring connec-
measurment and possible input selector switch tions to the converter. Four interconnections
problems inherent in multi-point instruments. are required for each sensor. In some circuits
Each measured input may be complete with its direct output recording in temperature units
own amplifier, measuring circuit, servo- requires zero voltage input when the tempera-
mechanism and recording pen, permitting a ture is at scale zero. This condition may be
different temperature range for each record. :satisfied by connecting an accurate reference
voltage (usually adjustable ), corresponding to
11.6 Multi-range Instruments the voltage developed across the sensor at O°C,
A multi-range instrument is one provided with in opposition to the incoming signal before
a means of selection which permits its use on presentation to the analogue-to-digital conver-
anyone of two or more temperature ranges, ter. Alternatively, in some modern digital
the span of the measuring element being caused lequipment, the O°C resistance of the thermome-
to correspond with each range thus selected. ters may be keyed into the voltmeter, which
then calculates the temperature directly .
The accuracy of the complete instrument
system is often limi ted by the accuracy of the 12.2.2 Fixed-Bridge
measuring instrument, stated as a percentage
of span. Optimum accuracy is then obtained A number of fixed-bridges, each connected to
by choosing the narrowest temperature range a separate resistance thermometer sensor, are
which is appropriate to the sensitivity of the supplied from an accurate constant-voltage d.c.
measuring instrument. source. The bridge out-of-balance voltages are
connected to the multiplexer.
In some instruments the range selection is made The voltage supply is usually common to all
by means of a switch; in others (particularly bridges and, consequently, 2-pole out-of-blance
digital-display thermometers) it is sometimes voltage selection is imperative. As open-circuit
necessary to interchange printed circuit cards. bridge potentials are being measured the input
Where a range selector switch is fitted, this may impedance of the measuring instrument should
give rise to errors due to contact resistance or be high enough to prevent circuit-loading errors.
to thermal e.m.f.s. at the switch contacts. Compensation for the resistance of the connec-
12 DIGITAL DATA-PROCESSING AND ting wires and cable by 3-wire interconnections
LOGGING SYSTEMS is commonly used, although designs using a
modified Kelvin double bridge circuit are
12.1 General ~:lvailable (Fig. 13). These require 4-wire
Iconnections to each thermometer and further
Data-logging is the automatic measurement and reduce conductor resistance errors.
recording in digital form of a number of input
signals. The information may . be presented in r-------;Il£)
various forms, e.g., typewritten in direct tempe-
rature units, coded on magnetic tape or disc, or BALANCE
punched tape or cards, for subsequent process- DETECTOR
mg.
A typical system comprises a multiplexer
( scanner), an analogue-to-digital converter and .."'"
::
an output drive unit . To this basic system may
be added modules to provide amplification of
the input signal before measurement, lineariza-
tion of the resistance/temperature characteris- c
tICS of the sensing resistor, alarm initiation, etc.
12.2 Conversion Systems
The resistance change of the resistance thermo- FIG. 13 KELVIN DOUBLE BRIDGE ( MODIFIED)
13
IS 2806 : 1992
12.2.3 Fixed-bridge with Voltage Amplifier- where

