Introduction to Research Methodology

Tadesse A
Dr. Belaynew W

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 Objectives
By the end of this session the learners will be
able to:
1. Define and classify different types of research
2. Understand issues in topic selection and
identify three topics for thesis
3. Describe components of the research process

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 Session Contents

Definition & types of research

Topic selection

Overview of the research process

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 Health Research

A systematic
collection, analysis and interpretation
of data to solve a health problem.

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 Types of Health Research
o Based on population:
– Biomedical, clinical…………….individual
– Epidemiologic, Health Systems research……..population

o Based on Objective:
– Basic/fundamental…………..building knowledge
– Applied /action………………..solution to problems

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 Objective of Analysis
Level of Analysis
Conditions Responses

Individual and sub- Biomedical Research Clinical Research

individual (Basic biological processes, (Efficacy of preventive,
structure and function of the diagnostic, and therapeutic
human body, pathological procedures, natural history of
mechanisms) diseases)

Population Epidemiologic Research Health Systems research

(Frequency, distribution, (Effectiveness, quality, and
and determinants of health) costs of services: development
and distribution of resources
for care )

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 Basic Vs Applied Research [1]

• Basic research (also called fundamental or pure research)

-has as its primary objective the advancement of
knowledge and the theoretical understanding of the
relations among variables

• The terms “basic” or “fundamental” indicate that,

through theory generation, basic research provides the
foundation for further, sometimes applied research.

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 Basic Vs Applied Research [2]

• It consists of pure basic research and strategic

basic research.

• Pure basic research is carried out without

looking for long-term benefits other than the
advancement of knowledge.

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 Basic Vs Applied Research [3]
• Strategic basic research - is directed to
specified broad areas in the expectation of
useful discoveries.

• It provides the broad base of knowledge

necessary for the solution of recognized
practical problems.

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 Basic Vs Applied Research [4]
Basic research is conducted to address
fundamental questions about
• the biological,
• Behavioral, and
• social mechanisms,
which underlie wellness and disease.

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 Basic Vs Applied Research [5]
Applied research

• Is original work undertaken in order to acquire

new knowledge with a specific application in
view.

• Is a research that seeks to solve practical

problems
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 Purpose of Health Research

To generate knowledge essential

to effectively promote the health
of the population.

Without that knowledge, effective action is impossible

because it has no logical or empirical basis.

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 Characteristics of a Good
Research Proposal
• Have a clear statement of the problem.

• Have clear plans: objectives & methods

• Have clear vision of the outcome

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 Research must be:
Purposeful: what do you want to be able to
contribute?
Targeted: Who are the audiences?
Credible: consider sources of information, method
of data collection, personnel involved…
Timely: Is the information needed?

Research is done to find solutions to health problems.

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 How do we choose a research topic?

• Career development
• Priority research areas
– Relevance
– Avoidance of duplication
– Feasibility
– Political acceptability
– Applicability
– Urgency of data needed
– Ethical acceptability
• Resource availability

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 Topic selection

Factors guiding the selection of a topic/title:

– the possibility of the research
– the uniqueness of the research
– the scope of the research
– the profitability of the research
– the theoretical value of the research
– the practical value of the research

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 Topic selection

The research topic or title should be specific

and clear.  The topic should indicate the
WHO/WHAT, WHEN, WHY, WHERE and HOW
clearly.  It is the focus of your research.

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 Topic selection
• A good title is usually a compromise between
conciseness and explicitness. Titles should be
comprehensive enough to indicate the nature
of the research.

• One good way to cut the length of titles is to

avoid words that add nothing to a reader's
understanding, such as "Studies on...,"
"Investigations...," or "Research on Some
Problems in...."
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 Examples:
• Administrative System of Local NGOs, the case
of Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples,
South Ethiopia.

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 Titles Formulation Tips
Titles should:
 Describe contents clearly and
precisely, so that readers can
decide whether to read the
report
 Provide key words for indexing
Good Titles
 The Relationship of Luteinizing
Hormone to Obesity in the
Zucker Rat
Titles should NOT:
 Include wasted words such as
"studies on," "an investigation
of"
 Use abbreviations and jargon
 Use "cute" language
Poor Titles
 An Investigation of Hormone
Secretion and Weight in Rats
 Fat Rats: Are Their Hormones
Different?
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 Learner tasks:
• Individually identify a research topic that
potentially is used in the thesis work.

• Present a soft copy of the topic and justification.

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Overview of the Research Process

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Research Cycle

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 Planning Research
(Developing Proposal)
A written proposal is important:
• To clearly define the problem under study
• To avoid reinventing the wheel
• To clearly depict the methodology to be used
• To be cost and time conscious
• To be clear about what to expect in the end

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 Components of Research Proposal
1. Summary 8. Work plan
2. Introduction/Statement 9. Dissemination and Utilization
of the Problem
of Results
3. Literature review
10. Cost of the Project
4. Justification of the study
11. References
5. Objectives
6. Methodology
12. Assurance of the investigator
7. Ethical Considerations 13. Advisor (approval)
14. Annex
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Introduction/Statement of the Problem/
• Concise description of the nature of the
problem- what is it, magnitude, distribution
(who, where, when), severity and
consequences.
• Systematically elucidate why the proposed
research should be undertaken.
– Brief description of any attempts to solve the problem in the
past- successes, failures and challenges.
– Provide convincing argument that available knowledge is
insufficient to solve the problem under study.

