Research Methods

Course Facilitators:

Mr. Ebrahim Mohammed (MPH, MPHM)

E-Mail: ebrohis@gmail.com

December, 2022
 Course Description:

, The research methods course is designed to assist students in

developing research proposal, and writing scientific paper
 Course Objectives:
At the end of the course, students will be able to:
, Define research in general and health systems research in particular
, Enumerate the characteristics of research
, Identify the different types of research
, List the essential features of health systems research
, Describe the broad divisions (steps) involved in the research process
, Explain the roles of research in development
, Develop research objectives of different forms
, Understand the steps to be followed in research
, List major type of study design
, Develop research proposal;
, Handle ethical issues; and
, Prepare scientific papers.
, Critically appraise individual articles & systematic reviews
 Methods of Instruction

o Lectures, case studies, class practical exercises, and group

discussions are methods of instruction

o Attendance of classes and group discussions is strictly

compulsory
 Evaluation
o Test one 15%

o Group Assignment 15%

o Quiz 5%

o Test two 15%

o Final Exam 50%

Introduction
 DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS
, Research is the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to answer a certain
question or solve a problem

, “The search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, with an open mind, to
establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new
theories.”

, Research is an approach in obtaining a solution for a specific problem.

, Research is necessary to generate new knowledge and technologies to deal with major
unresolved health problems.

, Research is essential for guiding action

, Research is necessary to identify

– priority problems

– design and evaluate policies and programs

 Characteristics of research
, It demands a clear statement of the problem

, ¨ It requires clear objectives and a plan (it is not aimlessly looking for
something in the hope that you will come across a solution).

, ¨ It builds on existing data, using both positive and negative findings.¨

, New data should be systematically collected and analyzed to answer

the original research objectives.
 What is Health Research?
• It is the process of obtaining systematic knowledge and technology
which can be used for improvement of health of individual groups.

• It provides basic information on the state of health and diseases of the

population; it aims to develop tools to prevent and cure illness and
mitigate its effects and it attempts to devise better approaches to health
care for individual and community (Davies 1991)

o It is a systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to solve a

health problem.

o It is a research effort to address health related problems and come up

with better solutions to mitigate the prevailing problem.
 Purpose of Health Research
o To generate knowledge essential to effectively promote health
of the population.

o Without that knowledge, effective action is impossible because

it has no logical or empirical basis.
 Importance of Research

• Guiding action

• Developing new tools

• Saving resources

• Multiplying benefits

• Enhancing capacity development process

Types of research

• The classical broad divisions of research are;

 basic and applied research

Basic (Fundamental) or traditional) research is necessary to

generate new knowledge & technologies to deal with major
unresolved health problems.

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Obtaining and using empirical data to formulate, expand, or
evaluate theory; and

– Discovery of knowledge solely for the sake of knowledge.

Applied (action) research is necessary to identify priority

problems and to design and evaluate Policies and programs
that will deliver the greatest health benefit, making optimal use
of available resources.

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Classification of Research

• Based on the Specific Objectives of Research

– Descriptive: sets out to describe and to interpret what is

– Explanatory: aims at establishing the cause and effect

relationship between variables

– Exploratory: focuses on gaining background information

and helps to better understand and clarify a problem

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Based on Approaches of Research

– Quantitative: based on the measurement of quantity or

amount. Applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in
terms of quantity

• how much? How many? How often? To what extent? etc

– Qualitative: concerned with Qualitative phenomena (those

relating to involving quality or kind)

• concerned with why? How? In what way

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Based on Designs

– experimental,

– quasi-experimental, and

– non-experimental (observational).

By Type of Data

– Primary research (field research)

– Secondary research

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By Fields of Study

– natural science research,

– social science research,

– educational research,

– behavioral science research,

– health science research, etc.

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 Health research
• the application of principles of research on health.

• It is the generation of new knowledge using scientific method to

identify and deal with health problems

• Knowledge, both generalizable worldwide and locally specific, is

essential to effective action for health

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 Health research is divided into three overlapping groups

• Essential health research:

– Consists of activities to define the health problems of a

given country or community, to measure their importance
and to assure the quality of activities to deal with them.

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• Much of this research comes within the category of health
service research but there will be elements of clinical research
and development of technology, depending on the situation.

• The information, which may be obtained in a number of ways,

is essential and specific to each country for planning and
monitoring health services.

• Some of the research conclusions, however, may be

generalized and applicable to other areas.

