Formation of the universe:
When the gas cooled, the nebula began to shrink, and
Big bang theory
 According to this theory, the universe was once very
small and very hot, and then it expanded over time
until it reached its peak around 13.7 billion years ago.
 Asserts that seconds after the explosion, the
surroundings were at a high temperature of about 10
billion degrees Fahrenheit with aggregates of
fundamental particles such as neutrons, electrons and
protons
 As the universe cooled in later phases, these particles
either combined with each other or decayed. The
universe was also said to expand over the next 13
billion years until the present.
Steady state theory
 This theory states that the universe is always
expanding in constant average density.
 Matter is continuously created to form cosmic or
celestial bodies such as stars and galaxies.
 Claims that the universe has no beginning or end in
time, and even though it is expanding, its appearance
remains the same over time.
Cosmic inflation theory
• Proposed by physicists Alan Guth and Andrei Linde
in the 1980’s.
• The term “inflation” refers to the rapid expansion of
space time.
• According to this theory, the early universe was
rapidly expanding bubble of pure vacuum energy. It
did not have any matter or radiation.
• After the expansion and cooling arising from this
inflation, the potential energy converted into kinetic
energy of matter and radiation. Then, a big bang
occurred because of the extremely hot, dense
condition of matter.
• This theory becomes an accepted hypothesis because
it answered many “puzzling” observations that arose
in the big bang theory.
1. Homogeneity of objects in space
2. Appearance of flatness or smoothness
3. Formation of star and star system in later years.
Formation of star system:
Nebular Hypothesis
 Developed by Immanuel Kant and Pierre-Simon
Laplace in the 18th century
 Model used to explain the formation and evolution of
the solar system. It presupposes that around 4.6
billion years ago, a star system was formed from a
rotating gas cloud or nebula of extremely hot gas.
as it became smaller, it rotated faster, forming a disk
like shape. The angular momentum from the nebula’s
rotation and the gravitational force from the mass of
the nebula formed the rings of gas outside. As the
nebula continued to shrink, these rings condensed
into various densities of planets and their satellites.
The remaining part of the nebula, which had the most
mass, formed the sun.
The Planetesimal and Tidal Theory
 Developed by Thomas Chamberlin and Forest
Moulton during the early 20th century, and James
Jeans and Harold Jeffreys in 191, respectively.
 In both theories, a star supposedly passed close to the
sun. The gravitational pull of the passing star raised
tides found on the surface of the sun.
 Some of the smaller masses quickly cooled to
become solid bodies called planetesimals. Other grew
in size because of collision with passing objects in
space, eventually forming larger clumps and
gathering more and more matter.
 In both theories, the formation of planets was
explained. There are 4 inner planets ( Mercury,
Venus, Earth and Mars). They are called terrestrial
planets because they have solid surfaces and are
mostly of silicate rocks and metals.
 The 4 outer planets are called gas planets ( Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Made up of only
primary materials ( helium and hydrogen) that make
up the sun.
Advancement and discoveries on the solar system
 Pluto was considered the outermost planet in the solar
system. In 2006, it was observed to belong to a
different region, the Kuiper belt. Pluto is composed
of ice and rocks . Hence Pluto was reclassified by the
International Astronomical Union as Dwarf Planet
instead as the 9th planet of the solar system.
 Mars may have had prehistoric living form. The
NASA has been obtaining data on Mars through their
space rover. Some findings point to potential life
during the primitive years of Mars. One evidence
found on the lakebed on Mars are sedimentary rocks
are shaped by microbes that are found on Earth.
Another evidence is the presence of elements such as
C, H, O, S, P, and organic compounds known to be
“building blocks” or basic elements that can support
life.
 The expansion of the universe is accelerating. In
1998, two independent projects the Supernova
 Cosmology Project and the High Z Supernova Search
Team, had observed that the expansion of the
universe is not slowing down or even constant, but is
inexplicably accelerating at an increasing rate.
 The farthest interstellar travel is outside the solar
system. The U.S. spacecraft Voyager 1 was launched
in 1977 and had been in space travelling for nearly 35
years. In 2012, NASA announced that the same
spacecraft has already left the solar system, making it
for the vey first spacecraft to have reached the
farthest realms of space. The Voyager 1 has enabled