• Describe the significance of the proposed

study- what you hope to achieve with the
study results.

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 Introduction tips[1]
Questions to address: How to address them:

What is the problem?  Describe the problem investigated.

 Summarize relevant research to provide context, key
terms, and concepts so your reader can understand the
research area.

Why is it important?  Review relevant research to provide rationale. (What

conflict or unanswered question, untested population,
untried method in existing research does your
experiment address? What findings of others are you
challenging or extending?)

What solution (or step

 Briefly describe your problem: hypothesis(es),
toward a solution) do
research question(s); general resesarch design or
you propose?
method; justification of method if alternatives exist.
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 Introduction tips[2]
• Move from general to specific
• Engage your reader: answer the questions, "What did you
do?" "Why should I care?"
• Make clear the links between problem and solution,
question asked and research design, prior research and
yours.
• Be selective, not exhaustive, in choosing studies to cite
and amount of detail to include. (In general, the more
relevant an article is to your study, the more space it
deserves and the later in the introduction it appears.)
• Ask your instructor whether to summarize results and/or
conclusions in the Introduction.
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 Literature review
• Search widely
– Library
– Electronic search engines
– Grey literature
• Evaluate the relevance of the literature to your
study
• Include information directly relevant to your
study
• Be concise

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 Literature Review

Include:
• Detailed account of the subject matter
you want to research
• Entertain confounding factors and
other related matter only pertaining to
the current research
Avoid repetitions and lengthy statements.
(Max 3-4 pages)

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 Purposes of Literature Review
• It shares with the reader the results of other
studies that are closely related to the study
being reported.
• It relates a study to the larger, ongoing
discussion in the study about a topic, filling in
gaps of the study.

• It provides a framework for establishing the

importance of the study, as well as a benchmark
for comparing the results of a study with other
findings.

• It "frames" the problem earlier identified. 31

 Literature Review: advantages
• Avoid reinventing the Wheel/avoidance of
duplicating previous work
• Learn the gaps
• Learn the various methods used

An opportunity to develop professional

confidence in the field of study!!
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 Steps of literature review
• Step 1: Begin by identifying key words or phrases
useful in locating materials in an academic library at a
college/university and/or websites.

• Step 2: With these key words or phrases in mind, next

go to the library and begin searching the library
catalog for holding (i.e. journals and books). Or go to
internet center for searching.

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 Steps of literature review
• Step 3: You would initially try to locate about
20 reports of research in articles or books
related to research on your topic.

• Step 4: Using this initial group of articles, you

would then look at the articles and select
those central to your topic. In the selection
process, you would look over the abstract and
skim the article or chapter.

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 Steps of literature review
• Step 5: As you identify useful literature, you
may begin designing the literature map on
your topic.

• Step 6: Organize the literature into your

literature map. Continue to draft summaries
of the most relevant articles. Summaries are
then combined into the final literature review
that you write for proposal.
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 Justification of the Study
Questions addressed before writing the significance of
the study:
• Are there gaps in evidence?
• Will results influence programs, methods, and/or
interventions?
• Will results contribute to the solution of the
problems?
• Will results influence the decision making of
organizations or companies?
• What will be improved or changed as a result of the
research?
• How will results of the study be implemented, and
what innovations will come about?
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 Objectives
• General objective:
– summarizes what is to be achieved by the study
– should be clearly related to the statement of the problem.

• Specific objectives:
– logically connected parts of the general objective
– focus the study on the essentials
– direct the design of the investigation
– orient collection, analysis and interpretation of the data

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 Formulating Objectives:
research questions vs hypotheses

• A hypothesis requires sufficient knowledge

of the problem to be able to predict
relationships among factors which then can
be explicitly tested.

• Research questions are formulated when

the investigators do not have enough
insight into the problem being studied.
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 Criteria for setting research objectives
• Focused, each covering a single point
• Ordered in a logical sequence
• Realistic and feasible to answer
• Operational, using action verbs such as:
– determine - verify -identify
– describe - assess - compare
– calculate - establish -explore
• Measurable outcomes at the end of the research

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 Importance of developing objectives
• Focus the study
• Avoid the collection of data which are not
strictly necessary
• Properly formulated specific objectives
facilitate the development of research
methodology and help to orient the collection,
analysis, interpretation and utilization of data.
• Helps for evaluating the project
 Formulating Objectives cont…

• Explicit hypothesis: requires sufficient

knowledge of the problem to be able to
predict relationships among factors which
then can be explicitly tested.

E.g. Post-menopausal women who received

hormone replacement therapy are more likely
to develop endometrial cancer than post-
menopausal women who did not receive such
therapy
 Methodology:

• Indicates the methodological steps you will

take to answer every question or to test every
hypothesis or problem stated in your study.

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 Design and subjects

• What is the choice of the study design?