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Clinical research:
• Ranges from studies of the prevention and diagnosis of
diseases through new methods of treatment to problems of
care and rehabilitation.

• The sophistication will vary from problem to problem and

there will be overlap with the fields of essential and
biomedical research.

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• Some of the research are mainly of local importance; much are
useful for other individuals in other countries.

• Examples:

– clinical trials of disease prevention and the design of new

chemotherapeutic agents.

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Biomedical research:

• It is the most basic part of health research which demands

more resources, facilities and skilled investigators.

• The results of biomedical research are more often of universal

importance and thus of general significance.

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What is health systems research (HSR)?
– Research that supports health development
– Definition of “health system “ A health system may be
described as:
• A set of cultural beliefs about health and illness that
forms the basis for health-seeking and health promoting
behaviour.

• The institutional arrangements within which that

behaviour occurs; and

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– The socioeconomic, political, physical context for those beliefs &
institutions

– They include:

1. The individual, family and the community

2. Health care services

- private sector

- public

3. Health related sectors education, agriculture, etc.

4. The international sector (bilateral) and multilateral donor

agencies
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 Essential Features of HSR
1. HSR should focus on priority problems.

2. It should be action oriented (aimed at developing solutions)

3. An integrated multidisciplinary approach is required

(research approaches from many disciplines)

4. The research should be participatory in nature (from policy

makers to community members)

5. Research must be timely.

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Essential Features of HSR…..

6. Emphasis should be placed on comparatively simple, short-

term designs that are likely to yield practical results

relatively quickly.

7. The principle of cost-effectiveness is important in the selection

of research projects. (low-cost and optimum output)

8. Results should be presented in formats most useful for

administrators, decision-makers and the community.

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 Main components of any research work

I. Preparing a research proposal

II. Fieldwork (i.e., data collection)

III. Analyzing data and preparing a research report

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Research Process Overview
 Review the Available
Literature

Publish Formulate a
Findings Question
Research Process
Interpret Select an Appropriate
Findings Research Design

Collect Relevant
Data
Steps of conducting a health research:
A. Prioritizing and selecting a research topic
B. Review of literature and other existing information
C. Development of a research proposal
D. Implementation of study:
i. Data collection
ii. Data processing and analysis
iii. Interpretation of results
iv. Final report writing
v. Presenting the results: Scientific
publication, presentation at meetings,
seminars, workshops or conferences, and
presentation for administrators and policy-
makers
 Planning Research/Develop Proposal
A written proposal is important in order to:

• Clearly define the problem under study

• Avoid reinventing the wheel

• Clearly depict the methodology to be used

• Be cost and time conscious

• Be clear about what to expect in the end

 Components of Research Proposal
1. Title (Cover page)
2. Statement of the Problem/Introduction
3. Literature review
4. Objectives
5. Methodology
6. Ethical Considerations
7. Work plan
8. Dissemination and Utilization of Results
9. Cost of the Project
10. Assurance of the investigator
11. Advisor (approval)
 Selection of Research Topic
Novel Idea??
Mother of All Successful Proposals
 There is nothing new under the sun!
Stealing from one source is plagiarism, while stealing from
many is research: Jacob Kraicer, U Toronto
• Where do we get our ideas from?
– Advisor/ Committee members/ colleagues
– Reading literature/publications
– Library/internet
– Conferences/seminars
– Look what has been funded, who gets funded and by
whom?
– Draw inspiration from anywhere you can
– What is a great idea?
 I wish, I would have thought of it, first!

• Need based (~50%)

• Solving a problem that exists
• Something is unknown so fill in the gap
• Less chance of survival
• INNOVATIVE IDEA!
• Try to think big and out of the box!!!
 Title

• Should be in line with your general objective

• A good title should be short, accurate, and concise.

• It should make the central objectives of the study clear to the reader.

• It is important to specify what population will be investigated, and

where it will be conducted.
 Choosing an interesting topic
When looking for a topic consider:

 Your favorite hobbies

 Personal experiences

 Values- what is important to you

 Interests- what would you like to learn more about?

 Criteria for selecting a topic:

 Is this topic appropriate to the occasion?

 Will this topic appeal to my listeners’ interests?

 Is this topic something I can speak about with enthusiasm and

insight?

 Will I be able to offer a fresh perspective on this topic?

 Prioritizing selected a research topic
Each topic that is proposed for research has to be judged according to
certain guidelines or criteria. There may be several ideas to choose from.