humans to take samples and images of various
celestial bodies.
The development of earth and earth system
Shape of the Earth
 Is not a perfect sphere but an oblate spheroid . Earth
got its present shape specifically because of its
gravity and rotation.
 Earth’s core is the center of gravity. This
gravitational force within makes planets contract and
form a sphere like shape. Since the earth is also
rotating, the sphere is distorted by centrifugal force.as
the earth continues to spin, the angular momentum is
at its maximum at the equator, making this area
slightly bulging outward compared to the other areas
of the sphere.
History of the Earth
• The age of the Earth is deemed to be one third of the
age of the universe, it is more than 4 billion years
old .
• Based on the theory of nebular hypothesis.
• Constantly bombarded by meteorites, comets and
other planetary bodies.
• Most of the parts were molten because of its collision
with other planetary bodies, leading to extreme
volcanic activity..
• Overtime, Earth cooled and formed a solid crust. The
denser materials would later on sink on the core.
Volcanic outgassing continued to form steam and
eventually rain.
• Some water of the earth believed to have come from
space.
• During the formative phases of the earth, there was
no protective layer of atmosphere that could prevent
planetary objects from entering the planet
• Meteors were assumed to have randomly bombarded
earth with ice that melted to liquid water. The lower
elevations or low lying surfaces of earth would
collect water and eventually form ocean basins.
• Continuous outgassing of volcanoes gradually
formed the primordial atmosphere which was devoid
of oxygen and made up of mostly of toxic gases. It
was believed later on that the formation of the very
first inhabitants of earth led to the production of
oxygen and other gases that comprise the present
atmosphere.
• Continuous evolution of the earth for another
significant period of time led to the formation of
materials and substances vital to life.
Earth’s subsystems
Geosphere
• The portion of the earth that includes the Internal
structure, rocks and minerals, landforms and all
physical processes on land that shape Earth’s surface.
• All the continents and the ocean floor are also
considered parts of the geosphere.
• This is the solid ground of the Earth.
• The term geosphere covers all of the solid part of the
Earth, from its surface up to the deeper depth as
opposed to the lithosphere that covers only the crust.
Earth’s internal structure
Composed of different layers, each with unique features.
There are 3 main layers: crust, mantle and core.
The different layers vary in density, mineral composition,
temperature and thickness
Identification of materials in the interior of earth through
seismic waves. There are 2 types of waves travelling through
earth, the p-waves, which travel fast through both solids and
liquids, and the s-waves, which travel slower than p-waves
and can travel only through solids.
Crust
• Layer of the earth where we live
• Consists of a 5 to 70 km thick layer of oceanic and
continental crust
• Composed of 8 elements namely, O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca,
Na, K, and Mg.
• Mohorovicic Discontinuity- above the upper mantle
and still part of the crust , discovered by Croatian
seismologist Andrija .
• Mohorovicic. It is now recognized as the Transitional
Boundary that divides the crust from the mantle.
Mantle
• Found below the crust
• Asthenosphere- sublayer of the mantle that explains
the occurrence of earthquakes and seismic activities.
It lies on the upper part of the mantle and directly
below the crust.
• It is made up of silicate rocks.
• It is considered as the thickest layer of earth. It holds
almost 84% of the volume of earth.
• Most of it is solid but behaves like a viscous fluid
• Gutenburg Discontinuity- serves as the transitional
boundary between the lower mantle and the outer
core. It was named after its discovery by Beno
Gutenburg in 1923..
Core
• Made up of Fe and Ni.
• The Iron in the outer core is in liquid form, which is
why the outer core is known to be liquid while the
inner core is solid.
• Iron is primarily important because this is the primary
source of Earth’s magnetic field.
• Lehman Discontinuity- a transitional boundary
between the inner core and outer core, was
discovered in 1929 when a large earthquake occurred
in New Zealand
Hydrosphere
• Encompasses all the waters found on earth. This
includes water in various forms whether in ice, liquid
or vapor found on the surface, below and in the
atmosphere of the earth.
• Water covers about 70% of earth’s surface and most
of it is water that makes up the oceans.
Importance of water
• Associated with the existence of life.
• Substance that is necessary for the sustenance of life
on earth