• What would be the study population?
• What would be the required size of study
subjects?
• What would study subjects selected/
sampled?

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 Study design

• A study design is a specific plan or protocol for

conducting the study, which allows the
investigator to translate the conceptual
hypothesis into an operational one.
Hierarchy of Epidemiologic Study Design
Epidemiologic Study Design

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 Case report & case series

• A case report is a descriptive study of a single

individual (case report)
• case series is a descriptive study of small group

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 Ecologic Studies

• The unit of analysis is the group, not the

individual.
Example:
• Childhood lead poisoning in communities in
Massachusetts.
• Mean systolic blood pressure levels and stroke
mortality rates in the Seven Countries Study.

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 Cross-sectional study
• A type of prevalence study.
• Exposure and disease measures obtained at the
individual level.
• Single period of observation.
• Exposure and disease histories collected
simultaneously.
• Both probability and non-probability sampling used.
• Example: Prevalence of congenital malformations
across maternal age groups.

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Non-Directionality
 Uses of cross-sectional study

 Hypothesis generation

 Intervention planning
 Estimation of the magnitude and distribution
of a health problem

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 Cohort Studies

• In a cohort study, subjects with an exposure to a causal

factor are identified and the incidence of a disease over
time is compared with that of controls (persons who do
not have the exposure).

• In a longitudinal study, subjects are followed over time

with continuous or repeated monitoring of risk factors or
health outcomes, or both.
Cohort Studies
 Cohort Study

• Directionality: Always forward

• Timing: Prospective or Retrospective
 Case-control studies

• Case-Control Studies identify existing disease/s and look

back in previous years to identify previous exposures to
causal factors.
– Cases are those who have a disease

– Controls are those without a disease

• Analyses examine if exposure levels are different
between the groups.
Case-Control studies
 Case-Control Study

• Directionality: Always backwards

• Timing: Always Retrospective
 Clinical trial studies

T ria l

C o n tro lled N o t co n tro lled

R a nd o m ised N o t ran d om is ed

B lind ed N o t b lind ed
 Other designs

Time series - test if incidence of disease changes in a

population over time

Meta-analysis
• Combining results from a range of published studies
• Established methodology, not just literature review
Summary

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Advantage (bold) and disadvantage

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 Choice of Design (I)
Depends on:
– Research Questions
– Research Goals
– Researcher Beliefs and Values
– Researcher Skills
– Time and Funds
 Choice of Design (II)
It is also related to:
• Status of existent knowledge
• Occurrence of disease
• Duration of latent period
• Nature and availability of information
• Available resources
 Exercises
• Choose a study design for your research topic
in groups and give your rationale? (5 min)

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 Methodology: data
• Data collection:
– what, How, who, where, when
• Data analysis: coding, entering,
cleaning, storing, recoding, choice of
statistical methods
• Operational definitions of crucial
concepts
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 Methodology: practicals

• Selection and training of field

workers/research staff
• Field testing the research methods and
tools
• Supervision and quality control

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 Ethical Considerations
• Professional obligation to safeguard the
safety of study subjects
• Refer to national and international
guidelines
• Describe potential ethical concerns and
mechanisms to minimize harm and
maximize benefits
• Every research can potentially cause
ethical concerns!!
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 Work plan
• Work plan summarizes (in a table, chart, graph)
the various components of a research project
and how they fit together.
• Includes:
– Tasks to be performed
– When the task will be performed
– Who will perform the task (identify human resource
needed for each task)
– Number of staff needed to perform the task
– Time needed to accomplish the task (person-day)

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 Dissemination and Utilization of Results
• Briefly describe the dissemination plan
– Feedback to the community
– Feedback to local authorities
– Identify relevant agencies that need to be informed
– Scientific publication
– Presentation in meetings/conferences
• Briefly describe how the study results can be
best translated into application

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 Budget- Cost of the Project
• Clearly identify the resource requirements
• Be realistic in costing/budgeting
• The work plan is a good starting point for
preparing budget- budget for activities
• Prepare budget justification
• Include 5-10% contingency
• Identify funding source & prepare budget
according to the required format

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 Your Proposal
• Simple and clear
• Good statement of the problem: why do
you want to study?
• Pertinent literature review
• Few objectives
• Clear and detailed methodological
description
• Good work plan
• Reasonable budget

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 Visualize Your Thesis
• Cover pages • Methods (3-4)
• Acknowledgment • Ethical consideration(1/2)
• Abstract (1) • Dissemination (1/2)
• Introduction (1-2) • Results (7-10)
• Literature Review (4-5) • Discussion (4-6)
• Justification (1/2-1) • References (1-2)
• Objective (1) • Annexes

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 Managing your research project
• Keep good note
• Establish good communication with your advisor(s)
• Keep time and promises: always motivate your advisor(s)
• Keep your document to a manageable size: readability
and clear message
• Lead your research work: be ready to manage crisis
• Advisors: advisors/tutors, assessors but not dictators

Be faithful to your research

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 Task II
• Develop a justification, objective and
methodology for the topic you selected.

• Submit a softcopy of the presentation.

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