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II
THE EARTH
This unit deals with
• Origin and evolution of the earth; Interior of the earth; Wegener’s
continental drift theory and plate tectonics; earthquakes and
volcanoes
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CHAPTER
D
o you remember the nursery rhyme
“…Twinkle, twinkle little star…”? considered of a companion to the sun to have
been coexisting. These arguments are called
Starry nights have always attracted us since binary theories. In 1950, Otto Schmidt in
the childhood. You may also have thought of Russia and Carl Weizascar in Germany
these stars and had numerous questions in somewhat revised the ‘nebular hypothesis’,
your mind. Questions such as how many stars though differing in details. They considered that
are there in the sky? How did they come into the sun was surrounded by solar nebula
existence? Can one reach the end of the sky? containing mostly the hydrogen and helium
May be many more such questions are still along with what may be termed as dust. The
there in your mind. In this chapter, you will friction and collision of particles led to formation
learn how these “twinkling little stars” were of a disk-shaped cloud and the planets were
formed. With that you will eventually also read formed through the process of accretion.
the story of origin and evolution of the earth. However, scientists in later period took up
the problems of origin of universe rather than
that of just the earth or the planets.
EARLY THEORIES
Origin of the Earth MODERN THEORIES
A large number of hypotheses were put forth Origin of the Universe
by different philosophers and scientists The most popular argument regarding the origin
regarding the origin of the earth. One of the of the universe is the Big Bang Theory. It is also
earlier and popular arguments was by German called expanding universe hypothesis. Edwin
philosopher Immanuel Kant. Mathematician Hubble, in 1920, provided evidence that the
Laplace revised it in 1796. It is known as universe is expanding. As time passes, galaxies
Nebular Hypothesis. The hypothesis considered move further and further apart. You can
that the planets were formed out of a cloud of experiment and find what does the expanding
material associated with a youthful sun, which universe mean. Take a balloon and mark some
was slowly rotating. Later in 1900, Chamberlain points on it to represent the galaxies. Now, if
and Moulton considered that a wandering star you start inflating the balloon, the points marked
approached the sun. As a result, a cigar-shaped on the balloon will appear to be moving away
extension of material was separated from the from each other as the balloon expands.
solar surface. As the passing star moved away, Similarly, the distance between the galaxies is
the material separated from the solar surface also found to be increasing and thereby, the
continued to revolve around the sun and it universe is considered to be expanding.
slowly condensed into planets. Sir James Jeans However, you will find that besides the increase
and later Sir Harold Jeffrey supported this in the distances between the points on the
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THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EAR TH 15
balloon, the points themselves are expanding. The expansion of universe means increase
This is not in accordance with the fact. Scientists in space between the galaxies. An alternative
believe that though the space between the to this was Hoyle’s concept of steady state. It
galaxies is increasing, observations do not considered the universe to be roughly the same
support the expansion of galaxies. So, the at any point of time. However, with greater
balloon example is only partially correct. evidence becoming available about the
expanding universe, scientific community at
present favours argument of expanding
universe.
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16 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
(ii) In the next stage, the gas cloud starts in the same period sometime about 4.6 billion
getting condensed and the matter years ago. Till recently (August 2006), Pluto was
around the core develops into small- also considered a planet. However, in a meeting
rounded objects. These small-rounded of the International Astronomical Union, a
objects by the process of cohesion develop decision was taken that Pluto like other celestial
into what is called planetesimals. objects (2003 UB313)discovered in recent past
Larger bodies start forming by collision, may be called ‘dwarf planet’. Some data regarding
and gravitational attraction causes the our solar system are given in the box below.
material to stick together. Planetesimals
are a large number of smaller bodies. Why are the inner planets rocky while
(iii) In the final stage, these large number of others are mostly in gaseous form?
small planetesimals accrete to form a
fewer large bodies in the form of planets. The difference between terrestrial and jovian
planets can be attributed to the following
OUR SOLAR SYSTEM conditions:
(i) The terrestrial planets were formed in the
Our Solar system consists of eight planets. The close vicinity of the parent star where it
nebula from which our Solar system is supposed was too warm for gases to condense to
to have been formed, started its collapse and core solid particles. Jovian planets were
formation some time 5-5.6 billion years ago and formed at quite a distant location.
the planets were formed about 4.6 billion years
(ii) The solar wind was most intense nearer
ago. Our solar system consists of the sun (the the sun; so, it blew off lots of gas and dust
star), 8 planets, 63 moons, millions of smaller
from the terrestrial planets. The solar winds
bodies like asteroids and comets and huge
were not all that intense to cause similar
quantity of dust-grains and gases. removal of gases from the Jovian planets.
Out of the eight planets, mercury, venus,
(iii) The terrestrial planets are smaller and
earth and mars are called as the inner planets
their lower gravity could not hold the
as they lie between the sun and the belt of
escaping gases.
asteroids the other four planets are called the outer
planets. Alternatively, the first four are called
The Moon
Terrestrial, meaning earth-like as they are made
up of rock and metals, and have relatively high The moon is the only natural satellite of the
densities. The rest four are called Jovian or Gas earth. Like the origin of the earth, there have
Giant planets. Jovian means jupiter-like. Most been attempts to explain how the moon was
of them are much larger than the terrestrial formed. In 1838, Sir George Darwin suggested
planets and have thick atmosphere, mostly of that initially, the earth and the moon formed a
helium and hydrogen. All the planets were formed single rapidly rotating body. The whole mass
The Solar System
Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune
* Distance from the sun in astronomical unit i.e. average mean distance of the earth is 149,598,000
km = 1 @ Density in gm/cm3
# Radius: Equatorial radius 6378.137 km = 1
Source: http://ptanetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/page/planets
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THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EAR TH 17
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18 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
to the atmosphere. As the earth cooled, the that the oceans are as old as 4,000 million
water vapour released started getting years. Sometime around 3,800 million years
condensed. The carbon dioxide in the ago, life began to evolve. However, around
2,500-3,000 million years before the present,
atmosphere got dissolved in rainwater and the
the process of photosynthesis got evolved. Life
temperature further decreased causing more
was confined to the oceans for a long time.
condensation and more rains. The rainwater Oceans began to have the contribution of
falling onto the surface got collected in the oxygen through the process of photosynthesis.
depressions to give rise to oceans. The earth’s Eventually, oceans were saturated with oxygen,
oceans were formed within 500 million years and 2,000 million years ago, oxygen began to
from the formation of the earth. This tells us flood the atmosphere.
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THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EAR TH 19
EXERCISES
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20 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Project Work
Collect information about the project “Stardust” (website: www.sci.edu/public.html
and www.nasm.edu) along the following lines.
(i) Which is the agency that has launched this project?
(ii) Why are scientists interested in collecting Stardust?
(iii) Where from the Stardust is being collected?
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