• Critical components of most organisms, so drying up
would also mean dying
• Among the properties of water that make it vital are
the following:
1. Water could be in liquid form, not just solid and gas.
2. Water has a neutral PH.
3. Water is good conductor of heat and energy.
4. Water has a high specific heat.
5. Water is a universal solvent
Distribution of Waters on earth
• All the waters found on earth are natural but not
everything is considered safe for drinking
• 3% of the world’s waters is considered potable
• It is divided into two groups: surface water and
groundwater
Surface Water
• Water found on Earth’s Surface
• Either Marine water or Freshwater
 Marine Water
- Has higher salt content and is found in larger bodies of water
such as oceans, seas, bays, and gulfs.
 Freshwater
- Those in lakes, rivers, springs, and falls which, because of
the lower salt content is the best source of drinking water for
all organisms. But it only accounts for about 2% of the worlds
water.
Nitrogen – 78%
Oxygen – 20%
Water – 70%
Ground water
• Is the water found beneath Earth’s surface where
there are spaces in the soil of fractures in rocks.
 Aquifer
- underground later of water-bearing
- acts as a reservoir for groundwater and may contain
large amounts of minerals such as magnesium,
calcium, etc.
Atmosphere
Composition of the Atmosphere
- It is composed of 78% nitrogen and 20% oxygen; the rest is
of other gases such as CO2, Ar, and water vapor.
Layers of the Atmosphere
Composed of various which differ in thickness, temperature,
and density
These layers protect Earth from many external threats in
space, such as planetary debris, impacts from celestial bodies,
and radiation.
Troposphere
• Considered to be the densest among the other layers
• Temperature drops with altitude, warm air on the
Biosphere
surface of Earth rises readily. Air molecules travel up
and then back down causing the formation of clouds
and eventually rain from the moisture in the air.
• These variations give rise to weather
• Tropopause – thin buffer zone above the troposphere
Stratosphere
• The air in this layer has strong, steady horizontal
winds which is advantageous to long distance flights.
• Its upper region is the Ozone layer which contains a
high concentration of ozone.
• The ozone layer plays a very important role in
absorbing the ultraviolet radiation from the sun. In
the past decades, the ozone layer has been observed
to be thinning.
• ODS (Ozone-Depleting Substances)
• Stratopause- thin buffer zone exist before the next
layer above the stratosphere.
Mesosphere
• The layer above the stratosphere
• The temperature reaches a minimum of -90° C and is
considered as the coldest layer.
• Important in protecting Earth from planetary debris
• Mesopause- thin buffer zone above the
mesosphere, and actually the coldest region of the
atmosphere.
Thermosphere
• It is the hottest layer because of the absorption of
highly energetic solar heat.
• This extreme heat causes the atmospheric particles to
become electrically charged, making it possible for
radio waves to bounce off and to be received beyond
the horizon.
• Ionosphere- lower part of the thermosphere where
particles of oxygen and nitrogen go back to their
neutral state, they release photons which cause the
spectacular display of colorful lights in the sky called
“aurora”. The solar winds influences the rate of the
intensity of aurora.
• Aurora borealis or Northern Lights
• Aurora Australis or Southern Lights
• Makes up all the living components on Earth,
including those which have not yet been identified
• Life exists in all the subsystem on Earth- on land, in
water and in air
The origin of the biosphere
• The theory of the Primordial Soup
• It states that life began from non living matter such as
simple organic compounds.
• It was believed that the primitive Earth contained
chemicals such as CH4, H2O, NH3, and hydrogen
gas that accumulate in a soup at certain areas viable
for energy transformation.
Deep Sea Vent
• Thus theory presupposes that life began not on the
surface of Earth but deep down in the sea in areas
known as marine hydrothermal vents.
• Hydrothermal vents release boiling hot fluids mixed
with toxic chemicals and heavy metals. Hydrogen
sulphide is the main compound spewed out from
cracks or fissures on the ocean floor.
• Certain bacteria or primitive microbes grow around
the vents. The bacteria absorb hydrogen sulphide that
streams from the vents to create simple sugar for their
food in a process known as chemosynthesis.
Panspermia
• This hypothesis proposes that life began
actually somewhere in the universe.
• Life forms could have been carried by
meteorites, asteroids or comets as they made
cosmic impact on Earth
• The types of organisms believed to be
present during that time could survive the
effects of space and were dormant for a long
period of time because they were trapped in
planetary debris.