1. Relevance: priority, magnitude of problem

2. Avoidance of duplication: complexity, manpower, time, equipment, money

3. Feasibility: complexity, manpower, time, equipment, money…

4. Political acceptability:

5. Applicability: (cost-effectiveness): availability of resources

6. urgency of data needed: urgency of data needed for making decision

7. Ethical acceptability
 Conducing Health System Research
Group work: Selection, and statement of a research problem.

Proposed Relevance Avoidance of Feasibility Political Applicability Timeliness Ethical

topic duplication commitment acceptability

1.

2.

3.
 Group work: Selection, and statement of a research problem.
Three working groups
• Select a reporter in each group who will present the topic you have considered as your
final choice in plenary.
• Discuss various situation that could be chosen as a research topic: each group member
write one topic on a piece of paper.
• Decide on key criteria to select the research topic.
• List all topics and briefly discuss to eliminate duplications. Omit proposals that are
obviously less relevant or too difficult to carry out. Ideally you should select no more
than five to six topics for rating.
• Consider the two or three topics you have finally chosen.
• Each group member should then rate the selected proposals individually, using the
scoring sheet (See the table). Then for each proposal the scores of the groups members
for each criterion should be tallied on a flipchart and the total scores calculated. Discuss
marked differences in individual ratings as these may be due to different interpretations
of the criteria.
• Finally, select one topic and prepare a brief presentation for the other members of your
course. Present the flipchart with the scores and provide reasons for your final choice.
• Carefully document the arguments supporting your first choice and keep them for use in
later sessions.
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 Introduction
 It should provide enough background data for an outsider to understand
the different aspects of the problem, or the different factors influencing
the problem and the context in which it occurs.
 introduction should have a funnel shape with clear sections on
- General background (what is this all about?);
- What is known and what is unknown about this specific subject
(why was this study needed, and why is it important?);
- primary research question (what did we want to know?); and
- Study aim and design (what did we do to answer the research
question?).
 Look at the length of the introduction (maximum 10 - 15% of the total
word count).
 Determine if the introduction is the start of the story line of your paper
by looking at your outline (skeleton).
 Introduction

• Can be divided into 3 sections or the concepts of the 3 sections

can be merged together

• Sections:

– Statement of the problem

– Literature review

– Justification of the study

 Statement of the problem
Includes:

• Brief description of the socio-economic & cultural characteristics

• Overview of health status and health care system

• Size, distribution, and severity of the problem

• Major factors that influence the problem

• Solutions that have been tried in the past

• How well the solutions worked

• Why further research is needed (more in the justification)

• If necessary a short list of definitions of crucial concepts

 Cont..
o A perceived discrepancy exists between what is and what should be
o A question exists about why there is a discrepancy
o At least two possible and plausible answers exist to the question.
The last point is important. If there is only one possible and
plausible
answer to the question about the discrepancy, no need to do
research
 importance of clearly defined problem
statement
 Is the basis for further development of the research proposal

 Makes it easier to find information and reports of similar

studies from which your own study design can benefit

 Enables you to systematically point out why the proposed

research on the problem should be undertaken and what you
hope to achieve with the study results.
Examples: Problem Statement of the Research:
 Review of Literature
Why is a review of literature important when preparing a proposal?
o It helps further your understanding of the problem you plan to research,
and may lead to refining of the “Statement of the problem”
o It helps you find out what others have learned and reported on your topic,
and take account of this in the design of your study.
o It gives you a familiarity with the various types of methodology that might
be used in your study.
o It prevents you from “reinventing the wheel”(duplicating work that has
been done before)
o Provide you with convincing arguments for why your particular
research project is needed
 Cont..
• Search widely

– Electronic search engines (google scholar, Pubmed, POPLINE…)

– Grey literature

• Reference all literature that you refer to in your review

• Evaluate the relevance of the literature to your study

• Include information directly relevant to your study

• There should be logical sequence in writing literature review

• Be concise
Many possible sources of information:
Individuals, groups and organizations,
Published information (Books, articles, abstract journals
Unpublished information = Grey literature (Other research proposals in
related fields, reports, records, computer data bases.
 Justification
• Why your research is needed?

• E.g

– Others not large enough

– Different populations

– Different intervention
 Formulation of Research Objectives,
Research Questions, and Research Hypothesis
 Objectives
• A research objective is a statement that clearly depicts the goal to be
achieved by a research project.
• In other words, the objectives of a research project summarize what is to
be achieved by the study.
Importance of developing objectives:
• Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials);
• ¨ Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for
understanding and solving problem you have identified and
• ¨ Organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases.