An amplIfier may be used with each fixed-bridge Rs = is the source resistance;
to provide a higher voltage or current ( 0 V to
5 V or 4 rnA to 20 rnA). Industrial practice is Rr= is the thermIstor resistance at tempe-
to use a 2-wire converter ( 4 mA to 20 rnA ), as rature Tm;
described in 10.2.3, for each resistance thermo- B = is the material constant of the ther-
meter input. The increased output permits mistor ( in kelvins ).
modification by shunting and potential-dividing Tm-- is the temperature at the mid-point
and may more readily be made compatible with of the linear range (in kelvins ).
a system baving facilities for measuring a
variety of physical quantities, all converted to The resistance may be connected across the
a common output signal ( 4 mA to 20 rnA ) for thermistor in constant-current systems, or in
logging or processing. series in constant-voltage systems. The value
of Rs may have to be adjusted to allow for the
The higher voltages available ease the duty resistance of the measuring element.
of the multiplexer and are preferred for use
with semiconductor switching. Tbe location of . 13.3 Measuring Element Linearization
the converter close to the resistance thermome-
ter sensor minimizes interconnecting resistance An instrument with a null-balance bridge, or a
problems and the high signal level electrical potential system, can provide a linear tempera-
interference immunity, together with high ture output with special circuits or, in a few
resistance capability (typically 100 n) is instances, by cam-corrected siidewires.
eminently suitable for industrial use. Such In a fixed-bridge circuit there is a non-linear
systems can be designed to meet intrinsic safety relationship between the out-of-balance voltage
requirements. and the change in value of the resistance ther-
mometer sensor. The extent of this non-linearity
13 LINEARIZATION depends not only on the non-linear characteri-
13.1 General stics of the sensing resistor but also on the load
power which is drawn from the bridge by the
Most sensing resistors use materials which have indicator, i.e., it is inversely related to the
non-linear resistance/temperature characteris- indicator input resistance. Non-linearity due
tics. For many applications it is necessary or to this effect may be considerable for a galvano-
convenient to have a pointer deflection, digital metric indicator but may be negligible for a
indication or output signal which varies linearly potentiometric indicator or a d.c. amplifier with
with temperature changes. a high input impedance.
13.2 Sensing Resistor Linearization It is easier to make a linear fixed-bridge instru-
ment with a nickel resistance thermometer
13.2.1 Metallic Sensors sensor than with a platinum resistance thermo-
Many measuring elements are themselves meter sensor. The simple bridge network and
approximately linear, and overall linearity may a nickel sensor have opposing departures from
be achieved by the use of sensing resistors with linearity, which can be made to cancel one
linear characteristics. Copper can be consi- another. The departure from linearity of a
dered to have linear characteristics over the platinum sensor and a bridge are additive, but
temperature range from oDe to 100°C, but to correction may be made by using active circuits
relate resistance to temperature outside this or non-linear components.
range, a second-order term needs to be intro- When the bridge out-of-balance voltage is fed
duced. The second-order terms in the charac- to a computer or to an instrument containing
teristICS of platinum and nickel have opposite a microprocessor, the conversion to tempera-
signs; a composite sensing register of these two ture can be made by mathematical manipulation.
metals can be made approximately linear over The non-linear response of the sensing resistor
the range of OoC to 100°C. may be corrected by polynomial-fitting to a
standard curve, the thermometer coefficient
13.2.2 Semiconductor Senses being stored in the computer or in a read-only
In systems using negative temperature coefficient memory in the microprocessor. Alternatively,
thermistors, optimum linearity is obtained when segmented curve-fitting procedures may be used
the thermistor is energized from a source resis. involving the storage of resistance/temperature
tance having a value given by the equation: tables in the computer or in a read-only-
memory. In both cases it is possible to store
B - 2Tm coefficients or table which relate to an indivi-
Rs =RT B-+2 Tm dually-calibrated thermometer sensor.
14
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Doc: No. ETD 18 ( 3\06)
Amendments Issioed Since Publication
Amend No. Date of Issue Text Affccted
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(Reaffirmed

BUREAU OF IND.lAN STANDARDS

January 1992 Price Group 7

Industrial Process Measurement and Control Sectional Committee, ETD 18

FIG. 1 TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION OF RESISTANCB THBRMOMETBR SENSOR

3.4 Measuring Element S CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF

4 PRINCIPLE OI~' RESISTANCE THERMO- The design of a platinum wire-wound industrial

the medium in which it is used, as well when a sufficiently sensitive measuring

a standard metallic sensor. Glass-pro- However, for general purpose measurement of

100 20 40 60 80 H)O 120 140 160 180 200 22 o 24 0

c) Cables should be positioned to minimize

Temperature Resistance Ratio Rt/Ro

10 MEASURING CIRCUITS occurs when Rab/Rbe=Rda/Rcd so that the value

and stabilized d. c. power source. In some FIG. 3 BASIC BRIDGE CIRCUIT

be reduced by raising the resistance values of FIG. 9 BRIDGE ( 4- WIRB SYSTEM)

Potential systems can be used for accurate high

12.2.3 Fixed-bridge with Voltage Amplifier- where

Bureau of indian Standards

Revision of lndian Standards

Doc: No. ETD 18 ( 3\06)

Amendments Issioed Since Publication

Amend No. Date of Issue Text Affccted

BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS

Regional Offices : Telephone

Printed at Printwell Printers, Aligarh, India

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