Scientists with significant contributions to our
knowledge of earth:
James hutton
• Founder of Modern Geology
• Scottish Naturalist and farmer
• Believed that the earth is endlessly changing
and that by studying the geological
processes such as erosion and sedimentation,
it is possible to learn the history of the Earth.
Charles Darwin
• English Naturalist known for the Theory of Evolution
• He developed a revolutionary theory on the origin of
the species that was contrary to the popular views of
naturalists during that time.
• Shared his views on natural selection
Andrija mohorovicic
• Croatian Meteorologist and Seismologist who
suggested that there lies a boundary between the crust
and the mantle because of the difference in the
behavior of the seismic waves.
• This boundary is later named as Mohorovicic
discontinuity or the Moho.
• Founder of Modern Seismology
Beno gutenberg
• German Seismologist who discovered the Gutenberg
boundary that lies between the solid silicate mantle
and the liquid iron-nickel core of the Earth.
Inge Lehmann
• Danish Seismologist who in 1936, asserted that the
Earth’s core is not just a single molten sphere but it
comes with a solid inner core
• Discovered a seismic discontinuity, the Lehmann
discontinuity that separates the outer core from the
inner core.
Alexander Oparin
Soviet Biochemist who proposed the primordial soup theory in
1924 to explain the origin of life on Earth
Stanley miller and harold urey
Stanley Miller was a Jewish- American chemist and Harold
Urey was an American chemist who both conducted an
experiment in 1952 to test the hypothesis of Oparin’s
primordial soup theory.
Earth Minerals
MINERALS
 Are naturally occurring inorganic soilds. They are
considered because they are derived from natural
geological processes.
 Minerals, have crystalline structures (the atoms of
which are arranged in an orderly repeating pattern.)
And definite composition (the elements of which
have specific proportions).
 These are thousands of mineralsidentifed on earth.
 A common example of a mineral is salt
 Other common rocking-forming minerals are sulfur,
quartz,graphite.
Physical Properties Of minerals
 The physical properties of minerals can be used to
easily identified a mineral. In some cases, same
minerals may be found in different places and in
different forms but their fundamental physical
properties remain the same. Some useful physical
properties for identifying minerals are color, streak ,
hardness, cleavage. Crystalline Structure,
transparency, magnetism, Tenacity luster, odor, and
specific gravity.
 Color – is usually the proper used to identify
minerals easily. It is a result of the way mineral
absorb light. However this property may not be used
in identifying minerals in them. Therefore, Color is
considered the least reliable means of identifying
minerals.
 Streak – is the color of the mineral in powder form.
In cases when the color of minerals appear different
because of trace particles inside them, scientists
would pulverize them to get their true color. In case,
the color of the minerals become more visible and
clear. However, pulverizing minerals is tedious and
makes the minerals is tedious and makes the minerals
lose their integrity.
 Hardness – refers to the measure of the mineral’s
resistance to scratching. To measure the relative
hardness of minerals, the mohs scale is used, The
harder the mineral, the greater is its resistance to
scratching. The mohs scale of hardness was
 developed in 1812 by a German mineralogist named
Fredrick Mohs (1773 -1839).
 Cleavage and Fracture are used to describe how
minerals break into pieces. Minerals are crystalline
structures and breakage may take place in weak parts
of the structures. The Breakage along the crystalline
structure where a mineral is likely to break smoothly
is known as cleavage. A mineral fractures when it
breaks in a direction where there is no cleavage.
 Crystalline Structure or the crystal lattice tells
how mineral’s crystals are arranged. A hand lens is a
necessary tool in checking for crystalline structure
 A crystal solid is said to form regular repeating
three-dimensional crystal lattice, while an amorphous
solid forms aggregates that have no particular order
or arrangement.
Sulphate class
 Transparency or diaphaneity – indicates the extent
of light that can pass through the mineral. Hence, the
degree of transparency may depend on the thickness
of mineral.
 Magnetism indicates the ability of a mineral to
attract or repel other minerals.
Halide class
 Tenacity is the level of resistance or reaction of
minerals to stress such as crushing, bending,
breaking, or tearing. It can tell if a mineral is brittle
malleable elastic, etc.
 Luster refers to the reaction of a mineral to light. It
determines how brilliant or dull the mineral is.
 Odor is a distinct smell of a mineral that is usually
OXIDE class
released from a chemical reaction when subjected to