• Helps for evaluating the project

 Characteristics of Good Objectives
o Logical and coherent
o Feasible
o Realistic, considering local conditions
o Defined in operational terms that can be measured
o Phrased to clearly meet the purpose of the study
 How should objectives be stated?
• Commonly, research objectives are classified into general objectives and
specific objectives.
• General objective:
– summarizes what is to be achieved by the study
– should be clearly related to the statement of the
problem
• Specific objectives:
– are logically connected parts of the general objective
• Objectives should be stated using “action verbs” that are specific enough
to be measured:- - determine -verify -identify
-describe - assess - compare
– calculate - establish -explore
• Do not use vague non-action verbs such as:
• To appreciate … To understand… To believe
 What formats can be used for stating research
objectives?
Research objectives can be stated as:
A) Questions: “The objectives of this study are to answer the
following questions …”
B) Positive sentence: “The objectives of this study are to determine …”
C) Hypothesis: “The objective of this study is to verify the following
hypothesis...”
The format chosen depends on the type of study
• If the study is descriptive or exploratory in nature, then objectives
are stated in the form of questions or positive sentences.
• If the researcher knows enough to make predictions concerning
what s/he is studying, then hypotheses may be proposed.
Formulating Objectives: research questions vs
hypotheses

• A hypothesis requires sufficient knowledge of the problem to be

able to predict relationships among factors which then can be
explicitly tested.

• Research questions are formulated when the investigators do

not have enough insight into the problem being studied.
 Criteria for setting research questions
• Focused, each covering a single point
• Ordered in a logical sequence
• Realistic and feasible to answer
• Operational, using action verbs such as:
– determine - verify -identify
– describe - assess - compare
– calculate - establish -explore
• Measurable outcomes at the end of the research
 Examples of General and Specific Objectives
Example 1. A study designed to assess the Accessibility and Acceptability of the
Voluntary Counselling and Testing Services in Semera-Logiya Town, Afar
Regional State, has the following objectives:
General Objective:
To identify factors that affect the acceptability of VCT services and to assess
perception of the community towards a comprehensive care and support activity for
HIV/AIDS.
Specific Objectives:
1. To assess the knowledge, attitude and practice of the community towards
HIV/AIDS and the VCT service
2. To identify barriers and concerns related to VCT and its use
3. To assess awareness and perception of the study community regarding
comprehensive care and support of HIV/AIDS
Exercice.
In a group, prepare research objectives (general and
specific) for the proposal being developed under the title: A
study looking into your topic of interest based on your
prioritization
 Methodology
Possible sub-sections of the methodology:
• the study design
• Setting
• study population
• variables
• sample size and sampling strategies
• Data collection:
• Data quality control issues
• Data management:
• Data analysis:
• Ethical Concerns
 Research Design
• Research design: is the blue print of the research that lays the strategy
and framework for the conduct of research integrating different phases
of the research activities and providing the basic direction

• A study design is a specific plan or protocol for conducting the study,

which allows the investigator to translate the conceptual hypothesis into
an operational one.

• Refers to the overall structure or plan of the research

• Research design options might be:

– Quantitative - Qualitative - mixed

• .
• A ‘cohort’ is simply a group of
persons with common
characteristics who are followed
or traced over a period of time.
• ‘Cohort design’ is an analytical
epidemiologic study that
compares exposed and non-
exposed groups
A study in which subjects are
sampled by their outcome
status. Compares exposure
between:
– persons with an outcome of interest
("cases")
– suitable comparison subjects without an
outcome of interest ("controls“)
B=double blinding P=placebo
 Study Setting
• Institutional based

- Health facilities like: Hospital, Health center or Health

post/private health clinics/pharmaceutical
industries/pharmacies/drug shops

-Schools like kindergarten/primary school/secondary

school/ colleges /Universities

• community
 Study Population
• Who are your study subjects?

• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

 Definitions
• Target population (reference population):
– Is that population about which an investigator wishes to draw a
conclusion.
• Study population (population sampled):
– Population from which the sample actually was drawn and about
which a conclusion can be made.
– For Practical reasons the study population is often more limited than
the target population. In some instances, the target population and the
population sampled are identical.

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• Sampling unit:

– The unit of selection in the sampling process. For example,

in a sample of districts, the sampling unit is a district; in a
sample of persons, a person, etc….

• Sampling frame:

– the list of units from which the sample is to be selected.

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Variables of the study:

– A variable is a characteristic of a person or other that may take

on different values.

– E.g. - waiting time

- Knowledge of disease

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– Operationalizing variables
• Any research proposal should include operational definitions of
variables used in the study in order to
– Avoid ambiguity
– Make the variables to be more measurable
– Dependent and Independent variables
-Variable used to measure or describe the problem under study or is
affected by some other factors is called DEPENDENT variable.
- Variables that are use to measure the factors that are assumed to
affect the problem are said to be INDEPENDENT variables.

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 Sample size and sampling strategies
Important statistical terms
Population:
a set which includes all
measurements of interest
to the researcher
(The collection of all responses,
measurements, or counts that are of interest)

Sample:
A subset of the population
sample size and sampling techniques
-Describe how sample is determined.
-Describe methods of sample selection.
-Use diagrams if needed.
Sampling
– Selection of a number of study units from a defined study
population.
– Reason: the population is too large.
- cost
- time
- quality of data…

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 What is Sampling?
o Sampling is a process of choosing a section of the population for
observation and study from some predefined population of interest.
o The conclusions drawn from the study are often based on
generalizing the results observed in the sample to the entire
population from which the sample was drawn.
o Therefore, the accuracy of the conclusions will depend on how
well the samples have been selected, & especially on how
representative the sample is of the population.
 Why is Sampling
o To minimize the costs (financial and otherwise) of collecting the data,
processing and reporting on the results.
- Available resources can be better spent in refining the measuring
instruments and methods so that the information collected is
accurate (valid & reliable).
o Some information, (ex. The body burden of toxic metals in the
population) which may require specialized equipment and staff, cannot
be collected from the entire population.
-A sample in such cases would provide a reasonable picture of the
population status.
 Sampling: questions to be answered
o What is the group of people (study population) from which we want to
draw a sample?
-The study population has to be clearly defined for example,
according to age, sex, and residents.
o How many people do we need in our sample?
o How will these people be selected?
o What other consideration,
- Apart from persons, a study population may consist of villages,
institutions, records, etc.
Advantages of sampling:
• Feasibility: Sampling may be the only feasible method of
collecting the information.
• Reduced cost: Sampling reduces demands on resource such as
finance, personnel, and material.
• Greater accuracy: Sampling may lead to better accuracy of
collecting data
• Sampling error: Precise allowance can be made for sampling error
• Greater speed: Data can be collected and summarized more
quickly
Disadvantages of sampling:
• There is always a sampling error.
• Sampling may create a feeling of discrimination within the
population.
• Sampling may be inadvisable where every unit in the population is
legally required to have a record.
Sampling methods
– Non-probability sampling methods

• Convenience sampling: the study units that happen to be

available at the time of data collection are selected.

• Quota sampling: as many people in each category of study unit

as he can find until he has filled his quota.

• Snowball sampling

• Purposive sampling
*The above sampling methods do not claim to be representative of the
entire population.

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B) Probability sampling methods:
– All units of the study population have an equal or at least a known chance
of being included in the sample.
1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS):
– most basic scheme of random sampling. It is the simplest form of
probability sampling.
– To select a simple random sample you need to:
• Make a numbered list(frame) of all the units in the population
• Decide on the size of the sample
• Select the required number of sampling units, using a “lottery” method
or ‘a table of random numbers’.

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2. Systematic Sampling:

- Individuals are chosen at regular intervals e.g. every 5th

- First subject is randomly selected from 1- k an tells us where

to start selecting individuals from the list.

- Less time consuming and easier to perform than

SRS.

- provides a good approximation to SRS

- Should not be used if there is any sort of cyclic pattern

in the ordering of the subjects on the list.

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3. Stratified sampling:

– Used if sample includes groups of study units with specific

characteristics (e.g. residents from urban & rural areas)

– Subjects are divided into groups, or strata, according to these

characteristics.

– Random or systematic samples of a predetermined size are obtained

from each group (stratum).

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Reasons for stratifying the population:

– Different sampling schemes may be used in different strata, e.g.

Urban & rural

– Conditions may suggest that prevalence rates will vary between

strata: the overall estimate for the whole population will be more
precise if stratification is used.

– Administrative reasons may make it easier to carry out the survey

through an organization with a regional structure.

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4. Cluster sampling:

– Selection of groups of study units (clusters)

– Clusters are often geographic or organizational units (e.g. villages,

clinics).

– all units in the selected cluster are studied

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5. Multi-Stage Sampling:

– appropriate when the population is large and widely scattered.

– The number of stages of sampling is the number of times a sampling

procedure is carried out.