water, heat,air , or friction. The strength of this smell
increases when the mineral is heated or struck giving
off an odor similar to rotten eggs.
 Specific Gravity is a measure of the density of a
mineral. It determines how heavy the mineral is by its
weight to water. Is used especially when two
minerals have the same size or the same color. The
specific gravity of each mineral can distinguish them
apart.
Chemical properties of minerals
 Silicate class is the largest and most abundant group
Sulfide class
containing silicon and oxygen with some aluminum,
magnesium, iron, and calcium.
 silicates are the most widespread of the minerals
.they are made up of oxygen and silicon the number
one and number two most abundant elements
 -In the earth’s crust.by themselves they make up
over 90% of the weight of the earth’s crust.most
rocks are composed mainly of this class of minerals.
Carbonate class
 Is mostly found in marine environments. Minerals
belonging to this group are formed the shells of dead
plankton and other marine organisms.
 come from the combination of carbon,oxygen,and a
metal or semimetal elements.this group of minerals is
soft and easily dissolved by even mild acids.some of
these minerals from by the acidic action of air and
rain.
 Forms in areas with high evaporation rates and
where salty slowly evaporate.
 this class of minerals tends to be evaporates or forms
from volcanically heated water.as a group they are
soft and pale in color and sometimes transparent or
translucent.
 Contains natural salts and includes fluorite ,halite,
sylvie and salammoniac components. These minerals
usually from in ponds and other landlocked seas such
as dead sea and Great salt lake.
 In this class have relatively low hardness may be
transparent, have good cleavage, have low specific
gravities and poor conductors of heat and electricity.
 Is a diverse class, Metallic minerals such as hemitate
and gemstones such as chrysoberyl and spinel belong
to this class.
 These minerals are important as they carry histories
of changes in earth’s magnetic field. They are formed
as precipitates close to earth’s surface or as oxidation
products of minerals during the process of
weathering.
 With oxygen and hydrogen , this is a large group of
minerals that occurs in most geological
environments and rock types. they span a wide range
of characteristics from common metal ores to
precious gems.
  Has important metals such as copper, lead, and
silver, which are considered economically
significant. These are found in electrical wires,
industrial materials, and other things that are needed
in construction.
Phosphate Class
 Minerals with phosphorus. The phosphate class is
considered an important biological mineral found in
the teeth and bones of many animals.
 the phosphate minerals contain phosphorus and
oxygen in a 1:4 ratio.
the most common use of phosphate minerals is for
fertilizer. It is also used as a supplemental animal
feed, food preservative, fungicide and cosmetics.
preexisting rocks or pieces of dead organisms that
have been “lithfied” or cemented together by natural
processes. They show distinct layering or bedding on
the surface.
3. Metamorphic rocks ( Meta means” change” and
morph means “ form” ) are rocks that derive from
igneous or sedimentary rocks that were exposed to
the high pressure, high temperature or a combination
of both, deep below the surface of earth. because of
this exposure, some of the minerals in these rocks
undergo chemical and physical changes.
Rock cycle

Native element class

 Contains metals and intermetallic elements (Gold,
silver copper), Semimetals, nonmetals ( Antimony
bismuth, graphite, Sulphur )
Or natural alloys and constituents of a few rare
meteorites.
 Is the category of the pure. most minerals are made
of combinations of chemical elements.

 some elements are plentiful like iron, lead, and

graphite. other elements are rare like golds, silver
,and platinum. rare Abundant we have found uses
for most of the native elements.
 Is the category of the pure. most minerals are made
of combinations of chemical elements.

Rocks

 Are natural substance consisting of aggregate

minerals clumped together with other earth minerals
through natural processes. Rocks, like some
materials, are product of a natural cyclic process.

Classification of rocks

There are 3 basic types of rocks: igneous sedimentary and

metamorphic rocks.

1. Igneous Rocks (derived from the latin word ignis

meaning “fire”) are crystallized from magma or
molten or partially molten volcanic materials that
came from within the earth. Magma rises from the
atmosphere or at the base crust of through volcanoes
or any cracks and fissures on earth’s surface. When it
reaches the surface of the earth, the molthen volcanic
material is called lava.
2. Sedimentary rocks ( from the root word sediments
which means “remaining particle “) are rocks that
have formed from the depositions of different
materials on earth’s surface. They come from