• The primary sampling unit (PSU) is the sampling unit in the first
sampling stage;

• The secondary sampling unit (SSU) is the sampling unit in the

second sampling stage, etc.

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 Sampling SIZE = HOW large is the sample?
• The main determinant of the sample size is how accurate the results
need to be.
-This depends on the purpose of the study (descriptive to determine
a measure of a characteristic, or an analytical study where specific
sets of hypotheses are being tested).
• The bigger the sample, the better the study becomes; is not
necessarily true.
 Sample size

Z 2σ 2
n 
D2
Problem 1
A study is to be performed to determine a certain parameter in a
community. From a previous study a sd of 46 was obtained. If a
sample error of up to 4 is to be accepted. How many subjects should
be included in this study at 99% level of confidence?
 Answer

Z 2σ 2
n
D 2

2.582 x 46 2
n  880.3 ~ 881
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Estimation of Single Proportion
• Suppose that you are interested to know the proportion of infants who
breastfed >18 months of age in a rural area. Suppose that in a similar
area, the proportion (p) of breastfed infants was found to be 0.20. What
sample size is required to estimate the true proportion within ±3% with
95% confidence. Let p=0.20, d=0.03, α=5%
• Suppose there is no prior information about the proportion who
breastfeed
• Assume p=q=0.5 (most conservative)
• Then the required sample size increases
• An estimate of p is not always available.
• However, the formula may also be used for sample size calculation
based on various assumptions for the values of p.

P = 0.1  n = (1.96)2(0.1)(0.9)/(0.05)2 = 138

P = 0.2  n = (1.96)2(0.2)(0.8)/(0.05)2 = 246
P = 0.3  n = (1.96)2(0.3)(0.7)/(0.05)2 = 323
P = 0.5  n = (1.96)2(0.5)(0.5)/(0.05)2 = 384
P = 0.7  n = (1.96)2(0.7)(0.3)/(0.05)2 = 323
 Data collection
• It is an intermediate step to gain reliable knowledge

• Collecting reliable data is part of the research process

• Data collection techniques and tools

• Who will collect the data?

• Who will supervise the data collection?

• How long will take the data collection? Etc

 Bias in data collection and its possible causes
• BIAS is a distortion which results in the information not being
representative of the true situation.
• Possible sources of bias
1. Defective instruments
• Poorly designed questionnaires
• Can be avoided by careful planning of the data collection
process and by pre-testing the data collection tools
2. Observer bias
• Related to data collectors
3. Selection bias
• High refusal rate
• Or participants are self-selected
 Possible sources of bias
4. Information bias
• Poor recording, data extraction
• Incomplete data
• Recall (or memory) bias
5. Effect of the interviewer on the informant
– Informant may mistrust the interview
– Misleading answers
• Combination of different data collection techniques:
– Can improve the quality of data
– Minimize the chance of bias
• Example: the use of health facility records and household survey
or FGDs
 Data can be made more reliable by:
• Training

• Use of different techniques

• Pre-testing

• Supervision
 Data Quality Control Issues
Describe/provide:
• Operational definitions of crucial concepts

• Selection and training of field workers/research staff

• Field testing the research methods and tools (pre-test)

• Supervision and quality control

 Pretesting
• Pretest – usually refers to a small-scale trial of particular research
components

• Pilot study – is the process of carrying out a preliminary study,

going through the entire research procedure with a small sample

Why pretest or pilot study?

• It serves as a trial run that allows to identify potential problems in

the proposed study as a result:-

– Time, effort and money can be saved in the long run

 What aspects of research methodology can be
evaluated during pretesting?
1) reaction of the respondents to the research procedure. The following
are determined:
• Availability of the study population
• Acceptability of the methods
• Acceptability of the questions asked
• Willingness of respondents to answer the questions and collaborate
with the study
2) the data collection tools
• Whether the tools allow you to collect the information you need and
whether these tools are reliable
• How much time is needed
 cont…
• Whether there is any need to revise the format or presentation of
interview guide/ questionnaires, including whether:
– The sequence of questions is logical
– The wording of the questions is clear
– Translations are accurate
– Space for answers is sufficient
– There is a need to pre-categorize some answers or to change
closed questions into open-ended questions
– There is a need to adjust a coding system
– There is a need for additional instructions for interviewers
 cont…
3) Sampling procedures
• Whether the instructions concerning how to select the sample are
followed in the same way by all staff involved
• How much time is needed to locate individuals to be included in the study
4) staffing and activities of the research team. It is possible to determine:
– How successful the training has been
– What the work output of each member of the staff is
– How well the research team works together
– Whether the logistical support is adequate
– The reliability of the results when instruments or tests are
administered by different members of the research team
– Whether staff supervision is adequate
• Pretest can be seen as a period of extra training
 cont…
5) procedures for data processing and analysis
• Appropriateness of data master sheets and dummy tables & the ease
of use
• Effectiveness of the system for quality control of data collection
• Appropriateness of statistical procedures
• Clarity and ease with which the collected data can be interpreted
6) the proposed work plan and budget for research activities
• Appropriateness of the amount of time allowed for the different
activities
• Accuracy of the scheduling of the various activities
 Data management
• Data processing refers to:
– data entry onto a computer, and
– data checks and correction
• The aim of this process is to produce a relatively ‘clean’ data set
Data entry
• Data entry concerns the transfer of data from a questionnaire to a
computer file.
• It is converting data into a form that can be read and manipulated by
computers used in quantitative data analysis.
• Before analysis, data must be checked for errors, information that
needs coding must be coded and missing values must be dealt with
 cont…
Data coding
• In general computers are at their best with numbers.

• Some statistical packages cannot analyze alphabetic codes, some

cannot understand open ended responses,

• You must translate variables through coding.

• Coding is assigning a separate (non-overlapping) numerical code for

separate answers and missing values.

• Eg. Instead of using ‘Male’ and ‘Female’ for the variable sex, it can
be indicated as 1 = Male and 2 = Female.
 cont…
• Missing values occur when measurements were not taken, or
respondents did not answer questions.

• In general, missing values should not be entered as a ‘blank’,

because some statistical packages interpret blanks as zero.

• Ideally, a code should be chosen to denote a missing value (e.g. a

code ‘9’ or ’99’ or ’999’

• After the analysis is finished, decoding back to original variables is

required when writing the report.
 cont…
Data Cleaning
• Once data have been gathered, they need to be entered into a
computer data file and checked for errors.

• No matter how carefully the data have been entered some errors are
inevitable.

• The aim of this process is to produce a clean set of data for

statistical analysis.
 Data analysis
A plan for data analysis should include the following information:

• Identification of staff needed

• Identification of the analysis tasks to be completed

• Identification of the statistical software to be used for analysis

• A schedule or work plan for the analysis of the data

• A plan for quality control of the data analysis, including regular

checks which involve review and assessment of the quality of a
sample of the analysis already performed
 Ethical Considerations
• Professional obligation to safeguard the safety of study subjects

• Refer to national and international guidelines

• Describe potential ethical concerns and mechanisms to minimize

harm and maximize benefits

Every research can potentially cause ethical concerns!!

 Work plan
• Work plan summarizes (in a table, chart, graph)

the various components of a research project and how they fit together.

• Includes:

– Tasks to be performed

– When the task will be performed

– Who will perform the task (identify human resource

needed for each task)

– Number of staff needed to perform the task

 cont..
A work plan can serve as:

• a tool in planning the details of the project activities and later the
project funds.

• a visual outline or illustration of the sequence of the project operations.

• a management tool for the principal investigator and/or members of

his/her team, showing what tasks and activities are planned, their
timing, and when various members will be involved in the tasks;

• a tool for monitoring and evaluation, when the current status of the
project is compared to what was foreseen in the work plan.
 cont..
Ways of presenting a work plan
Work schedule
GANNT chart
PERT chart.
The Work Schedule
• Is a table
• Summarizes:
– tasks to be performed
– duration of each activity, and
– staff responsible.
• The work schedule does not show how various tasks are related, nor
give a visual picture of the time schedule.
 cont..
The GANTT Chart

• Depicts graphically the order in which various tasks must be completed

and their duration of activity.

A typical Gantt chart includes the following information:

• The tasks to be performed

• Who is responsible for each task; and

• The time each task is expected to take.

• The length of each task is shown by a bar that extends over the number
of days, weeks or months the task is expected to take.

• The Gantt chart doesn’t show how various tasks are related.
GANT CHART
 Work plan cont..
The PERT Chart

• PERT - Program Evaluation Review Technique

• PERT chart involves identifying the various “steps” necessary for
implementing a project and then planning the optimal feasible
schedules for completing a study.
• PERT chart shows the steps or events in the project that must be
completed as well as illustrating graphically how the steps are
interrelated.
• It has the added advantage of helping the investigator determine the
best timing for particular tasks and how to complete the project in the
least possible time.
• It doesn’t indicate who will complete the work
• It is somewhat more complicated to use than the other techniques.
 Dissemination and Utilization of
Results
• Briefly describe the dissemination plan
– Feedback to the community
– Feedback to local authorities
– Identify relevant agencies that need to be
informed
– Scientific publication
– Presentation in meetings/conferences

• Briefly describe how the study results

can be best translated into application
 Budget

How should a budget be prepared?

• It is necessary to use the work plan as a starting point.

• Specify, for each activity in the work plan, what resources are
required.

• Determine for each resource needed the unit cost and the total cost.

• The budget for the fieldwork component of the work plan will include
funds for personnel, transport and supplies.
 Budget cont…
The Budget Format and Justification

• The type of budget format to be used may vary

• Most donor organizations have their own special project forms,

which include a budget format.
 Budget cont…
Advice on budget preparation

• Include a 5%-10% contingency fund

• If inclusion of a contingency fund is not allowed, an alternative is to

slightly over-budget in major categories.

• ¨ Do not box yourself in too tightly with very detailed categories and
amounts, especially if regulations do not allow adjustments
afterwards.

• Ask the supervising agency to agree that, if necessary there may be

some transfer between ‘line items’ in the budget.
 Budget cont…

• If your government or department has agreed to contribute a certain

amount for the project, try to arrange that the contribution be
administered separately, so that the administrators remain aware of
the commitment.

• If the budget is for a period longer than a year, build in allowances

for inflation before the project begins and in subsequent years by
increasing costs by a set percentage.
 Budget cont…
Budget justification

• It is not sufficient to present a budget without explanation.

• The budget justification follows the budget as an explanatory note

justifying briefly why the various items in the budget are required.

• Make sure you give clear explanations concerning why items that may
seem questionable or that are particularly costly are needed and discuss
how complicated expenses have been calculated.

• If a strong budget justification has been prepared, it is less likely that

essential items will be cut during proposal review.
 References
Methods of citations in preparing literature review:

A) Vancouver system

This system have been adopted as standard by over 300 biomedical journals

• For an article the following information should be noted:

Author(s)’ Surname followed by initials. Title of article. Name of

Journal. Year, Volume(number): page numbers of article.

• Example: Louria DB. Emerging- and re-emerging infections: The

societal variables. International Journal of Infectious Disease. 1996,
1(2):59-62.
 References cont…
• For a book the following information should be noted:

• Author(s)’ Surname followed by initials. Title of book. Place:

Publisher, Year, Edition

• Example: Abramson JH. Survey methods in community medicine.

Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1990, 4th ed.
 References cont..
• For a chapter in a book, the reference can include:

• Author(s) of chapter (Surname(s) followed by initials). Chapter

title. In: Editor(s) of book, (Surname(s) followed by initials). (eds).
Title of book. Place: Publisher, Year: Page numbers of chapter.

• Example: Todd J and Barongo L. Epidemiological methods. In:

Ng’weshemi J, Boerma T, Bennett J and Schapink D (eds). HIV
prevention and AIDS care in Africa; A district level approach.
Amsterdam: KIT Press, 1997: 51-68.
 References cont..
B) the Harvard System
• In other journals and books it is common to put the year, between
brackets, straight after the name of the author(s).
• This is called the Harvard system.
• Name of the author(s) (year). Title. Place of Publication: Publisher
• Ex- Abramson JH (1990), 4th ed. Survey methods in community
medicine. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
• There are more systems in use for referencing to literature.
• Always carefully look what system is used in the journal you are
submitting an article to and follow it systematically.
 References cont…
• At present many journals use as few punctuation marks as possible.

• Examples: In Harvard style, this looks as follows:

• Abramson JH (1990) 4th ed. Survey methods in community

medicine. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
 References cont…
• When you use the Vancouver system, you will use consecutive
numbers in the text to indicate your references

• At the end you will then list your references in that order, using the
format described above

• In Harvard System, put the surname of the author, year of publication

and number(s) of page(s) referred to between brackets, (E.g. Shiva
1998:15-17)

• If this system of citation is used, the references at the end of the

proposal, should be listed in Alphabetical order.
 Annex
• Include in the appendices of your proposal any additional
information you think might be helpful to a proposal reviewer.

• For example, include:

– Dummy tables

– Biographical data on the principal investigator

– The study questionnaire if you have it.

– The consent form.

– A copy of the approval from the Institutional Review Board.

 Life Cycle of a Proposal

Funded!
Write & Revise

Conceptualize

131